MOSAICS.
The word mosaic is applied generally to a decorative work executed with
small cubes or tesseræ made from various coloured marbles or enamels,
cut into convenient sizes according to the requirements or scale of the
design.
These cubes of enamels or marbles are placed in a bed of cement which is
first spread on the surface of the wall or panel. The composition of
this cement has varied in the different periods and countries and
according to the nature of the ground which receives it.
The Italian method is to spread on the wall a thick coating of mastic
cement composed of marble dust or powdered stone, lime, and linseed oil;
when this cement is partly set a coating of fine plaster is laid on the
top and brought up to the level of the intended surface of the mosaic;
the design is traced on this surface, and the plaster is then cut away
with a fine small chisel, little by little, just sufficient at a time to
receive a small quantity of the tesseræ or cubes, which are first dipped
in moist cement and inserted in their proper places, matching the colour
copied from the cartoon. When the work is finished the surface is
brought to a uniform level by a polishing process.
Some of the earlier kinds of mosaic were composed of pieces of marble or
other stones cut in geometric slabs or rectangular shapes; this kind was
called by the Romans _lithostratum_, and was used chiefly in pavements;
_opus sectile_ is a kind of pavement mosaic made of different colours,
the marbles being cut into small regular portions; _opus tesselatum_ is
a variety of the _opus sextile_, but has its component parts made of
geometric forms in which straight and parallel lines predominate in the
design; and _opus vermiculatum_ has its tesseræ composed of small cubes
or bits of enamel (glass mosaic), terra-cotta, or marble, which are cut
into all kinds of shapes, so as to form a more pliant or softer contour
to the proposed design. This latter variety is used in picture mosaics
and in the goldsmiths’ work and jewellery made at the present time in
Rome and Venice.
Another kind of mosaic used in pavement is that known as _opus
Alexandrinum_. Large slabs of different coloured marbles have been used
as floor pavements and as wall linings, both on the exterior and in the
interior of churches and other buildings in Italy and elsewhere. Most of
this work is of a geometric pattern; the different pieces of stone,
marble, terra-cotta, or enamel, being cut into exact shapes to fit a
preconceived pattern, form a species of inlay, and do not therefore come
under the head of a true mosaic. Coloured marbles and precious stones
have been used in the decoration of furniture by the Italians and
French, which is known by the name of “Florentine mosaic,” or “pietra
dura.”
A species of mosaic work resembling enamels in appearance was executed
by the Egyptians, a method in which stones and coloured pastes were cut
to fit into metal shapes, as may be seen in the pectoral ornaments and
diadems (see Figs. 142, 143, former volume).
In the Museum of Turin there is an Egyptian sarcophagus inlaid with
precious stones, but it can hardly be called true mosaic work.
The Greeks were very skilful in mosaic, and were doubtless the inventors
of the enamels used by themselves and by the Romans afterwards under the
name of _musivum_—from whence the word mosaic is derived. The Italians
called these enamels _smalto_ or smalts.
Nearly all the remains of antique mosaic that have been preserved to our
days have been executed in Italy or in countries that were under the
Roman sway, but usually the work has been done by Greek artists or under
Grecian influence.
[Illustration: Fig. 286.—Roman Mosaic, from Woodchester.]
Pliny mentions the name of Sosus, a Greek artist, who came to Italy to
execute mosaics. To this artist is ascribed the celebrated mosaic of the
doves perched on the rim of a basin—_Cantharos_—one of which is drinking
from the water in the vessel. This mosaic is now in the Capitol at Rome,
and came originally from the Villa of Hadrian. It is related by Pliny
that Sosus made a floor in mosaic decorated with fragments of a repast,
such as realistic representations of the remains of bones, vegetables,
fish, a mouse gnawing at a nut, &c.
Great pavements, with all kinds of animated figures, both realistic and
fanciful, representing combats of animals, fighting gladiators, circus
and hunting scenes, with the figures sometimes of life size, in
combination with allegorical subjects, tritons, nereids, and other
marine deities, were common in the antique period in Italy.
[Illustration: Fig. 287.—Roman Mosaic, found at Avignon.]
These great pavements were usually found enclosed in frames or borders
composed of ornament, or of smaller designs of birds, fishes, and marine
animals. The borders, however, are often modern work, and are generally
restorations or additions. Besides being found at Rome and other places
in Italy, these large Roman mosaics have been found at almost every
place that was formerly a Roman province.
Many good examples have been discovered in France, chiefly in the
Basses-Pyrénées, and in England, at Woodchester, Withington in
Gloucestershire, London, and other places (Figs. 286, 287).
The Roman mosaics executed in the provinces were, however, of a ruder
kind than those found at Rome and at other places in Italy (Fig. 288).
[Illustration: Fig. 288.—Ancient Roman Mosaic.]
In the Græco-Roman collection at the British Museum may be seen
representations of colossal figures in mosaic from Carthage, and a floor
pavement 40 feet by 12 feet from Halicarnassos. One of the most
important examples of Roman mosaic was found in the seventeenth century
in the Temple of Fortune at Palestrina—the ancient Praeneste. It
represents landscape scenes placed in superimposed sections, through
which runs a river, supposed by some authorities to represent the mouth
of the Nile; islands are represented on which are monuments, temples,
trees, farms, climbing plants, animals, and figures engaged in
agricultural and hunting pursuits. The animals depicted are chiefly
those which are native to Egypt; besides these there are some fantastic
creatures represented common to the mythology of that country, as well
as to Greece and Rome; the inscriptions and names of the animals are
rendered in Greek characters, Greek being the official language used at
that period in Egypt and at the Court in Rome, as well as being the
native language of the artists who executed the work. All this goes to
strengthen the opinion formed by the Abbé Barthélemy, in opposition to
others, that this great mosaic picture represents the voyage of the
Emperor Hadrian on the Upper Nile, through Egypt, to the Elephantine
Island.
Mosaic pavements with subjects of combats of lions and bulls in a savage
landscape, executed in the same manner as the Palestrina mosaic, have
been found at Pompeii in the ruins of Hadrian’s Villa, a building which
he had constructed in imitation of the various styles of architecture of
the different countries which he had visited.
A celebrated mosaic, of a much higher and earlier order of art, is the
representation of the Battle of Arbela, or Issus, now preserved in the
Naples Museum. This battle was fought between the Greek and Persian
forces in the year 331 (B.C.), in which Alexander the Great was
victorious over Darius the Persian. Alexander is represented on
horseback in the act of throwing his lance at a Persian satrap;
horsemen, chariots, and foot soldiers are all represented with great
vigour and in correct drawing; the whole composition is excellent, and
represents the Greek army in the decisive moment of victory.
This great work was found in the House of the Faun at Pompeii in the
year 1830, and is immeasurably superior to anything of its kind hitherto
found in that buried city. It has, no doubt, been a copy in mosaic of a
picture or fresco painted by a Greek artist. Important portions of the
work are missing, but enough remains to testify to the beauty and
greatness of this monument of Grecian art. Fig. 289 represents the head
of a Persian soldier in the mosaic.
A border was found with this work which represents a river with
alligators, hippopotami, aquatic birds, and river plants, all disposed
in a careless manner; this border is evidently a later Roman addition to
the work.
Another antique mosaic picture in the Museum at Naples is the seated
figure of the tragic poet found in a house at Pompeii.
Fountains, columns, dados, wall panels, as well as floor decorations,
were common objects of mosaic treatment with the Romans, and many houses
of the better classes at Pompeii have been lavishly decorated with this
imperishable material. A singular peculiarity was the almost exclusive
representation of the human figure on floors, while the wall spaces only
received ornamental compositions.
[Illustration: Fig. 289.—Head in Mosaic, from the “Battle of Issus.”]
It appears from this that the Romans never thoroughly understood the
true value of mosaic as a means of architectural decoration, and it was
not until about the fourth century of our era that the walls and vaults
of churches at Rome were treated with pictorial mosaic. For a long time
in Italy the character of the design was strongly influenced by the old
classic traditions, which impregnated the germs of the early Christian
art of the catacombs of S. Calixtus and S. Agnese (see Figs. 332, 333,
former vol.). This influence hardly ever passed away from the works of
Italian artists, for down to the sixteenth century there has been many
examples of church decoration in which a mixture of Pagan and Christian
elements are found.
The remaining mosaics of the central cupola in the church of S.
Constance at Rome consist of a Pagan composition—the “Triumph of
Bacchus”—worked out in the Roman style, and another vaulted compartment
in the same church has a mosaic decoration consisting of a vine
spreading over the whole surface, amongst the branches and leaves of
which are children gathering the grapes. At two of the sides are
grape-laden waggons drawn by oxen, and figures pressing out the grape
juice in the vats. From the subjects of the mosaics in this building it
was formerly thought to be a temple of Bacchus; but as the vine is one
of the commonest symbols of the Christian faith, and as a mixture of
Christian and Pagan elements was a very common occurrence in the age of
Constantine, there is no hesitation in describing these mosaics, and the
church itself, as early Christian work.
A very important mosaic of the fourth century still exists in the apse
of the Church of S. Pudentia at Rome. The design is not altered from the
original, but much of the work has been restored at different times.
A colossal figure of Christ is enthroned in the centre of a composition
which has an architectural background of temples and churches. St. Peter
and St. Paul are represented on either side of the central figure, with
other sacred personages, and above in the clouds float the sacred
emblems of the Evangelists.
After Constantine removed the seat of his empire from Rome to Byzantium
(330) mosaic decoration was used in many of the Eastern churches in
Macedonia and other places in the Byzantine empire, but it was not until
the sixth century that the decided Byzantine Greek style was developed
in mosaic work—notably in the mosaics of the great church of Santa
Sophia. During the fifth century at Rome, and more especially at
Ravenna, the basilicas and Christian churches were decorated on the
vaulted ceilings, walls, arches, and spandrels with mosaics, of which
the general design and ornamental details were still strongly influenced
with the spirit of the antique; but although these works retained much
of the dignity pertaining to the latter, they were gradually losing the
correctness of drawing which had characterised the mosaics of the fourth
century.
In the chapter on Early Christian Architecture, in the former volume of
this work, pages 288-300, we have drawn attention to some of these
mosaics.
The church of Santa Sophia was burned down in 533, and the rebuilding of
it was finished and the church consecrated in 559. Much of the interior
was shortly afterwards covered with mosaic decoration. Near the summit
of the cupola was a colossal figure of Christ enthroned, with his arm
raised upwards in the act of blessing; below the sacred figure were
ranged the Apostles, and in the lower pendentives were groups of people.
In the chancel below is a figure of the Virgin enthroned, with the
Infant Christ standing on her knees; in the great niches are figures of
martyrs and bishops, and in the spaces above the pillars figures of the
prophets.
On the walls of the narthex, Christ is represented seated on a throne,
the crowned figure of Justinian prostrate at his feet, and on the gold
background are the heads of the Virgin and St. Michael. In colour the
mosaics are sober and refined, the expressions and attitudes of the
figures solemn, and often beautiful; the costumes follow the style of
the antique.
According to Salzenberg, who published his great work on Santa Sophia at
Berlin in the year 1854, the colouring of the draperies of Christ and
his Apostles is white, the Virgin has blue robes, and the other figures
of prophets, angels, and martyrs are in varied colouring. The shades of
the folds in the draperies are expressed by quiet blues and greens, the
lights being heightened by silver markings. All the mosaics have a
ground of gold, and bands of gold enrich the garments of Christ.
Although many of the great mosaics of this church belong to the sixth
century, some of them are, however, works of a later period. Among other
arts, Justinian encouraged mosaic decoration in the highest degree, and
is said to have ornamented the palace of his capital with mosaic
pictures representing the victories of his armies.
Some famous mosaics were executed during the sixth century at
Ravenna, notably in the basilicas of S. Apollinare-Nuovo, S.
Apollinare-in-Classe, and S. Vitale; in the former there is a fine
mosaic, the subject being the Kiss of Judas, and a group of figures
where Pontius Pilate is represented washing his hands after the
trial of Christ, both of which works again show the antique
influence.
In the beautiful basilica of S. Apollinare-in-Classe the figure of
Christ is represented standing and blessing with uplifted hands,
surrounded by the symbols of the Evangelists and a flock of sheep; the
angels Gabriel and Michael and the Transfiguration are also represented.
The Church of S. Vitale, which was built somewhat after the model of
Santa Sophia, has the celebrated mosaics representing processions in
state of the Emperor Justinian and the Empress Theodora, who presided at
the dedication of the church. The dresses of the principal personages in
these mosaics are richly decorated with Byzantine geometric patterns,
figured embroidery, and jewellery. In the apse of the church is the
celebrated youthful figure of Christ, who is represented without a
beard; it is remarkable for its benign expression and softness of its
adolescent beauty. The mosaics of S. Vitale are distinctly Greek in
character, unlike those of the two former churches, which were executed
by Roman mosaicists brought from Italy to Ravenna by Theodoric the
Ostrogoth in the early years of the sixth century.
The seventh century was almost barren in mosaic works, and the eighth
century does not seem to have produced more than a few tentative
efforts, mainly in countries outside Italy.
It is related that Adrian I., who was Pope between the years 772-795,
gave permission to Charlemagne to remove several mosaics from churches
at Ravenna, the materials of which were used in the decoration of the
dome of his chapel at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). These mosaics were
destroyed by fires in the years 1656 and 1730. Some drawings of them
were made before the second fire by Ciampini, and published by him at
Rome in 1699. These works were not, however, of any great artistic
value. The art of the mosaicist was fast becoming only a caricature of
its former self, for the work of the ninth century was characterized by
exceedingly bad drawing and savage colouring. Uninviting and even
terrible representations of Christ, of the Virgin, angels, martyrs, and
prophets were only too common. It may be said with good reason that in
Rome and in the West during the ninth century, that the zenith of
ugliness had been attained in the design of mosaics, and in place of the
careful grouping and correct drawing of the works of the fourth to the
sixth century we have instead figures of great dimensions and
multiplication of attributes.
At the time we speak of there was not this decadence of art in the
Eastern Empire, for many fine mosaics were executed to the order of
Basil the Macedonian (867-886), under whose protection art generally was
much encouraged. Some of the mosaics of Santa Sophia and of other
churches and palaces at Constantinople were executed during this period.
However, from the tenth to the twelfth centuries the art of mosaic
decoration, with a few notable exceptions, was in a slow state of
decadence in the East, but the old Greek artistic spirit broke in other
and in new directions, as we have witnessed in the wealth of Byzantine
enamels, carved ivories, bas-reliefs, repoussé work, miniatures, and
illuminated manuscripts.
In the eleventh century some fine mosaic floors were executed in France.
Examples of this date were found in the old churches of Sordes in the
Department of Landes, and of Lescar in the Basses-Pyrénées. Some of
these pavements have ornamental compositions of geometrical interlacings
and conventional foliage, and others have hunting scenes in which
animals, figures, and birds are treated flatly, after the Persian or
Oriental manner of inlaid work or like textile designs.
In the thirteenth century towards the latter end, in the dawn of the
Renaissance, design in mosaic began to feel the reviving influence in
common with all Italian art. In the mosaics of this century executed at
Rome we see something of the poetry and dignity which belonged to the
great works of the fifth century. This turning-point was in a great
measure due to the influence of Cimabue, the founder of Italian painting
(1240-1300), who was then a great personality in Italian art.
The most important mosaics of this period in Italy were those which
decorate the tribune of the basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome,
executed by Jacobus Toriti between the years 1287 and 1292, and those of
the tribune of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome, executed also by Toriti during
the last few years of the thirteenth century and finished about 1302.
The design of the former mosaics is simple in arrangement. On a gold
ground, symmetrically arranged, are the figures of six saints and
Apostles, with smaller figures of St. Francis and St. Anthony of Padua
advancing towards a central cross, from underneath which flows the four
rivers of Paradise into the Jordan beneath. Above is the celebrated head
of Christ, the face having a benign expression. This was formerly
supposed to be of an older creation, but it is quite likely to have been
designed by Toriti. The head is surrounded by a plain gold nimbus, and
around and above it, on a blue ground with clouds, is a glory of angels
in the form of an arc. Below this, on the wall of the tribune, between
pointed window openings, Christ and the Apostles are represented on a
smaller scale.
In the tribune of S. Maria Maggiore the design is grander and more
decorative than the St. John Lateran mosaics, and indeed ranks as the
finest work of art of its period. In a large central medallion of the
apse Christ and the Virgin are enthroned, Christ being represented in
the act of crowning the Virgin. A crowd of angels are on either side and
at the lower parts of the medallion. The ground of the latter is blue,
sown with golden stars; beyond, on either side of the adoring angels,
are the upright figures of Apostles and saints on a gold ground, and
above them, filling the upper surrounding space, are conventional vines
in whose scrolly branches birds of various kinds are found. Below this
composition the River Jordan is represented, and the walls of the
tribune are occupied with small compositions representing scenes in the
life of Christ. In the loggia of the same church are a series of
well-designed mosaics inscribed with the name of the artist who designed
them—Philippus Rusuti—who is not known with certainty to have executed
any other work. They had been formerly ascribed to the Florentine
mosaicist Gaddo Gaddi, a friend of Cimabue; he died in 1312.
Gaddi, according to Vasari, had been invited to Rome to complete the
unfinished mosaics of Toriti at the Church of S. Maria Maggiore after
the death of the latter artist, and he occupied himself with the storied
mosaics representing the foundation of that church in a series of four
compositions. It is still, however, a matter of doubt as to how much of
these mosaics belong to the hand of Rusuti or Gaddi. The latter artist
executed some subjects in the dome of the Baptistery at Florence, in the
Cathedral of Pisa, and the mosaics which decorate the inner lunette in
the portal of the Cathedral at Florence.
[Illustration: Fig. 290.—Geometric Mosaic, Church of Ara Cœli, Rome.]
Gaddi followed the style and aims of Cimabue; his work was poetic in
conception, and in his execution he leaned to the Byzantine methods, but
in drawing and composition he was greatly excelled by the Roman
mosaicist Toriti.
The celebrated Roman family of the Cosmati were excellent mosaicists.
Giovanni Cosmato, son of the elder artist of that name, executed some
fine work on the tomb of Gonsalo Roderigo in the Church of S. Maria
Maggiore, and on monuments in S. Maria sopra Minerva. A variety of
mosaic was much used in Italy at different times, the earliest dating
from the sixth century, which consisted in decorating pulpits, screens,
and small altars with a geometric inlay of small squares and lozenges of
gold and coloured tesseræ which were inserted into grooves of white
marble (Fig. 290).
About the year 1351, Pietro Cavallini, a native of Rome and a supposed
pupil of the painter Giotto, was commissioned to execute some mosaics in
the Church of S. Maria Transtevere at Rome. The design and style of
these works were strongly influenced if not partly copied from the
frescoes of Giotto in the Arena Chapel at Padua.
Cavallini also executed in mosaic the celebrated Navicella, from the
design by Giotto, which decorates the vestibule of the old basilica
church of St. Peter’s at Rome. This work represents a ship in which the
Apostles are seen, and Christ and Peter are figured walking on the sea.
With the exception of a few notable works in St. Peter’s at Rome, in St.
Mark’s at Venice, some unfinished work of Domenico Ghirlandaio
(1449-95), and the work of Pesselli in the Church of Or-San-Michele at
Florence (1416), the fifteenth century was not a prosperous period for
mosaic. This is accounted for by the rapid development of the Italian
schools of painting, which advanced during this century with incredible
swiftness, and as painting advanced, mosaic decoration retreated before
its more popular rival. The mosaicist had to make room for the fresco
painter, who soon became the successful competitor of the former in the
work of church decoration.
Regarding the mosaics of St. Mark’s at Venice, it may be stated that
they date from the eleventh century to the nineteenth.
The interior of this church is richly decorated on the vaults and upper
parts of the walls with mosaics on grounds of gold, the other parts are
covered with various rich marbles, and the floor is mosaic designed in
the Byzantine style. In the twelfth century the principal apse, the
cupola of the choir, and some of the chapels were decorated in mosaic.
The great central cupola has mosaics of the eleventh century
representing the _Virtues_, and twelfth-century work with the subjects
of the “Virgin with Angels and Apostles,” the “Evangelists,” &c. To the
same century belong the mosaics in the cupola of the choir, consisting
of the figures of Christ, the Virgin, David and Solomon, and symbols of
the Evangelists; the figure of St. Clement in the vault of the terminal
chapel of St. Clement is ascribed to the twelfth century, and the
mosaics of this chapel representing the life of the saint are
thirteenth-century work.
The most important mosaic of the latter century in St. Mark’s is that
which decorates the façade, the subject being “The Dedication of the
Church.”
From the remains of the original mosaics which have not been remodelled
by the restorers of later times, it has been seen that the work of the
above centuries at St. Mark’s kept to the spirit and traditions of the
Byzantine school. The work of restoration, however, has been so great in
modern times that nearly all the mosaics belonging to a date prior to
the sixteenth century have been executed afresh, so it can hardly be
said there are any perfect or genuine Byzantine mosaics left.
Those of the sixteenth century in St. Mark’s are more like paintings in
their general effect than monumental works for the decoration of the
fabric. Pictorial effect and an appeal to the emotional faculties were
aimed at by the artists and governing body of the church, rather than
simplicity or a feeling for the decorative fitness of the material. The
painters Titian, Pordenone, Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and the sculptor
and architect Sansovino made designs for the mosaics, and their cartoons
were interpreted by mosaicists, the principal of whom were Vicenzo and
Domenico Bianchini, the brothers Zuccati, Bozza, Rizzo, Gaëtano, &c.
In this century, at Rome, in the cupola of the Chigi Chapel in S. Maria
del Popolo, a celebrated mosaic was executed by the Venetian mosaicist
Luigi da Pace, from a design by the great painter Raphael. It bears the
date 1516, and has for its subject the Creation of the World. The
Almighty is represented surrounded by seraphim, and in eight
compartments are mythological figures representing the planets. Angel
figures of great beauty are seated on the signs of the Zodiac, which
occupy the lower parts of the mosaic.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the principal mosaics
executed in Italy were those which decorate the Church of St. Peter’s at
Rome. In these periods the Pontifical fabrique or studio for the
production of the smalto and for the execution of the mosaics was in a
state of activity. The fabrique had various locations in the vicinity of
the church from the time of its establishment in 1528, and was finally
set up in the Vatican in 1825 by Leo XIII. The most important period in
the history of the Pontifical ateliers was during the early half of the
eighteenth century, when it was under the direction of Pierre-Paul
Cristofari, who was assisted in the production of the variously coloured
material by the chemist Mattioli.
The mosaics which cover the cupolas, the altars of the various chapels,
the pendentines, tympani, and other spaces, have been executed by
mosaicists who were not the designers of the subjects.
This was the general practice in the Renaissance periods. One noteworthy
exception to this rule may be noticed in the work of the artist Muziano
de Brescia, who executed the mosaics of the Gregorian Chapel at St.
Peter’s from his own designs, for which work he received the commission
from Pope Gregory XIII. (1572-1585). Muziano was an imitator of
Michelangelo, and is best known by his work in mosaic. As a rule the
mosaics of St. Peter’s, like all those of the Renaissance period, are
not to be compared for dignity and repose with those of the early
Christian era, nor did they fulfil the true aim of monumental wall
decoration, but sought rather to imitate as closely as possible the
finish of oil or fresco painting. The “Transfiguration” after Raphael is
not a success as a mosaic. It is believed to have been executed by
Cristofari from a drawing enlarged from the original by Stefano Pozzi
(1708-1768).
In the great cupola the mosaic has for its subject “The Eternal Father,”
surrounded by cherubims. In other compartments are angels in adoration,
cherubims, Jesus, Mary, John the Baptist, Paul, the twelve Apostles and
their attributes. These mosaics are from designs by the Chevalier
d’Arpin (1560-1640), and rank among the best works of their kind in St.
Peter’s.
In the present century there has been some noted revivals of mosaic
decoration in France and in England.
During the first thirty years of this century a royal manufactory was
set up in Paris under the superintendence of Belloni, an Italian artist
who came from the Pontifical atelier of Rome. Mosaic work of all kinds
was executed at this studio, such as miniatures, pictures, and
_pietra-dura_, or Florentine mosaic, for the encrusted decoration of
furniture, as well as important works for pavements, which were designed
in the classical style of the period. The principal work of Belloni is
the pavement of the “Salle Melpomène” in the Louvre. It is a composition
divided into five compartments, each having figure subjects, and has an
extremely rich border of frets, foliage, and rosettes.
Some fine mosaics of a more recent date are the decorations of the
_foyer_ and other parts of the Grand Opera House in Paris, executed from
the designs of M. Charles Garnier, the architect of the building, M. de
Curzon, and others, by the mosaicists Salviati and Facchina of Venice.
The new cathedrals at Marseilles and Lyons have been recently decorated
with mosaics more or less in the style of the Ravenna work of the fifth
century, but the principal part of these works consists of ornamental
compositions, such as doves with olive-branches, monograms, stars, and
borders of romanesque ornament. Some still more recent work is the
decoration of the apse of the Pantheon in Paris, from the designs of M.
E. Hébert and the late M. Galland, who furnished the ornamental designs.
In England, during the present half of this century, there has been
several attempts to popularise mosaic decoration. Full-length figures of
the chief ancient and modern sculptors, painters, and architects have
been designed by Lord Leighton, Sir E. J. Poynter, E. Armitage, V.
Prinsep, W. F. Yeames, F. W. Moody, and others; these have been executed
in glass mosaic and in English ceramic mosaic, and form part of the
decoration of the South Court in the Kensington Museum.
In the Houses of Parliament a mosaic has been executed from the design,
“St. George,” by Sir E. J. Poynter; and other examples are the mosaics
on the monument to Prince Albert designed by Sir Gilbert Scott.
But the most important efforts during the last few years are the mosaic
decorations in St. Paul’s Cathedral.
From the year 1863 until 1892 the eight spandrels of the dome were
filled with mosaics, the subjects being the four Evangelists, designed
by Mr. Watts, R.A., and Mr. Brittan, and the four greater Apostles by
the late Alfred Stevens. The work of these spandrels was carried out by
Dr. Salviati of Venice.
In the spring of 1891 Mr. W. B. Richmond, R.A., undertook the great work
of designing the cartoons, and of superintending the mosaic decoration
of the eastern end of the cathedral, including the apse, the original
sanctuary bay, and the choir.
The central panel in the roof of the apse is occupied with a
representation of “Our Lord in Majesty,” seated on a rainbow throne, and
clothed in light-coloured robes. The background is composed of a great
whirl of wings; the sun and moon are also represented. The panels on
either side of this subject contain figures of the recording angels,
which are Byzantine in style of design; as the whole of the mosaics are,
but perhaps not so much in degree as the figures of these angels. Mr.
Richmond had made a special study of the Ravenna mosaics, and was no
doubt rightly influenced by the style of design and methods of execution
of these early works.
The three saucer domes of the choir have subjects representing
respectively the creation of birds, fishes, and animals of the land; and
the pendentives of the saucer domes are each filled with figures of
angels, their arms being extended, as if in the act of bringing down
messages from heaven to the earth. Inscriptions in Latin, consisting of
appropriate scriptural texts, explain the subjects of the pendentives.
[Illustration: Fig. 291.—Mosaic from the Alhambra.]
The spaces at the sides of the clerestory windows are occupied with
figures of the Sibyls, Prophets, builders of the Tabernacle or House of
God, scenes from the Old Testament, and some secular figures.
The general effect of the mosaics is very rich, and the colouring
exceedingly harmonious.
[Illustration: Fig. 292.—Saracenic Mosaic, from Monreale.]
The smalto tesseræ used was made from opaque glass of many colours and
shades, and the fractured edge was shown in every case as the surface of
the mosaic; this was done in order to get greater brilliancy of colour,
and to catch all the possible light that is reflected from the walls and
floor of the church.
Portland stone composed the panels, and brick was the background
material of the saucer domes, and in order to get a bed for the cement
and tesseræ, these surfaces had to be cut away to a certain depth so
that the mosaics would come flush when finished with the original
surface. The tesseræ were inserted into a bed of red mastic cement, made
chiefly of a mixture of red lead and linseed oil, a cement which
ultimately sets as hard as the stone itself. The execution of the work
was entrusted to Messrs. Powell of London, who employed a large staff of
skilled assistants in this successful achievement.
[Illustration: Fig. 293.—Indian Mosaic, from the Taj Mehal.]
The Saracens employed mosaic—as in the Alhambra in Spain—in the form of
small tiles—_azulejos_—of glazed earthenware cut into geometric shapes,
from which they made up their characteristic rectilinear patterns, and
used this form of decoration to a great extent for walls, but rarely for
floor pavements (Figs. 291, 292).
Some beautiful examples of mosaic work in the nature of inlaid marbles
and precious stones occur in the Mohammedan buildings in India, the
chief of which are the Taj Mehal at Agra (Fig. 293) and the great palace
at Delhi. The latter has been noticed in the chapter on Indian
Architecture in the former volume, and an illustration of the inlaid
marble hall is given at Fig. 329 in the same volume.