ENAMELS.
Enamelling is the art of applying a vitreous material to an object, as
decoration, to the surface of which it is made to adhere by heat. Metals
are the usual foundations to which enamels are applied, but stone,
earthenware, and glass may be enamelled. When one speaks of “an enamel”
we understand it to mean a metal that is ornamented by a vitreous
decoration fused and fixed to the metal surface by heat. There are three
principal kinds of enamels: the “embedded or encrusted,” the
“translucent upon relief,” and the “painted.” Some enamelled objects
have a mixture of two methods.
The embedded or so-called encrusted kind has two varieties, which are
best known under their French names, the _Cloisonné_ and the
_Champlevé_. When floated in a transparent state over a bas-relief,
showing the chased details below, it is _translucent_, or, as it is
called by the French, _émaux de basse-taille_. The _painted_ is a later
variety developed by the school of Limoges.
The Cloisonné is the oldest variety; it is that in which the Greek or
Byzantine enamels are made, and also the Chinese. In this method of
enamelling the plate or metal foundation which is to receive the enamel
is first cut to the required shape, and a little rim of gold ribbon
soldered around it.
The design is formed by narrow strips of gold ribbon or filigree,
fastened to the foundation by a strong gum or cement, and bent to form
the lines of the design. The cells thus formed are filled in with the
enamel in a fine powdered state, or in a paste, the vitreous materials
of the selected enamel having previously been tried, as to their colour
and time required for perfect and equal fusion.
The piece is then placed in a furnace or “muffle,” sufficiently open so
that the progress of the fusing can be watched while firing, and
withdrawn when perfectly fused. As the enamel generally sinks lower than
the walls of the cells after fusion, it is necessary to add a second
thin coating, or sometimes more, and to re-fire it in order to fill all
the cavities. After this the work will require grinding down and
polishing to level the surface and restore the brilliancy of the colours
that may be slightly deadened by the cooling of the enamel.
The materials of enamel colours are metallic oxides. These colours are
finely pulverized, washed, and mixed with vitreous compounds, called
fluxes, which are easily fusible, and in melting impart an extra
brilliancy to the colours, and form with them by fusion the almost
imperishable substance of enamel.
The Champlevé enamels are made in the same way as the Cloisonné, with
this exception, that instead of the thin gold ribbons or filigree work
forming the design, the walls of the cells that compose the design and
separate the enamel colours in the Champlevé variety are formed by the
hollowing out of the thick metal—usually copper—and leaving the design
to be formed out of the thin partitions that are left standing. The
cavities are filled with the enamel mixtures and fused as in the
Cloisonné method.
On account of the articles being small, and also being mostly made on a
gold foundation, they were more likely to have been stolen or melted
down, and this accounts in a great measure for the scarcity of Cloisonné
enamels in our collections. The Champlevé, on the other hand, being
generally enamels on copper or brass, that from the cheapness of those
materials, larger vessels and other objects were extensively made, and
from both size and lesser value of the materials they were more likely
to have escaped the melting-pot.
When the foundation of the Champlevé enamels was copper, the lines of
this metal that formed the design would be gilt with an amalgam of
melted gold and mercury, and the piece re-fired at a lower temperature,
in order not to injure or disturb the enamel surface.
“Translucent” enamel upon reliefs known as _de basse taille_ is the art
of enamelling reliefs of silver or gold that have previously been chased
or engraved with the design required. The enamel is laid on in various
degrees of thickness, according to the strength of shading or depth of
tone required. The transparent varieties of enamels are selected for
these works, and opaque varieties avoided.
“Painted” enamels were suggested by the translucent enamels upon
reliefs. The extensive demand for the latter variety, and the great
number executed, gave rise to the invention of using enamel colours as
in oil-painting; that is, instead of engraving the subject or design
previously on the metal, the method of expressing with the brush the
drawing and the light and shade with the enamel colours direct was
resorted to, on grounds specially prepared upon copper surfaces. Labarte
believes that the modification in the art of glass painting introduced
in the fourteenth century had the effect of causing enamel painters to
experiment in painting with the enamel colours direct, as in painting on
glass.
About this time the method of painting on glass was introduced, which
formerly was decorated by simply using the pieces of _stained_ or
coloured glass as in mosaic work, the only difference between the
superficial glass painting and the painting in enamels being that in the
latter the opaque enamel colours are used instead of the transparent as
in glass painting. It was, however, a considerable time from the
introduction of painting on enamels before any good specimens of the art
were executed.
Among the earliest specimens of Cloisonné enamels was the golden altar
given to the cathedral of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople by Justinian.
[Illustration: Fig. 94.—Altar Tray and Chalice, Cloisonné Enamel; Sixth
Century (?).]
This altar was dismantled and divided amongst the Crusaders at the
taking of Constantinople in 1204. The next important works in date are
the gold altar of Ambrose at Milan, made by Volvinius in 825; the votive
crown of St. Mark, Venice, 886-911; the Limburg reliquary made for Basil
II. (the Macedonian), 976; and the famous altar, the Pala d’Oro, in St.
Mark’s, Venice, 976-1105, made at Constantinople, and brought from there
to Venice by order of the Doge Ordelafo Faliero. This altar had precious
stones added to it and was enlarged in 1209 and in 1345. If the crown of
Charlemagne (Fig. 96) was used at his coronation it would make the date
of the four enamelled gold plates with the figures of Solomon, David,
and Our Lord between two seraphim and Esaias and Hezekiah, anterior to
the year A.D. 800, when he was crowned. These enamels are enclosed in
filigree bands and sunk into the metal in the Greek manner.
The sword of Charlemagne, made in the ninth century, has the golden
scabbard inlaid with filagree Cloisonné enamels. Both the sword and
crown are in the Imperial treasury at Vienna.
The gold altar tray and chalice (Fig. 94) were found near Gourdon, in
the Department of the Haute-Saône. The altar tray has a cross in the
centre, and lozenge and trefoil ornaments of Cloisonné garnet-coloured
enamels. Greek coins of the sixth century were found with it.
The Byzantine reliquary (Fig. 95) is another example of Cloisonné work.
At Cologne, in the cathedral, is the shrine of the Magi that contains
the skulls of the “Three Kings.” This is a magnificent reliquary made by
the order of the Archbishop Philip von Heinsberg in two storeys, both of
which have a series of arcades with figures in each. It is also an
example of enamelled work in which the Cloisonné and Champlevé processes
may be seen.
The first authentic or dated specimens of Champlevé enamels belong to
the twelfth century, though some specimens are likely of an earlier
date. Some crosses and other works of the dates 1041-1054 show a mixture
of the two embedded varieties of enamels.
It is probable that the Rhenish Provinces of Germany were the first
places where Champlevé enamels were extensively made; but almost
simultaneously in the twelfth century there arose an active centre of
work in this method in Limoges, the future great seat of the enamel
industry.
[Illustration: Fig. 95—Byzantine Reliquary, Cloisonné Enamel; Tenth
Century.]
The German variety may be distinguished from the French by the greater
number of colours employed: there is a difficulty in deciding which of
the two is the earlier.
The Abbé Suger, when building the Abbey of St. Denis, brought enamellers
from Loraine, near the Rhine, to make an enamelled cross, which they
completed between 1143 and 1147. A portable altar, and a cruciform
reliquary with a dome, in the treasury at Hanover, are early examples of
the German school. One of these portable altars in enamel, of the German
school, thirteenth century, is shown at Fig. 98. The earliest Champlevé
enamel of the Limoges school is that of the monument to Geoffrey
Plantagenet, who died in 1151. It is now in the Museum of Le Mans (Fig.
97).
[Illustration: Fig. 96.—Crown of Charlemagne.]
[Illustration: Fig. 97.—Champlevé Enamel of Geoffrey Plantagenet.]
At Limoges towards the end of the twelfth century Champlevé enamels were
made in great numbers. Two specimens of this date are in the Cluny
Museum in Paris: one has the subject of the adoration of the Magi, and
the other St. Stephen with St. Nicholas, both having Limousin legends.
In the same museum are Champlevé enamels as book-covers of the Gospels,
croziers, plaques, and “gemellions.” The latter is the name given to
certain hand-basins used for religious purposes. In the Louvre is an
example of Champlevé enamel—a ciborium of the fourteenth century. This
is a vessel in which the Host is kept. Another vessel used for similar
purposes is the _pyx_. Both are small round boxes in which the sacred
wafers were kept, and were used for carrying the sacrament to the sick.
Ciboria were also in the forms of doves or little towers suspended over
the altar. They were kept in little cupboards on either side of the
altar, and at later periods the name “ciborium” was applied to the
tabernacles having architectural pretensions erected over the altar, and
which had a canopy or curtain used as a covering. These tabernacles
became shrines of great size and beauty in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, and were carved in wood as that in Nuremberg by Adam Kraft,
or were stone erections of great dimensions with sculptured figures as
decorations, the doors of which were often made in gold and enamelled.
Fig. 423 (previous volume) is an example of a fifteenth-century
tabernacle with a gilt metal door.
[Illustration:
Fig. 98.—Portable Altar; German,
Thirteenth Century.
(S.K.M.)
]
When Justinian rebuilt Sta. Sophia he placed in it a ciborium or
tabernacle of great splendour. Ciboria are now changed into what are
known as _baldacchinos_.
In the Kensington and British Museums are many examples of Champlevé
enamels, both German and Limoges, such as book-covers, croziers, pricket
candlesticks, châsses, chefs, reliquaries, paxes, crosses, and nuptial
caskets, &c. Most of them have blue grounds, with light bluish-grey and
dark blue or green ornaments, and are usually enamelled on copper. Some
of the reliquaries or châsses have gilt figures in high relief. From the
eleventh to the fourteenth centuries is the date of these enamels.
In the latter end of the thirteenth and in the fourteenth centuries
enamels became simplified in execution; the figures were mostly incised
and gilt, and the background a level coating of enamel—generally of a
blue colour. (Fig. 100.)
Fig. 99 is a Limoges enamelled châsse or shrine of the twelfth century,
and is in the British Museum.
The Italians did not make Champlevé enamels; but they worked in the
Cloisonné process from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, as we
know from examples, and from the work, “Diversarum Artium Schedula,”
written by the learned monk Theophilus, in the twelfth century, wherein
he describes very minutely the whole process of making Cloisonné
enamels, according to the methods of the Tuscan enamellers of his time.
[Illustration: Fig. 99.—Châsse in Champlevé Enamel; Twelfth Century.
(B.M.)]
As regards the antiquity of the art of enamelling on metal, it is
generally agreed by learned authorities in the matter that before the
art was known at Constantinople or in the workshops of Greece, it was
practised by the “barbarians” of Western Europe in the Gallo-Roman
period. We apologize for quoting here the oft-repeated passage from
Philostratus, the Greek who established himself at Rome in the early
part of the third century at the request of the Empress Julia, wife of
Septimus Severus. In his “Treatise upon Images” he says: “It is said
that the barbarians living near the ocean pour colours upon heated
brass, so that these adhere and become like stone, and preserve the
design represented.”
[Illustration: Fig. 100.—Champlevé Enamel; French, Fourteenth Century.]
This passage proves at any rate in Greece and in Italy enamelling on
metal was an unknown art in the third century, the time in which this
Greek writer lived, and sufficient examples exactly answering his
description have been found in Gaul and in Britain, in Roman
burial-places and in caves, all bearing evidences of belonging to this
period. The Celtic objects in vitreous enamel are on bronze or copper,
and prove that enamelling was an art carried on in the Roman Provinces
of Gaul and Britain, which was unknown in Italy at that time.
[Illustration: Fig. 101.—Enamelled Vase, found in Essex in 1834, since
partially destroyed by fire. Diameter, 4¾ inches.]
The beautiful vessel at Fig. 101, found in a Roman sepulchre in the
Bartlow Hills, in Essex, is a fine example of this early enamel. Other
existing specimens of the Gallo-Roman period are in the Museum at
Poitiers, in the Imperial Library, Paris, and in the Museums of London.
From the Gallo-Roman period until the eleventh century most of the arts
were at a low ebb, owing to the devastating wars and invasions that
spread all over Europe; the art of enamelling had been almost lost, and
had quite died out in France and Germany, but is likely to have still
been practised in Ireland, where no doubt the art of the goldsmith and
the enameller in conjunction had flourished less disturbed than in
France or England. We have existing remains of pure Irish Celtic work
that date from the ninth and probably earlier centuries, and are of
unsurpassed workmanship. Chalices, books of the Gospels, croziers,
reliquaries, brooches, jewellery, &c., more or less enamelled, were made
in the ninth century, and some earlier. Ireland had a school of living
art when in the ninth and tenth centuries the rest of Christendom was
sitting wrapped in chaotic gloominess, idly awaiting the supposed end of
the world, in A.D. 1000. As regards our present subject, we must notice
as coming under the head of enamels that beautiful Irish relic known as
the Ardagh Chalice. (Fig. 102.) The body of the cup is silver with about
one-third or one-fourth of copper alloy. It is a wonderful mixture of
metals, there being gold, silver, copper, bronze, brass, and lead; and
an iron bolt secures the stem and bowl together. The ornaments are
belts, and the handles, to which are fastened the beautifully designed
and worked interlacings of Celtic ornament, of which each little panel
is different; it is said that forty distinct varieties in the designs
can be traced, consisting of interlaced bands of Celtic twistings,
knots, and arabesques: each compartment of the principal belt of
ornament is divided by a boss, or enamelled bead, of which there are
twelve. The handles are composed of enamels and filigree work similar to
the work of the belt, but different in design, with blue glass or paste
bosses. The two larger circular ornaments on the sides are composed of
gold filigree with a central enamelled boss. The four settings of these
ornaments had two pieces of blue glass paste and two pieces of amber,
which have fallen out.
[Illustration: Fig. 102.—The Ardagh Chalice; Irish Celtic Work. Height,
7 inches.]
The stem is composed of bronze metal gilt, and is richly chased with
interlaced ornaments. The circular foot is ornamented with gold and
bronze plaques alternating on the outer rim; the bronze divisions are
enamelled.
The inside, or under the foot of the cup, is divided into a series of
circular divisions around a central crystal, composed of amber and
bronze, gold filigree, amber, bronze, and translucent green enamels
respectively. In some of the enamels were embedded small portions or
grains of gold while the enamel was in fusion. There is a chiselled
inscription on the plain surface of the bowl consisting of the names of
the Apostles. The workmanship of this exquisite chalice is infinitely
superior to the Byzantine work of the same period.
A detailed and exhaustive description of this chalice is given in Miss
Stokes’s “Early Christian Art in Ireland,” from which our illustration
is taken.
Going back to the ninth century, we have the ring of King Ethelwulf,
bearing his name, which is of Saxon workmanship. It was found in
Hampshire, and is made of gold and blue-black enamel. Another ring, that
of Alfred the Great, was found at Athelney in Somersetshire, the place
where Alfred retired to in 878. It is of gold, wrought in filigree and
chased. The face is of rock crystal, and the design is in filigree
fastened to the gold plate and enamelled in the Byzantine manner. Round
the edge is the inscription (translated), “Alfred ordered me to be
made.”
Enamelled disks, fibulæ, finger rings, and other articles of personal
adornment have been found in England of the Anglo-Saxon period, mostly
having a bronze foundation for the enamel.
Documents are preserved at Oxford proving that Limoges enamellers were
brought over to England in the thirteenth century to execute effigies,
tombs, and other work in enamels. Master John, a native of Limoges, was
employed to construct the tomb and recumbent figure of Walter de Merton,
Bishop of Rochester. This work was destroyed at the period of the
Reformation. There still exists, however, some of the Limoges work of
that date in the effigy of William de Valence, who died in 1129. This
tomb is in Westminster Abbey.
The enamels known as _émaux de plique à jour_, are a kind of Cloisonné
work in which there was no background, the enamel being in variety
transparent, in imitation of precious stones, and set between the
Cloisons or network of gold. The beautiful specimen (Fig. 103) is a cup
with a cover, and with architectural features; it is now in South
Kensington Museum.
Translucent enamels upon relief date from the period when Art in Italy
was beginning to throw off the stiffness and angularity of Byzantine
traditions. This was towards the end of the thirteenth century, in the
early dawn of the Renaissance.
Freedom in sculpture and painting brought with it a desire to treat
enamels in the same freedom, and so we find that engraving on silver and
gold, and placing carefully the various powdered enamels in their proper
proportions over the engraved surfaces, produced an entirely new and
splendid effect; besides, it required more artistic skill to execute
this kind of enamelling, and consequently the best artists of the
Renaissance were not only goldsmiths, painters, sculptors, and
architects, but executed important works in enamels as well. The method
was one that could be described as a link between the art of the painter
and the goldsmith, and no doubt the demand for enamelled altars, and
religious vessels of all kinds, both sacred and secular, in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was the cause of producing many
artists that subsequently rose to great eminence. For instance, among
others may be mentioned Francisco Francia, the celebrated painter who
lived in the fifteenth century, who was originally a goldsmith, and as
Vasari says, he excelled everybody of his time as an engraver on metals
and as an enameller on silver. There is a fine oil-painting by him in
the National Gallery of London, on which he has signed himself as
“Francia the Goldsmith.” Many names of eminent Italians artists might be
given who executed works in enamel in the translucent process: Nicolas
Pisano and John his pupil, who executed an altar for Bishop Gubertini of
Arezzo in translucent enamel on silver in 1286. Agostino and Agnolo were
pupils of John, and helped him at this altar.
[Illustration: Fig. 103.—Cup of Translucent Enamel. (S.K.M.)]
Forzore, the son of Spinello of Arezzo, is mentioned by Vasari as a
famous enameller. Pollaiuolo is another great name in the Italian art of
the goldsmith and enameller. He was also a celebrated modeller and
sculptor who had helped Ghiberti in the ornamental work of his gates of
the Baptistery of St. John. He died in 1498. Many other celebrated names
could be mentioned, but the greatest of all, both as a goldsmith and as
an enameller, was Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1570), whose work is well
known, and who tells us himself, in his “Treatise on the Goldsmith’s
Art,” so much about the method of enamelling in his time. The celebrated
ewer, called “The Cellini Ewer,” is a masterpiece of jeweller’s work,
and is attributed to Cellini. The body of the ewer is composed of two
oval slices of brown sardonyx, carved with radiating ribs in relief.
These slices are fastened in an ornamental frame of gold, richly worked.
A female figure sits on the top front curve of the body under the lip.
The neck, lip, stem with dragons, and other parts of the framework, are
enamelled in the translucent method.
A book-cover in the Kensington Museum, of very fine workmanship, with
several small figure compositions enamelled on gold, is attributed to
Cellini. Works by him in jewellery, vases, salt-cellars, &c., are
preserved in various museums on the Continent. Cellini spent five years
in France, ending the year 1540, where he executed some works for
Francis I., notably the fine salt-cellar now at Vienna.
The art of enamelling on reliefs was introduced to France by Italian
artists during the early years of the fourteenth century, and about the
same time to Flanders. We read of a manufactory of this kind of
enamelling as having existed in 1317 at Montpellier, the seat of the
royal Mint.
“Painted enamels,” as we have seen, were suggested by the translucent
enamels on relief. Painted enamels were first made at Limoges, and also
brought to great perfection at the same place. Any painted enamels found
in Italy are Limoges enamels or the work of Limousin artists. The
fifteenth century was the period during which the painted enamels were
brought to perfection. In the earlier part of the century the enamel was
applied directly to the plate of metal and united to it by fusion; but
later, towards the middle of the century, a ground of translucent enamel
coating was laid on the metal, over the engraved outline of the design,
and on this transparent flux the colours were applied. The outlines of
the design, which appeared through the transparent coating, were then
covered over with a dark-coloured enamel; the various parts, such as
draperies, background, and sky, were then laid in with thick coatings of
enamel; the spaces left for the flesh tints were filled in with black or
violet enamel; and the modelling of the flesh was obtained by layers of
white enamel in varying degrees of thickness, leaving the darker violet
parts for shade or shadows, and thicker layers represented the highest
lights. Thus, all the flesh tints in enamels of this period are slightly
brownish or violet in hue.
The other parts of the design were left without shadow, or sometimes the
highest points in the hair or draperies would have little fine touches
of gold pencillings, in order to bring out some kind of relief.
Imitations of precious stones or jewellery on the dresses were brought
out in translucent bits of enamel.
An entire change in the process is seen in the Limoges painted enamels
of the sixteenth century. The plate of metal was covered with a layer of
black or some very dark-coloured enamel, and the design carefully
outlined in white. The whole work was then modelled up with white, laid
on in varying thicknesses, so as to produce an effect of light and shade
called _grisaille_ (grey), the flesh tints being slightly higher in
relief than the other parts, and a flesh-coloured enamel being always
employed. Fine touchings of white and gold were added to finish off the
work.
To make a coloured enamel of the grisaille work it was only necessary to
add a thin transparent coating of coloured enamel.
Some splendid effects of a translucent character were obtained in the
enamels of this period by the use of gold and silver leaf (_paillon_)
fixed on the enamel ground behind the draperies and other accessories,
and sometimes on the backgrounds. Over this leaf of shining metal
transparent enamels were painted. Armour, imitation jewellery, and other
accessories were rendered by this means of a rich and dazzling
brilliancy. In the Kensington Collection many examples of this kind of
enamelling may be seen.
One work amongst others is an oval plaque of the sixteenth-century
Limoges enamel, which has a representation of a warrior on horseback,
and has portions of the armour in translucent enamel. The horse is
white, and the groundwork dark. It is one of the best works of the
Courtois family.
The enamel painters of Limoges had many methods and secrets in the
exercise of their art, and, as a rule, kept them in their families.
Generally speaking, we find many enamellers of the same name and family,
and their works bear also a strong family likeness, both in subject,
colour, and methods.
The greatest name amongst these Limoges artists is Léonard Limousin.
This surname was bestowed on him by Francis I. to distinguish him from
Leonardo da Vinci. Léonard Limousin was the chief enameller to this
monarch, and worked at his art between the years of 1532-74. Léonard in
his early works copied his subjects from engravings of the German school
of artists, but at a later period, owing to the influence of the Italian
artists that were brought to the Court of Francis I., he adopted the
subjects of Raphael and the Italian masters. He also improved at this
period in his colour and drawing. Some of his best works are those that
he painted in the year 1553 for the Sainte-Chapelle by order of Henry
II., which consist of two magnificent frames of pictures in enamel, now
in the Louvre, and which are acknowledged as his masterpieces. He also
excelled in portraits, among which from his hand are those of the Duke
de Guise, the Constable de Montmorenci, and that of Catherine de’ Medici
in her mourning robes, taken after the death of Henry II. A full-length
portrait of Henry II. is preserved in the Louvre, executed by Léonard.
The monarch is represented in the character of St. Thomas, and is
painted on a white enamel ground, as several other works by this artist
are similarly executed. This style of work looks, however, too much like
majolica painting, and was not persevered in to any great extent.
Léonard was noted for some good original work, both in oils and enamel;
but, generally speaking, the Limoges enamellers were fond of copying
subjects from German, Italian, and French engravers, who engraved many
works after the great painters of these countries. The German engravers
were known under the name of the “Petits-Maîtres,” many of whom were
pupils or imitators of Albert Dürer. Some of the more important were
Heinrich Aldegrever, Hans Sebald Behan, Virgilis Solis, Theodore de Bry,
Jean Collaert, Albrecht Altdorfen, and Georg Pens. Two celebrated French
engravers who supplied many designs for the Limoges enamellers were
Étienne de Laulne, known also as Stephanus, and Pierre Woeiriot, the
former a copper-plate and the latter a wood engraver. The Courtois and
Raymond enamels have many subjects from the designs of Étienne de
Laulne. Another engraver, Marc Antonio Raimondi, of the Italian school
(1500-1540), supplied copies of the works of Raphael to the Limousin
enamellers, and also to the Italian majolica painters. This engraver was
the most celebrated of his time. He was a pupil at first of “Francia the
Goldsmith,” learnt much from Albert Dürer and Lucas van Leyden, and was
the engraver of many of the works of Raphael, which he executed in what
is known as his Roman method.
In the British Museum there is the enamel of the twelve Sibyls of
Léonard Limousin, painted about 1550.
Another well-known name is that of Pierre Raymond. He painted chiefly in
grisaille, or in camaïeu, and not often in colour. His works date from
1534 to 1572 (Figs. 104 and 105).
The Pénicaud family (_circa_ 1540) consists of four enamel painters of
this name—Jean Pénicaud, the elder, Jean Pénicaud, junior, Pierre
Pénicaud, and N. Pénicaud.
The elder Pénicaud was a good draughtsman, and often employed “paillon”
to get the rich colouring in which he excelled. He executed portraits of
Luther and Erasmus, which are signed with his initials.
[Illustration: Fig. 104.—Portion of a Salt-cellar, by Pierre Raymond.]
The Courtois or Courteys family was another celebrated family of
painters on enamel. Pierre Courtois was the eldest (_circa_ 1550). He
painted some of the largest enamels ever executed. These were large oval
panels measuring 66 inches in height by 40 inches in width, on which
were painted the subjects of the cardinal virtues and heathen
divinities, and which formerly decorated the façade of the Château de
Madrid, built by Francis I. and Henry II. They are signed and dated
1559. In his larger works Pierre Courtois does not show himself so good
in his draughtsmanship as in his smaller enamels.
Jean Courtois (_circa_ 1560) was a prolific enameller. His work is
characterized by a profusion of arabesque ornament of the period of
Henry II. His flesh tints and other parts of his compositions are
generally highly coloured, the flesh having a salmon-coloured tint.
[Illustration: Fig. 105.—Vase; Painted Enamel, by Pierre Raymond.]
Another member of this family signs his work I. D. C. His principal
figures are usually hammered out in relief, and his work is of a high
finish.
Jean Court (_circa_ 1555) was also known under his other surname of
“Vigier.” He was formerly confounded with Jean Courtois, but his work is
different from the latter’s. His drawing is better, and his colouring
not so strong but more natural than that of Jean Courtois.
Suzaune Court, as she signed herself, was an enameller of the school of
Jean Courtois.
Martial Raymond (_circa_ 1590) was an artist of considerable power, and
a goldsmith, who worked at the end of the sixteenth century. His work is
usually heightened with gold, and he used “paillon” very much.
Jean Limousin (_circa_ 1625), and François Limousin (1633), were
enamellers who carried out the traditions of the Limoges school in a
worthy manner during the early part of the seventeenth century.
The former passes for the son of Léonard Limousin, and was supposed,
from the fleur-de-lis that always appears between his initials on his
works, to have been the director of the royal manufactory at Limoges, as
his predecessor Léonard was in the reign of Francis I. Jean Limousin
executed some beautiful enamels, in which the translucent birds,
arabesques, and small figures were treated with rare delicacy.
In the reign of Louis XIV. (1643-1715) Jaques Nouailher introduced a new
kind of enamel, which consisted of modelling in relief on copper with a
white enamel paste, and afterwards covering it with a transparent
coloured enamel.
Pierre Nouailher was another enameller of this family who was noted for
his correctness of drawing.
The school of Limoges of this date exhibits a greater correctness of
drawing, accompanied with a marked diminution of good colouring; the
enamels of the seventeenth century show a decline of that splendour of
colouring which characterized the former century. This was owing to the
abandonment of the silver and gold “paillon” backgrounds, and to the
exclusive use of the brush alone in the enamels of this period.
The process of painting with a preparation of opaque enamel colours on a
gold ground direct, without previously using the heretofore black ground
for the purposes of getting the shadows, is ascribed to Toutin (1632).
This was the first step to the decadence of enamelling, as the system of
Toutin was restricted to the production of portraits in miniature, and
in course of time nothing else was done but miniatures. Many artists in
the period of this decadence executed good work, amongst which may be
mentioned the names of Gribelin, a fellow-worker with Toutin, Dubié,
Morlière of Orleans, and Vacquer of Blois. The latter were pupils of
Toutin.
Chartier, Petitot, and Bordier were three other noted miniature painters
on enamel. The latter two worked in conjunction, and lived for some
years in England, until the death of Charles I., when they returned to
the Court of Louis XIV., and there painted the portraits in miniature of
the principal people of the time.
The art of enamelling was carried on in Spain, in Italy, and in some
parts of Germany during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but not
to the same extent as in France. Such articles as crosses, crucifixes,
rosaries, pendants, ewers, medallions, perfume bottles, rings, badges,
small panels with figure subjects, and numerous small objects,
particularly in jewellery, were made in enamels in these centuries
throughout Europe.
[Illustration: Fig. 106.—Battersea Enamel. (S.K.M.)]
In the seventeenth century, in England, a good deal of enamelling was
done at Battersea, and at Bilston in Staffordshire. A kind of coarse
enamel was made in England at that time on cast iron and on brass. The
cavities were cast to receive the enamel. There are some candlesticks
and fire-dogs in existence that are made in this way.
Stephen T. Janssen had his enamel works at York House, Battersea, in the
years 1750-5. After this time the English practice of enamel-making died
out. Kensington and the British Museums contain many specimens of
Battersea enamel (Fig. 106). Snuff and tobacco boxes, scent-bottles,
candlesticks, small dishes, crests, labels of wine-bottles, and
miniatures are the principal articles of Battersea enamel. The
decorations are chiefly small flowers and ornament on light-coloured or
white grounds enclosing pastoral subjects. Some have prints of
calendars, and other black and white subjects, printed by transferring.
In the British Museum there are two large oval medallions with the
portraits of George III. and Queen Charlotte, painted by the English
enameller W. H. Craft.
ENAMELS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE EAST.
China, India, and Persia have been famed from early times for their
exquisite productions in enamels. Japan also has made, and continues to
make, enamels of great beauty. The older or Cloisonné method is mostly
in favour with the natives of the East, and very little Champlevé work
is executed. Although enamelling is an old art in China, yet Chinese
enamels are rare that have been executed before the fifteenth century.
In the Ming dynasty, under the Emperor King-tai (1450-7), enamel working
was in its highest state of excellence.
The designs on the enamelled vases are pretty much the same as on all
their other works, such as textiles, embroideries, and porcelain. In
fact, a Chinese enamelled vase is as a rule very similar in shape,
colour, and decoration to a porcelain one of the same country, and
sometimes the likeness is so great as to demand a close inspection to
determine which is enamel and which porcelain.
The Chinese used as a rule light colours in their enamel grounds: light
turquoise blue, light olive green, or a bright yellow ground; the latter
colour was mostly used in the painted enamels of the Thsing dynasty,
yellow being the national colour of this dynasty. The general type of
the design is made up of such things as a very crooked tree or branch,
decorated with large clusters of flowers and foliage, slightly
conventional in drawing; sometimes with birds and butterflies, or with
dragons; some vases have one large dragon occupying the greater part of
the field.
The colouring is generally very bright, the ground light and brilliant;
the flowers may be red, deep blue, pansy-violet, golden yellow, or
white. The foliage is usually of a crude emerald green type. Borders of
conventional cloud forms or other geometric forms surround the panels,
or form belts to the fields of the ornamental compositions.
Religious vases, altar furniture, perfume-burners, candlesticks, lamps,
screens, and table-tops are some of the articles in Chinese enamels made
invariably in the Cloisonné manner.
The Chinese also make a species of enamel that has no metal foundation,
which consists of a cloisonnage of network in which the enamel is
skilfully fused between the divisions, and is of a semi-translucent
character.
Japanese enamels are more modern than the Chinese, old pieces of
Japanese being extremely rare. The enamels of Japan are darker in the
ground colour than the Chinese, being generally of a dark olive green,
or of a warm neutral grey tint. Some very large vases, braziers, and
large dishes are made by the Japanese. These wonderful people are
extremely clever in the use of the enamellers’ lamp and the blowpipe,
for the purpose of fusing the enamel in sections, as the large pieces
they made could not possibly be fired entire. The Chinese excel in the
painting of enamels, but the Japanese do not seem to cultivate this art
to any great extent.
Indian enamels are characterized by their extreme brilliance and
splendour of colouring, in which qualities they excel the enamels of all
other countries. The native enamellers work in the translucent,
Cloisonné, and Champlevé processes, and the methods and secrets of their
craft are kept in their families. Greens of the peacock and emerald
hues, coral and ruby reds, torquoise and sapphire blues are the
favourite Indian enamel colours.
[Illustration: Fig. 107.—Necklace; Punjaub. (B.)]
The celebrated Jaipur enamels are of the Champlevé kind. In Cashmere and
in the Punjaub jewellery is made of gemmed gold and enamels (Fig 107).
The Queen and the Prince of Wales possess many articles that are
masterpieces of Indian enamelling. The Haka stand lent by the Queen to
the Indian Museum is a splendid specimen of translucent painted enamel
in green and blue, of the Mongol period (Fig. 108).
[Illustration: Fig. 108.—Enamelled Haka Stand; Mongol Period. (B.)]
A large plate of Jaipur enamel, said to be the largest ever made, was
presented to the Prince of Wales. A unique and beautiful specimen of the
same kind of enamel is the Kalamdan, or pen-and-ink stand in the shape
of an Indian gondola (Fig. 109).
The stern is formed of a peacock’s head and body, the tail of which
decorates in brilliant enamels the underneath part of the boat.
[Illustration: Fig. 109.—Enamelled Pen-and-Ink Stand; Jaipur. (B.)]
The canopy of the ink receptacle has green, blue, coral, and ruby
enamels laid on a gold foundation.
The vase, or Sarai (Fig. 110) in possession of Lady Wyatt is a fine
example of Cashmere enamel, on which the shawl pattern may be seen.
[Illustration: Fig. 110.—Enamelled Sarai; Punjaub. (B.)]
A kind of enamel is made at Pertabghar in Rajputana, which consists in
covering a plate of burnished gold with a rich green enamel, and placing
on the surface while it is hot thin plates of gold ornaments, which are
fastened to the enamel by heat; afterwards these gold plates are
engraved elaborately with incised lines, so as to bring out the design.
Sometimes the enamel itself is engraved, and an easily fused gold
amalgam is rubbed into the incised lines, and fused to form the
decoration.
Persian enamels are applied mostly to the heads of “Kalians,” or tobacco
water-pipes, jewellery, and coffee-cup holders. The foundations are gold
or copper. A large tray enamelled on copper on both sides is in the
Kensington Museum. It is decorated with flowers of various colours on a
white ground, and has an Armenian inscription with the date A.D. 1776,
and comes from Ispahan. In most Persian enamels the grounds are usually
of a white or light tint, with brightly coloured flowers as decoration.