sixteen years, and met everywhere the welcome of a hero. He told his
story in his _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (1857)
with straightforward simplicity, and with no effort after literary
style, and no apparent consciousness that he had done anything
extraordinary. Its publication brought what he would have considered a
competency had he felt himself at liberty to settle down for life. In
1857 he severed his connexion with the London Missionary Society, with
whom, however, he always remained on the best of terms, and in February
1858 he accepted the appointment of "Her Majesty's consul at Quilimane
for the eastern coast and the independent districts in the interior, and
commander of an expedition for exploring eastern and central Africa."
The Zambezi expedition, of which Livingstone thus became commander,
sailed from Liverpool in H.M.S. "Pearl" on the 10th of March 1858, and
reached the mouth of the Zambezi on the 14th of May. The party, which
included Dr (afterwards Sir) John Kirk and Livingstone's brother
Charles, ascended the river from the Kongone mouth in a steam launch,
the "Ma-Robert"; reaching Tete on the 8th of September. The remainder of
the year was devoted to an examination of the river above Tete, and
especially the Kebrabasa rapids. Most of the year 1859 was spent in the
exploration of the river Shiré and Lake Nyasa, which was discovered in
September; and during a great part of the year 1860 Livingstone was
engaged in fulfilling his promise to take such of the Makololo home as
cared to go. In January of next year arrived Bishop C. F. Mackenzie and
a party of missionaries sent out by the Universities Mission to
establish a station on the upper Shiré.
After exploring the river Rovuma for 30 m. in his new vessel the
"Pioneer," Livingstone and the missionaries proceeded up the Shiré to
Chibisa's; there they found the slave trade rampant. On the 15th of July
Livingstone, accompanied by several native carriers, started to show the
bishop the country. Several bands of slaves whom they met were
liberated, and after seeing the missionary party settled in the
highlands to the south of Lake Chilwa (Shirwa) Livingstone spent from
August to November in exploring Lake Nyasa. While the boat sailed up
the west side of the lake to near the north end, the explorer marched
along the shore. He returned more resolved than ever to do his utmost to
rouse the civilized world to put down the desolating slave-trade. On the
30th of January 1862, at the Zambezi mouth, Livingstone welcomed his
wife and the ladies of the mission, with whom were the sections of the
"Lady Nyassa," a river steamer which Livingstone had had built at his
own expense. When the mission ladies reached the mouth of the Ruo
tributary of the Shiré, they were stunned to hear of the death of the
bishop and one of his companions. This was a sad blow to Livingstone,
seeming to have rendered all his efforts to establish a mission futile.
A still greater loss to him was that of his wife at Shupanga, on the
27th of April 1862.
The "Lady Nyassa" was taken to the Rovuma. Up this river Livingstone
managed to steam 156 m., but farther progress was arrested by rocks.
Returning to the Zambezi in the beginning of 1863, he found that the
desolation caused by the slave trade was more horrible and widespread
than ever. It was clear that the Portuguese officials were themselves at
the bottom of the traffic. Kirk and Charles Livingstone being compelled
to return to England on account of their health, the doctor resolved
once more to visit the lake, and proceeded some distance up the west
side and then north-west as far as the watershed that separates the
Loangwa from the rivers that run into the lake. Meanwhile a letter was
received from Earl Russell recalling the expedition by the end of the
year. In the end of April 1864 Livingstone reached Zanzibar in the "Lady
Nyassa," and on the 23rd of July Livingstone arrived in England. He was
naturally disappointed with the comparative failure of this expedition.
Still the geographical results, though not in extent to be compared to
those of his first and his final expeditions, were of high importance,
as were those in various departments of science, and he had unknowingly
laid the foundations of the British protectorate of Nyasaland. Details
will be found in his _Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its
Tributaries_, published in 1865.
By Sir Roderick Murchison and his other staunch friends Livingstone was
as warmly welcomed as ever. When Murchison proposed to him that he
should go out again, although he seems to have had a desire to spend the
remainder of his days at home, the prospect was too tempting to be
rejected. He was appointed British consul to Central Africa without a
salary, and government contributed only £500 to the expedition. The
chief help came from private friends. During the latter part of the
expedition government granted him £1000, but that, when he learned of
it, was devoted to his great undertaking. The Geographical Society
contributed £500. The two main objects of the expedition were the
suppression of slavery by means of civilizing influences, and the
ascertainment of the watershed in the region between Nyasa and
Tanganyika. At first Livingstone thought the Nile problem had been all
but solved by Speke, Baker and Burton, but the idea grew upon him that
the Nile sources must be sought farther south, and his last journey
became in the end a forlorn hope in search of the "fountains" of
Herodotus. Leaving England in the middle of August 1865, via Bombay,
Livingstone arrived at Zanzibar on the 28th of January 1866. He was
landed at the mouth of the Rovuma on the 22nd of March, and started for
the interior on the 4th of April. His company consisted of thirteen
sepoys, ten Johanna men, nine African boys from Nasik school, Bombay,
and four boys from the Shiré region, besides camels, buffaloes, mules
and donkeys. This imposing outfit soon melted away to four or five boys.
Rounding the south end of Lake Nyasa, Livingstone struck in a
north-north-west direction for the south end of Lake Tanganyika, over
country much of which had not previously been explored. The Loangwa was
crossed on the 15th of December 1866. On Christmas day Livingstone lost
his four goats, a loss which he felt very keenly, and the medicine chest
was stolen in January 1867. Fever came upon him, and for a time was his
almost constant companion; this, with other serious ailments which
subsequently attacked him, and which he had no medicine to counteract,
told on even his iron frame. The Chambezi was crossed on the 28th of
January, and the south end of Tanganyika reached on the 31st of March.
Here, much to his vexation, he got into the company of Arab slave
dealers (among them being Tippoo-Tib) by whom his movements were
hampered; but he succeeded in reaching Lake Mweru (Nov. 1867). After
visiting Lake Mofwa and the Lualaba, which he believed was the upper
part of the Nile, he, on the 18th of July 1868, discovered Lake
Bangweulu. Proceeding up the west coast of Tanganyika, he reached Ujiji
on the 14th of March 1869, "a ruckle of bones." Livingstone recrossed
Tanganyika in July, and passed through the country of the Manyema, but
baffled partly by the natives, partly by the slave hunters, and partly
by his long illnesses it was not till the 29th of March 1871 that he
succeeded in reaching the Lualaba, at the town of Nyangwe, where he
stayed four months, vainly trying to get a canoe to take him across. It
was here that a party of Arab slavers, without warning or provocation,
assembled one day when the market was busiest and commenced shooting
the women, hundreds being killed or drowned in trying to escape.
Livingstone had "the impression that he was in hell," but was helpless,
though his "first impulse was to pistol the murderers." The account of
this scene which he sent home roused indignation in England to such a
degree as to lead to determined and to a considerable extent successful
efforts to get the sultan of Zanzibar to suppress the trade. In sickened
disgust the weary traveller made his way back to Ujiji, which he reached
on the 13th of October. Five days after his arrival in Ujiji he was
inspired with new life by the timely arrival of H. M. Stanley, the
richly laden almoner of Mr Gordon Bennett, of the _New York Herald_.
With Stanley Livingstone explored the north end of Tanganyika, and
proved conclusively that the Rusizi runs into and not out of it. In the
end of the year the two started eastward for Unyamwezi, where Stanley
provided Livingstone with an ample supply of goods, and bade him
farewell. Stanley left on the 15th of March 1872, and after Livingstone
had waited wearily in Unyamwezi for five months, a troop of fifty-seven
men and boys arrived, good and faithful fellows on the whole, selected
by Stanley himself. Thus attended, he started on the 15th of August for
Lake Bangweulu, proceeding along the east side of Tanganyika. His old
enemy dysentery soon found him out. In January 1873 the party got among
the endless spongy jungle on the east of Lake Bangweulu, Livingstone's
object being to go round by the south and away west to find the
"fountains." The doctor got worse and worse, and in the middle of April
he had unwillingly to submit to be carried in a rude litter. On the 29th
of April Chitambo's village on the Lulimala, in Ilala, on the south
shore of the lake, was reached. The last entry in the journal is on the
27th of April: "Knocked up quite, and remain--recover--sent to buy milch
goats. We are on the banks of the Molilamo." On the 30th of April he
with difficulty wound up his watch, and early on the morning of the 1st
of May the boys found "the great master," as they called him, kneeling
by the side of his bed, dead. His faithful men preserved the body in the
sun as well as they could, and, wrapping it carefully up, carried it and
all his papers, instruments and other things across Africa to Zanzibar.
It was borne to England with all honour, and on the 18th of April 1874,
was deposited in Westminster Abbey. His faithfully kept journals during
these seven years' wanderings were published under the title of the
_Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_, in 1874, edited
by his old friend the Rev. Horace Waller. In Old Chitambo's the time and
place of his death are commemorated by a permanent monument, which
replaced in 1902 the tree on which his native followers had recorded the
event.
In spite of his sufferings and the many compulsory delays, Livingstone's
discoveries during these last years were both extensive and of prime
importance as leading to a solution of African hydrography. No single
African explorer has ever done so much for African geography as
Livingstone during his thirty years' work. His travels covered one-third
of the continent, extending from the Cape to near the equator, and from
the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Livingstone was no hurried traveller;
he did his journeying leisurely, carefully observing and recording all
that was worthy of note, with rare geographical instinct and the eye of
a trained scientific observer, studying the ways of the people, eating
their food, living in their huts, and sympathizing with their joys and
sorrows. In all the countries through which he travelled his memory is
cherished by the native tribes who, almost without exception, treated
Livingstone as a superior being; his treatment of them was always
tender, gentle and gentlemanly. By the Arab slavers whom he opposed he
was also greatly admired, and was by them styled "the very great
doctor." "In the annals of exploration of the Dark Continent," wrote
Stanley many years after the death of the missionary explorer, "we look
in vain among other nationalities for a name such as Livingstone's. He
stands pre-eminent above all; he unites in himself all the best
qualities of other explorers. ... Britain ... excelled herself even when
she produced the strong and perseverant Scotchman, Livingstone." But the
direct gains to geography and science are perhaps not the greatest
results of Livingstone's journeys. His example and his death acted like
an inspiration, filling Africa with an army of explorers and
missionaries, and raising in Europe so powerful a feeling against the
slave trade that through him it may be considered as having received its
deathblow. Personally Livingstone was a pure and tender-hearted man,
full of humanity and sympathy, simple-minded as a child. The motto of
his life was the advice he gave to some school children in
Scotland--"Fear God, and work hard."
See, besides his own narratives and W. G. Blaikie's _Life_ (1880), the
publications of the London Missionary Society from 1840, the _Journal
and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, the despatches to
the Foreign Office sent home by Livingstone during his last two
expeditions, and Stanley's _Autobiography_ (1909) and _How I Found
Livingstone_ (1872). (J. S. K.)
LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS, a band of highlands in German East Africa,
forming the eastern border of the rift-valley of Lake Nyasa, at the
northern end of the lake. In parts these highlands, known also under
their native name of Kinga, present rather the character of a plateau
than of a true mountain range, but the latter name may be justified by
the fact that they form a comparatively narrow belt of country, which
falls considerably to the east as well as to the west. The northern end
is well marked in 8° 50´ S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha
valley, which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main
rift-valley. Southwards the Livingstone range terminates in the deep
valley of the Ruhuhu in 10° 30´ S., the first decided break in the
highlands that is reached from the north, on the east coast of Nyasa.
Geologically the range is formed on the side of the lake by a zone of
gneiss running in a series of ridges and valleys generally parallel to
its axis. The ridge nearest the lake (which in Mount Jamimbi or
Chamembe, 9° 41´ S., rises to an absolute height of 7870 ft., or 6200
ft. above Nyasa) falls almost sheer to the water, the same steep slope
being continued beneath the surface. Towards the south the range appears
to have a width of some 20 m. only, but northwards it widens out to
about 40 m., though broken here by the depression, drained towards the
Ruaha, of Buanyi, on the south side of which is the highest known summit
of the range (9600 ft.). North and east of Buanyi, as in the eastern
half of the range generally, table-topped mountains occur, composed
above of horizontally bedded quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates.
The uplands are generally clothed in rich grass, forest occurring
principally in the hollows, while the slopes towards the lake are
covered with poor scrub. Native settlements are scattered over the whole
range, and German mission stations have been established at Bulongwa and
Mtandala, a little north of the north end of Nyasa. The climate is here
healthy, and night frosts occur in the cold season. European crops are
raised with success. At the foot of the mountains on Lake Nyasa are the
ports of Wiedhafen, at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and Old Langenburg, at
the north-east corner of the lake. (E. He.)
LIVIUS ANDRONICUS (c. 284-204 B.C.), the founder of Roman epic poetry
and drama. His name, in which the Greek [Greek: Andronikos] is combined
with the gentile name of one of the great Roman houses, while indicative
of his own position as a manumitted slave, is also significant of the
influences by which Roman literature was fostered, viz. the culture of
men who were either Greeks or "semi-Graeci" by birth and education, and
the protection and favour bestowed upon them by the more enlightened
members of the Roman aristocracy. He is supposed to have been a native
of Tarentum, and to have been brought, while still a boy, after the
capture of that town in 272, as a slave to Rome. He lived in the
household of a member of the gens Livia, probably M. Livius Salinator.
He determined the course which Roman literature followed for more than a
century after his time. The imitation of Greek comedy, tragedy and epic
poetry, which produced great results in the hands of Naevius, Plautus,
Ennius and their successors, received its first impulse from him. To
judge, however, from the insignificant remains of his writings, and from
the opinions of Cicero and Horace, he can have had no pretension either
to original genius or to artistic accomplishment. His real claim to
distinction was that he was the first great schoolmaster of the Roman
people. We learn from Suetonius that, like Ennius after him, he obtained
his living by teaching Greek and Latin; and it was probably as a
school-book, rather than as a work of literary pretension, that his
translation of the _Odyssey_ into Latin Saturnian verse was executed.
This work was still used in schools in the time of Horace (_Epp._ ii.
1., 69), and, although faultily executed, satisfied a real want by
introducing the Romans to a knowledge of Greek. Such knowledge became
essential to men in a high position as a means of intercourse with
Greeks, while Greek literature stimulated the minds of leading Romans.
Moreover, southern Italy and Sicily afforded many opportunities for
witnessing representations of Greek comedies and tragedies. The Romans
and Italians had an indigenous drama of their own, known by the name of
_Satura_, which prepared them for the reception of the more regular
Greek drama. The distinction between this _Satura_ and the plays of
Euripides or Menander was that it had no regular plot. This the Latin
drama first received from Livius Andronicus; but it did so at the cost
of its originality. In 240, the year after the end of the first Punic
War, he produced at the ludi Romani a translation of a Greek play (it is
uncertain whether a comedy or tragedy or both), and this representation
marks the beginning of Roman literature (Livy vii. 2). Livius himself
took part in his plays, and in order to spare his voice he introduced
the custom of having the solos (_cantica_) sung by a boy, while he
himself represented the action of the song by dumb show. In his
translation he discarded the native Saturnian metre, and adopted the
iambic, trochaic and cretic metres, to which Latin more easily adapted
itself than either to the hexameter or to the lyrical measures of a
later time. He continued to produce plays for more than thirty years
after this time. The titles of his tragedies--_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_,
_Equus Trojanus_, _Hermione_, _Tereus_--are all suggestive of subjects
which were treated by the later tragic poets of Rome. In the year 207,
when he must have been of a great age, he was appointed to compose a
hymn of thanksgiving, sung by maidens, for the victory of the Metaurus
and an intercessory hymn to the Aventine Juno. As a further tribute of
national recognition the "college" or "gild" of poets and actors was
granted a place of meeting in the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.
See fragments in L. Müller, _Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum
Reliquiae_ (1885); also J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of
Early Latin_ (1874); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14.
LIVNO, a town of Bosnia, situated on the eastern side of the fertile
plain of Livno, at the foot of Mount Krug (6581 ft.). Pop. about 5000.
The Dalmatian border is 7 m. W. Livno had a trade in grain, live-stock
and silver filigree-work up to 1904, when a fire swept away more than
500 of the old Turkish houses, together with the Roman citadel. Remains
prove that Livno occupies the site of a Roman settlement, the name of
which is uncertain. The Roman Catholic convent of Gurici is 6 m. S.
LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, _Liflandia_), one of the three Baltic
provinces of Russia, bounded W. by the Gulf of Riga, N. by Esthonia, E.
by the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov and Vitebsk, and S. by
Courland. A group of islands (1110 sq. m.) at the entrance of the Gulf
of Riga, of which Oesel, Mohn, Runo and Paternoster are the largest,
belong to this government. It covers an area of 18,160 sq. m., but of
this the part of Lake Peipus which belongs to it occupies 1090. Its
surface is diversified by several plateaus, those of Haanhof and of the
Livonian Aa having an average elevation of 400 to 700 ft., while several
summits reach 800 to 1000 ft. or more. The edges of the plateaus are
gapped by deep valleys; the hilly tract between the Dvina and its
tributary the Livonian Aa has received, from its picturesque narrow
valleys, thick forests and numerous lakes, the name of "Livonian
Switzerland." The plateau of Odenpäh, drained by tributaries of the
Embach river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yärvi into Lake
Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average elevation of
500 ft. More than a thousand lakes are scattered over Livonia, of which
that of Virz-yärvi, having a surface of 106 sq. m. (115 ft. above
sea-level), is the largest. Marshes and peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of
the province. Of the numerous rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m.
along its frontier, the Pernau, Salis, Livonian Aa and Embach are
navigable.
The Silurian formation which covers Esthonia, appears in the northern
part of Livonia, the remainder of the province consisting of Devonian
strata. The whole is overlaid with glacial deposits, sometimes 400 ft.
thick. The typical bottom moraine, with erratics from Finland, extends
all over the country. Glacial furrows, striae and elongated troughs are
met with everywhere, running mostly from north-west to south-east, as
well as _asar_ or _eskérs_, which have the same direction. Sand-dunes
cover large tracts on the shores of the Baltic. No traces of marine
deposits are found higher than 100 or 150 ft. above the present
sea-level. The soil is not very fertile. Forests cover about two-fifths
of the surface. The climate is rather severe. The mean temperatures are
43° F. at Riga (winter 23°, summer 63°) and 40° at Yuriev. The winds are
very variable; the average number of rainy and snowy days is 146 at Riga
(rainfall 24.1 in.). Fogs are not uncommon.
The population of Livonia, which was 621,600 in 1816, reached 1,000,876
in 1870, and 1,295,231 in 1897, of whom 43.4% were Letts, 39.9% Ehsts,
7.6% Germans, 5.4% Russians, 2% Jews and 1.2% Poles. The estimated pop.
in 1906 was 1,411,000. The Livs, who formerly extended east into the
government of Vitebsk, have nearly all passed away. Their native
language, of Finnish origin, is rapidly disappearing, their present
language being a Lettish patois. In 1846 a grammar and dictionary of it
were made with difficulty from the mouths of old people. The Ehsts, who
resemble the Finns of Tavastland, have maintained their ethnic features,
their customs, national traditions, songs and poetry, and their
harmonious language. There is a marked revival of national feeling,
favoured by "Young Esthonia." The prevailing religion is the Lutheran
(79.8%); 14.3% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; of the Russians,
however, a considerable proportion are Raskolniks (Nonconformists); the
Roman Catholics amount to 2.3%, and the Jews to 2%. The Russian civil
code was introduced in the Baltic provinces in 1835, and the use of
Russian, instead of German, in official correspondence and in law
courts was ordered in 1867, but not generally brought into practice.
Nearly all the soil belongs to the nobility, the extent of the
peasants' estates being only 15% of the entire area of the government.
Serfdom was abolished in 1819, but the peasants remained under the
jurisdiction of their landlords. The class of peasant proprietors
being restricted to a small number of wealthy peasants, the bulk have
remained tenants at will; they are very miserable, and about
one-fourth of them are continually wandering in search of work. From
time to time the emigration takes the shape of a mass movement, which
the government stops by forcible measures. The average size of the
landed estates is 9500 to 11,000 acres, far above the general average
for Russia. Agriculture has reached a high degree of perfection on the
estates of the landlords. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley,
flax and potatoes, with some wheat, hemp and buckwheat. Dairy-farming
and gardening are on the increase. Fishing in Lake Peipus gives
occupation to nearly 100,000 persons, and is also carried on in the
Gulf of Riga and in the rivers. Woollen, cloth, cotton and flax mills,
steam flour and saw mills, distilleries and breweries, machinery
works, paper mills, furniture, tobacco, soap, candle and hardware
works are among the chief industrial establishments. Livonia carries
on a large export trade, especially through Riga and Pernau, in
petroleum, wool, oilcake, flax, linseed, hemp, grain, timber and
wooden wares; the Dvina is the chief channel for this trade.
Education stands on a much higher level than elsewhere in Russia, no
less than 87% of the children receiving regular instruction. The
higher educational institutions include Yuriev (Dorpat) University,
Riga polytechnic and a high school for the clergy.
The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of
which, with their populations in 1897, are: Riga, capital of the
government (282,943); Arensburg, in the island of Oesel (4621); Yuriev
or Dorpat (42,421); Fellin (7659); Pernau (12,856); Walk (10,139);
Wenden (6327); Werro (4154); and Wolmar (5124). The capital of the
government is Riga.