FRENCH MANUSCRIPTS.
_Psalter of St Louis._
During the thirteenth century "the art of illumination as it is called in
Paris"[126] flourished under the Saintly King Louis IX. (1215-1270) as much
as it did in England under Henry III. Manuscripts of most exquisite beauty
and refinement were produced in Paris, in style little different from those
of the Anglo-Norman school. One of the most beautiful and historically
interesting is a _Psalter_ (Paris, _Bibl. Nat._) which is said to have
been written for St Louis about 1260. This is a large folio, copiously
illustrated with sacred subjects minutely painted on a ground of burnished
gold enriched by tooling. Many of the miniatures are framed in a beautiful
architectural composition of cusped arches, with delicate open tracery
supported by slender columns.
_Perfect finish._
Fig. 22 gives the bare design of one of the historiated initials in this
lovely manuscript, the capital _B_ at the beginning of the Psalms. In the
upper part is the scene of David watching Bathsheba bathing; and below is a
kneeling figure of the king adoring Christ in Majesty. No reproduction can
give any notion of the exquisitely delicate painting, or of the splendour
of its burnished gold and colours. The historical scenes from the Old
Testament have, after the usual fashion of the time, the Hebrew warriors
and their enemies represented as mediaeval knights in armour.
[Illustration: Fig. 22. A page from the _Psalter_ of Saint Louis, written
about the year 1260, by a French scribe.]
_Archaism of detail._
It should, however, be observed that in this and many other French and
English miniatures of the time the ancient warriors are represented not in
the armour of the actual date of the execution of the manuscript, but with
the dress and arms of a couple of generations earlier. The monastic artists
were not skilled archaeologists, but they wished to suggest that the scene
they were painting was one that had happened long ago, and therefore they
introduced what was probably the oldest armour they were acquainted
with--that of their grandfathers' or great-grandfathers' time. This is an
important point, as in many cases a wrong judgment has been formed as to
the date of a manuscript from the mistaken supposition that contemporary
dress and armour were represented in it.
It is just the same with the thirteenth century art of England. Paintings
executed for Henry III. in his Palace at Westminster had representations of
knights in the armour of William the Conqueror's time or a little later. In
later times, especially in the fifteenth century, this _naïve_ form of
archaeology was given up, and the heroes of ancient and sacred history are
represented exactly like kings and warriors of the artist's own time.
_MS. Bibles._
The historiated Bibles of Paris in the thirteenth century were equal in
beauty and very similar in style to those of the Anglo-Norman miniaturists,
but they do not appear to have been produced in such immense quantities as
they were in the more northern monasteries.
In the fifteenth century the influence of the Church tended to check the
study of the Bible on the part of the laity, and very few manuscripts of
the Bible were then written. Their place was to some extent taken by the
_Books of Hours_, enormous numbers of which were produced in France and the
Netherlands, all through the fifteenth century; see page 141.
_French illuminated Manuscripts of the XIVth and XVth centuries._ To this
class belong a great many of the magnificent manuscripts of _the
Apocalypse_ which have been described under the head of Anglo-Norman
manuscripts. No hard and fast line can be drawn between the manuscript
styles of Normandy and the northern provinces of France.
_Archaism of style._
In the fourteenth century Paris and Saint Denis were important centres for
the production of manuscripts of the most highly finished kind. Historiated
Bibles, both in Latin and in French, continued to be produced in great
number till past the middle of the fourteenth century. Some of these French
translations, executed as late as 1370, are what may be called archaistic
in style; that is to say, the subjects selected and the method of their
treatment and execution continued to be almost the same as that of the
historiated _Vulgates_ of France and Normandy at the beginning of the
century. The miniatures are very minute in scale, and are often painted on
backgrounds of the brilliant chess-board and other diapers in red, blue and
gold. Though extremely decorative and beautiful, the miniatures of this
class are not quite equal to those of the thirteenth century Bibles, either
in vigour of drawing or in delicacy of touch.
_The ivy pattern._
On the whole, in the fourteenth century, the French schools of illumination
were the finest in the world, and the manuscripts of Northern France were
the most sumptuously decorated of all. One specially beautiful style of
ornament was introduced early in the century and lasted with little
modification for more than a hundred years. This was the method of writing
on a wide margined page, and then covering the broad marginal space by
delicate flowing scrolls or curves of foliage, leaves and small blossoms of
various shapes being used, but more especially one form of triple-pointed
leaf which is known commonly as the "ivy" or "thorn-leaf pattern."
Brilliant effect is given to these rich borders by forming some of the
leaves in burnished gold; and variety is given to the foliage by the
introduction of minutely painted birds of many kinds, song-birds,
game-birds and others, treated with much graceful realism[127].
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Miniature representing King Conrad of Bohemia, with
an attendant, hawking; from a manuscript of the fourteenth century, showing
the influence of French art.]
Fig. 28 shows part of a border from a manuscript of this class, a _Book of
Hours_ executed for the Duke de Berri; the typical pointed "ivy-leaves"
grow from each of the quatrefoils which are introduced to hold the arms and
initials of the owner. It comes from the same manuscript as the
illumination shown in fig. 25.
_Decorative unity._
These elaborate borders are usually made to grow out of the ornaments of
the illuminated initials in the text, and thus a sense of unity is given to
the whole page, the decorations of which thus become, not an adjunct, but
an essential part of the text.
Fig. 24 shows a miniature from a French manuscript of this magnificent
class, the _Treasure-Book_ of the Abbey of Origny in Picardy, executed
about 1312 for the Abbess Héloise. It contains fifty-four large miniatures
of scenes from the life and martyrdom of Saint Benedicta. The shaded part
of the border is of the richest burnished gold, and the whole effect is
magnificently decorative.
The scene represented is the murder of the Saint, whose soul is being borne
up to Heaven by two Angels, held in the usual conventional loop of drapery.
_Horae of the Duc d'Anjou._
As an example of this class of illumination we may mention the famous _Book
of Hours_ of the Duke of Anjou (Paris, _Bibl. Nat._) illuminated about the
year 1380. Every page has a rich and delicate border covered with the ivy
foliage[128], and enlivened by exquisitely painted birds, such as the
goldfinch, the thrush, the linnet, the jay, the quail, the sparrow-hawk and
many others; and at the top of the page, at the beginning of each division
of the _Horae_, is a miniature picture of most perfect grace and beauty,
the decorative value of which is enhanced by a background, either of gold
diaper, or else of delicate scroll-work in light blue painted over a ground
of deep ultramarine.
Enormous prices were frequently paid by wealthy patrons for sumptuously
illuminated manuscripts, especially in the fifteenth century for _Books of
Hours_.
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Scene of the martyrdom of Saint Benedicta from a
_Martyrology_ of about 1312.]
_Horae of the Duc de Berri._
The Paris library possesses (_Bibl. Nat._ Lat. 919) a very magnificent
manuscript _Horae_, which was painted for the Duc de Berri at the beginning
of the century by a French miniaturist named Jaquemart de Odin. At the
Duke's death this _Book of Hours_ was valued at no less than four thousand
livres Tournois, equal in modern value to quite two thousand pounds. It is
mentioned thus in the inventory of the Duke's personal property, _item,
unes tres belles heures tres richement enluminees et hystoriees de la main
de Jaquemart de Odin...._ Like all books of this class, specially painted
for a distinguished person, the arms and badges of the owner are introduced
among the foliated ornaments of the borders of many pages; as the inventory
states, _par les quarrefors des feuilles en plusieurs lieux faictes des
armes et devises_[129].
Fig. 25 shows part of a page from this lovely book, with a miniature of the
Birth of the Virgin, painted by Jacquemart de Odin, within a beautiful
architectural framing of the finest style.
Space will not allow any attempt to describe even in outline the many
splendid classes of illuminated manuscripts which were produced by the
French artists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. A few notable
points only can be briefly mentioned.
_Architectural framing._
One special beauty of French illumination of this date is due to the
exquisite treatment of architectural frames and backgrounds which are used
to enshrine the whole picture. The loveliest Gothic forms are introduced,
with the most delicate detail of tracery, pinnacles, canopy-work, shafts
and arches, all being frequently executed in gold with subtle transparent
shading to give an effect of relief. From the technical point of view these
manuscripts reach the highest pitch of perfection; the burnished gold is
thick and solid in appearance, and is convex in surface so as to catch high
lights, and look, not like gold leaf, but like actual plates of the purest
and most polished gold[130]. The pigments are of the most brilliant
colours, so skilfully prepared and applied that they are able to defy the
power of time to change their hue or even dim their splendour.
[Illustration: Fig. 25. Miniature of the birth of the Virgin painted by the
illuminator Jacquemart de Odin for the Duc de Berri. The border is of the
characteristic French and Franco-Flemish style; see fig. 28 on page 146.]
_Survival of style._
Another noticeable point about the French and Franco-Flemish illumination
is the manner in which certain modes of decoration survived with very
little alteration for more than a century. Thus we find the blue, red and
gold diapers used for backgrounds, and the ivy-leaf pattern and its
varieties[131], which had been fully developed before the middle of the
fourteenth century, still surviving in manuscripts of the second half of
the fifteenth century, and continuing in use till the growing decadence of
taste caused them to be superseded by borders and backgrounds painted in a
naturalistic rather than a decorative manner[132].
_Costly Horae._
The Franco-Flemish manuscripts of the fifteenth century were in some cases
remarkable for the amazing amount of laborious illumination and the
enormous number of miniatures which they contain. Some of these, which were
executed for Royal or Princely patrons and liberal paymasters, engaged the
incessant labour of the illuminator for many years. In these cases he was
usually paid a regular salary, and so was relieved from the incentive to
hasty work which caused so much inferior illumination to be produced in the
fifteenth century.
_The Bedford Breviary._
One of the most famous examples of this lavish expenditure of time on one
book is the _Breviary_ of the Duke of Bedford, who was Regent of France
from 1422 to 1435[133]. This wonderful manuscript, in addition to countless
elaborate initials, and borders round every page, contains more than 2500
miniature paintings, all delicately and richly executed in burnished gold
and brilliant colours, with backgrounds, in many cases, of the fourteenth
century type, with chess-board patterns and other diapers of the most
elaborate and sumptuous kind. The figures are of the finest Franco-Flemish
style, showing the influence of the Van Eycks, who were then becoming the
most skilful painters, technically at least, in the world.
_The Bedford Missal._
Another no less famous manuscript is the _Bedford Missal_ in the British
Museum, which was painted for the Duke of Bedford, and was presented by his
wife to Henry VI. of England, when he was crowned King of France in Paris
in the year 1430. The _Bedford Missal_ contains no less than fifty-nine
large miniatures and about a thousand smaller ones, not counting initials
and borders. One point of special interest about this gorgeous manuscript
is that the illuminations have evidently been executed by at least three
different miniaturists, who represent three different schools, the
Parisian-French, the Franco-Flemish and the English.
_MSS. by various hands._
It is by no means uncommon to find the work of several different
illuminators in one manuscript. Naturally, when a wealthy patron ordered a
magnificent book, he was not always willing to wait several years for its
completion, as must have been necessary when the whole of a sumptuous
manuscript was the work of one man.
Again, it was not an uncommon thing for unfinished manuscripts to be sent
to Bruges, Ghent and other centres of the illuminator's art from various
distant towns and countries, especially from France, Italy and Spain, in
order that they might be decorated with borders and miniatures by one of
the Flemish miniaturists.
In some cases it was only the miniature subjects which were left blank; so
that we have the text with the illuminated borders and initials executed in
the style of one country, while the miniatures are of another quite
different school.
Moreover, we find from the Guild records of Bruges that a certain number of
Italian and Spanish scribes had taken up their residence in Bruges, and
become members of the Guild of Saint John and Saint Luke, so that some
manuscripts actually written in Flanders have a text which in style is
Italian or Spanish.
Various other combinations of style occur not unfrequently. Many English
manuscripts, for example, have miniature paintings which are French or
Flemish in style, united with bold decorative borders of the most
thoroughly English type.
_MSS. in Grisaille._
_Manuscripts in Grisaille._ In addition to the illuminations glowing with
gold and colour of jewel-like brilliance, a peculiar class of miniature
painting came into use in France during the fourteenth century and to some
extent lasted till the close of the fifteenth. This was a system of almost
monochromatic painting in delicate bluish grey tints with high lights
touched in with white or fluid gold; this is called painting in _grisaille_
or _camaieu-gris_[134]; it frequently suggests the appearance of an onyx
_cameo_ or other delicate relief.
The earliest examples of _grisaille_, dating from the first half of the
fourteenth century, sometimes have grounds of the brilliant gold, red and
blue diapers, the figures themselves being painted in _grisaille_; but in
its fully developed form no accessories of colour are used, and no
burnished gold is introduced, only the _mat_, glossless fluid gold being
used in some cases for the high lights.
_Delicacy of Grisaille._
Some of the miniatures of this class are extremely beautiful for the
delicacy of their modelling and the great refinement of the design, and are
evidently the work of artists of the highest class. This system of
illumination, being unaided by the splendours of shining gold and bright
colours, requires a rather special delicacy of treatment, and was of course
quite unsuited for the cheap and gaudy manuscripts which were mere
commercial products. In some cases the _grisaille_ pictures are clearly the
work of a different hand from the rest of the book, and thus we sometimes
see them combined with richly illuminated initials and ivy-leaf borders of
the usual gorgeously coloured type.
In some late manuscripts the _grisaille_ miniatures are distinctly intended
to imitate actual bas-reliefs, and are painted with deceptive effects of
roundness. This led to the introduction into manuscript ornaments of
imitations of classical reliefs of gilt bronze or veined marbles, such as
occur so often in the very sculpturesque paintings of the great Paduan,
Andrea Mantegna.
_Secular MSS._
Till the early part of the fourteenth century the art of the illuminator
had been mostly devoted to books on sacred subjects, but at this time
manuscripts of _Chronicles_, accounts of _travel_, _Romances_ and other
secular works, often in the vulgar tongue, were largely written and
illuminated in the most sumptuous way, especially for the royal personages
of France and Burgundy.
Philip the Bold of Burgundy, who died in 1404, was an enthusiastic patron
of literature and of the miniaturists art; as was also Charles V. of France
(1337-1380). A typical example of this school of manuscripts is a
magnificent folio, formerly in the Perkins collection[135], of _Les cent
Histoires de Troye_, a composition in prose and verse written by Christina
of Pisa[136] about 1390. This magnificent volume contains one hundred and
fifteen delicately executed miniatures, the first of which represents
Christina presenting her book to Philip of Burgundy.
_Interesting details._
These miniatures and others of the same class are very interesting for
their accurate representations of contemporary life and customs. The
costumes, the internal fittings and furniture of rooms, views in the
streets and in the country, feasts, tournaments, the king amidst his
courtiers, scenes in the Court of Justice, and countless other subjects are
represented with much minuteness of detail and great realistic truth. We
have in fact in the miniatures of this class of manuscripts the first
beginning of an early school of _genre_ painting, which in its poetic
feeling and sense of real beauty ranks far higher than the ignoble realism
of the later Dutch painters.
_MS. Chronicles._
One rather abnormal class of manuscript, which belongs both to this period
and the following (the fifteenth) century, consists of French or Latin
_Chronicles of the World_ beginning with the Creation and reaching down to
recent times, written and illuminated with numerous miniature paintings on
great rolls of parchment, often measuring from fifty to sixty feet in
length. These are usually rather coarse in execution.
Sir John Froissart's _Chronicles_, and their continuation from the year
1400 by Enguerrand de Monstrelet, were favourite manuscripts for sumptuous
illumination among the courtier class both of France and England.
_MS. travels._
Among the many illuminated books of travel which were produced during the
latter part of the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries one noble example
in the Paris library may be selected as a typical example. This is a large
folio manuscript entitled _Les Merveilles du Monde_, containing accounts in
French of the travels of Sir John Mandeville, Marco Polo and others. This
manuscript was written about the year 1412 for the Duke of Burgundy and was
given by him to his uncle the Duc de Berri. Its numerous miniatures are
very delicate and graceful, of elaborate pictorial style, with views of
landscapes and carefully painted buildings, street scenes and other
realistic backgrounds to the figure subjects, all executed with great
patience and much artistic feeling. The richly illuminated borders to the
text are filled with elaborate foliage, in which real and conventional
forms are mingled with fine decorative results.
_MS. poems._
In the fourteenth century the growing love for national poetry and the more
widely spread ability to read and write, which in previous centuries had
been mostly confined to ecclesiastics, led to the production of a large
number of illuminated manuscripts of works such as the _Quest of the Holy
Grail_, including the whole series of the _Chansons de Geste_ with the
Lancelot and Arturian romances, the _Roman de la Rose_, one of the most
popular productions of the fourteenth century, and a whole class of
_Fabliaux_ or short stories in verse dealing with subjects of chivalrous
and romantic character.
Romances based on ancient history and mythology, such as _Les cent
Histoires de Troye_ written by Christina of Pisa[137] about 1390-1395,
became very popular among the knightly courtiers of the Rulers of France
and Burgundy[138].
In manuscripts of this class the miniature illuminations play a very
important part, and give great scope to the fancy and skill of the
illuminator.
_Italian influence._
In southern France the style of manuscript illumination differed a good
deal from that of the northern provinces. During the fourteenth century
there was a considerable strain of Italian influence, partly due to the
establishment of the Papal Court at Avignon, and the introduction there of
Simone Martini or Memmi, and other painters from Florence and Siena, to
decorate the walls of the Pope's Palace[139].
On the whole, however, manuscripts were not produced in such abundance or
with such skill in southern France as they were in the north. Paris,
Burgundy and the French districts of Flanders were the chief homes of the
illuminator's art.
_Secular miniaturists._
By this time the production of illuminated manuscripts ceased to be almost
wholly in the hands of monastic scribes, as it had been in earlier days
when manuscripts dealing with profane subjects were scarcely known.
In Paris, Brussels, Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Arras and other French and
Flemish cities, large classes of secular writers and illuminators of
manuscripts grew up, and special guilds of illuminators were formed,
exactly like the guilds of other arts and crafts[140].
Before long this great extension of the art of illumination, and the fact
that it became a trade, a method of earning a livelihood, like any other
craft, led to a serious decadence in the art. Though wealthy patrons were
able to pay large prices for richly illuminated manuscripts, thus keeping
up the production of very elaborate and artistically valuable works of
miniature art, yet the practical result was a growing decadence of style
and workmanship.
_Decay of the art._
No illuminator working mainly for a money reward could possibly rival the
marvellous productions of the earlier monastic scribes, who, labouring for
the glory of God, and the credit to be won for themselves and for their
monasteries, could devote years of patient toil to the illumination of one
book, free from all sense of hurry, and finding in their work the chief joy
and relaxation of their lives[141].
In most even of the best productions of the guild-scribes of the fifteenth
century one sees occasional signs of weariness and haste; and in the cheap
manuscripts, which were turned out by the thousand in France and Flanders
during the latter part of the fifteenth century, there is a coarseness of
touch and a mechanical monotony of style, which remind one of the artistic
results of the triumphant commercialism of the nineteenth century.
_Cheap MSS._
It is more especially in the cheap _Books of Hours_ of the second half of
the fifteenth century that the lowest artistic level is reached in France,
Flanders and Holland. Education had gradually been extended among various
classes of laymen, and by the middle of the fifteenth century it appears to
have been usual not only for all men above the rank of artisans to be able
to read, but even women of the wealthy bourgeois class could make use of
prayer-books. Hence arose a great demand for pictured _Books of
Hours_[142], which appear to have been produced in enormous quantities by
the trade-scribes of towns such as Bruges, Paris and many others. These
common manuscript _Horae_ are monotonous in form and detail; they nearly
always have the same set of miniatures, which are often coarse in detail
and harsh in colour; and the illuminated borders, with which they are
lavishly though cheaply decorated, have the same forms of foliage and fruit
repeated again and again in dozens of manuscripts, which all look as if
they had come out of the same workshop.
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Miniature executed for King René of Anjou about
1475.]
It must not however be supposed that all the later French manuscripts, even
of the latter half of the fifteenth century, were of this inferior class.
Though the best figure painting was far inferior to the glorious miniatures
in the _Apocalypses_ of the fourteenth century, yet in their own way, as
pictorial rather than decorative illustrations, the French miniatures of
this date are often very remarkable for their beauty, their refinement and
their interesting and very elaborate details.
_King René's romance._
Some very fine manuscript illuminations of the highly pictorial type were
executed for King René of Anjou, who died in 1480. Fig. 26 shows a good
example of this, with a carefully painted landscape background, one of
sixteen fine miniatures in a manuscript of the _Roman de la très douce
Mercy du Cueur damour épris_, one of the poetical and allegorical romances
which were then so popular in France. This miniature represents the meeting
of the Knight _Humble Requeste_ with the Squire _Vif Désir_. This
manuscript is now at Vienna, in the Imperial library, No. 2597.
_Beauty of fruit and flowers._
The illuminated borders are also not unfrequently of very great merit and
high decorative value; they are formed of rich and fanciful combinations of
various plants and flowers, treated at first with just the due amount of
conventionalism, but tending, towards the end of the fifteenth century, to
an excessive and too pictorial realism. As late as the middle of the
fifteenth century the "ivy pattern" of the previous century survived with
little modification, and very beautiful borders occur with branches of the
vine, the oak, the maple and other trees, together with a great variety of
flowers, such as the rose, the daisy, the columbine, the clove-pink or
carnation, the pansy, the lily, the iris or blue flag, the cornflower, the
anemone, the violet, the thistle; and with many kinds of fruit, especially
the grape, the strawberry, the pomegranate and the mulberry. Among this
wealth of fruit and foliage, variety is given by the introduction of birds,
insects, animals, and grotesque monsters half beast and half human, or else
living figures growing out of flower blossoms, all designed with much
graceful fancy and decorative beauty.
_Later style._
_Imitation of relief._
Towards the close of the fifteenth century one skilfully treated but less
meritorious style of illuminated border became very common in France and
Flanders. This consisted of isolated objects, such as sprigs of various
kinds of flowers and fruits, especially strawberries, together with
butterflies and other insects, shells, reptiles and the like scattered over
the margin of the page, very frequently on a background of dull fluid
gold[143]. A deceptive effect of relief is commonly attempted by the
painting of strong shadows, as if each object were lying on the gold ground
and casting its shadow on the flat surface. This attempt at relief of
course marks a great decadence of taste, and yet it occurs in manuscripts
which show much artistic feeling and great technical skill; as, for
example, in the magnificent Grimani _Breviary_, mentioned below at p. 167,
see fig. 38.
_Use of fluid gold._
In French and Flemish miniatures of this period, gold, applied with a
brush, is often used to touch in the high lights, not only in the
_grisaille_ miniatures, but also in paintings with brilliant pigments, much
in the same way as in the Umbrian and Florentine pictures of contemporary
date.
Many manuscripts of the early part of the sixteenth century have elaborate
architectural borders, consisting of tiers of canopied niches containing
statuettes, all executed in fluid, _mat_ gold.
_Harsh colours._
The use of a very harsh emerald green is characteristic of this period of
decadence in France and in Flanders; and generally there is a want of
harmony of colour in the miniatures of this time, in which gaudiness rather
than real splendour gradually becomes the main characteristic.
_Renaissance style._
At the end of the fifteenth century the influence of the classical
Renaissance of art in Italy began to affect the French manuscript
illuminations, and especially those by Parisian miniaturists. The
introduction of architectural forms of Italian classic style into the
backgrounds of miniatures was the first sign of this, examples of which
occur as early as the year 1475 or 1480. Fig. 27 shows a characteristic
example of a French miniature executed under Italian influence. This is a
scene of the marriage of the B. V. Mary to the elderly Joseph, who holds in
his hand the dry rod which had blossomed. One of the unsuccessful suitors
is breaking his rod across his knee, as in Raphael's early _Sposalizio_ in
the Brera gallery at Milan.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. Miniature of the marriage of the B. V. Mary from a
French manuscript of about 1480, with details in the style of the Italian
Renaissance.]
_Horae of Jehan Foucquet._
The painting represented in Fig. 27 is from a manuscript _Book of Hours_
illuminated by the famous miniaturist Jehan Foucquet of Tours, whose
services were secured by Louis XI. from 1470 to 1475. This manuscript
_Horae_, which has been horribly mutilated, the miniatures being cut out of
the text, was originally executed for Maître Etienne Chevalier. Foucquet
and other French illuminators of his time were largely influenced not only
by Italian art, but also by the Flemish school of miniaturists who were
followers of Memlinc and Rogier van der Weyden; but by the end of the
fifteenth century the Italian influence reigned supreme and soon destroyed
all remaining traces of the older mediaeval or Gothic style.
Fig. 28 shows part of a border from the same MS. that is illustrated in
Fig. 25 on page 134.
[Illustration: Fig. 28. Border illumination from a _Book of Hours_ by
Jacquemart de Odin; see fig. 25.]