there is a great risk of their trying to escape with the bile into the
intestine and thus causing a blockage of the common bile-duct, and
perhaps a fatal leakage of bile into the peritoneum through a
perforating ulcer of the duct. If before opening the gall-bladder the
surface is stitched to the deepest part of the abdominal wound, the
biliary fistula left as the result of the opening of the abscess will
close in due course.
"Biliary colic" is the name given to the distressing symptoms associated
with the passage of a stone through the narrow bile-duct. The individual
is doubled up with acute pains which, starting from the hepatic region,
spread through the abdomen and radiate to the right shoulder blade.
Inasmuch as the stone is blocking the duct, the bile is unable to flow
into the intestine; so, being absorbed by the blood-vessels, it gives
rise to jaundice. The distress is due to spasmodic muscular contraction,
and it comes on at intervals, each attack increasing the patient's
misery. He breaks out into profuse sweats and may vomit. If the stone
happily finds its way into the intestine the distress suddenly ceases.
In the meanwhile relief may be afforded by fomentations, and by morphia
or chloroform, but if no prospect of the stone escaping into the
intestine appears likely, the surgeon will be called upon to remove it
by an incision through the gall-bladder, or the bile-duct, or through
the intestine at the spot where it is trying to make its escape.
Sometimes a gall-stone which has found its way into the intestine is
large enough to block the bowel and give rise to intestinal obstruction
which demands abdominal section.
A person who is of what used to be called a "biliary nature" should
live sparingly and take plenty of exercise. He should avoid fat and
rich food, butter, pastry and sauces, and should drink no beer or
wine--unless it be some very light French wine or Moselle. He should
keep his bowels regular, or even loose, taking every morning a dose of
sulphate of soda in a glass of hot water. A course at Carlsbad, Vichy
or Contrexéville, may be helpful. It is doubtful if drugs have any
direct influence upon gall-stones, such as sulphate of soda, olive oil
or oleate of soda. No reliance can be placed upon massage in producing
the onward passage of a gall-stone from the gall-bladder towards the
intestine. Indeed this treatment might be not only distressing but
harmful. (E. O.*)
LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] (1821-1905), American reformer, was born
in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 19th of December 1821. She studied at
the female seminary at Charlestown, Mass.; taught French and Latin
there, taught in a plantation school in southern Virginia; and for
three years conducted a school of her own in Duxbury, Mass. Upon
returning from Virginia she had joined the abolitionists, and she took
an active part in the Washingtonian temperance movement.[1] In 1845 she
married Daniel Parker Livermore (1819-1899), a Universalist clergyman.
In 1857 they removed to Chicago, Illinois, where she assisted her
husband in editing the religious weekly, _The New Covenant_ (1857-1869).
During the Civil War, as an associate member of the United States
Sanitary Commission, and as an agent of its North-western branch, she
organized many aid societies, contributed to the success of the
North-western Sanitary Fair in Chicago in 1863, and visited army posts
and hospitals. After the war she devoted herself to the promotion of
woman's suffrage and to temperance reform, founding in Chicago in 1869
_The Agitator_, which in 1870 was merged into the _Woman's Journal_
(Boston), of which she was an associate editor until 1872. She died in
Melrose, Mass. on the 23rd of May 1905. She had been president of the
Illinois, the Massachusetts and the American woman's suffrage
associations, the Massachusetts Woman's Christian Temperance Union and
the Woman's Congress, and a member of many other societies. She lectured
in the United States, England and Scotland, contributed to magazines and
wrote: _The Children's Army_ (1844), temperance stories; _Thirty Years
Too Late_ (1848), a temperance story; _A Mental Transformation_ (1848);
_Pen Pictures_ (1863), short stories; _What Shall We Do With Our
Daughters? and Other Lectures_ (1883); _My Story of the War_ (1888); and
_The Story of My Life_ (1897). With Frances E. Willard, she edited _A
Woman of the Century: Biographical Sketches of Leading American Women_
(1893).
FOOTNOTE:
[1] This movement was started in 1840 by habitués of a Baltimore
(Md.) tavern, who then founded the Washington Temperance Society
(named in honour of George Washington). The movement spread rapidly
in 1841-1843, but by the close of 1843 it had nearly spent its force.
The members of the Society made a pledge not to drink spirituous or
malt liquors, wine or cider. Women organized Martha Washington
Societies as auxiliary organizations.
LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF. CHARLES JENKINSON, 1st earl of Liverpool
(1729-1808), English statesman, eldest son of Colonel Charles Jenkinson
(d. 1750) and grandson of Sir Robert Jenkinson, Bart., of Walcot,
Oxfordshire, was born at Winchester on the 16th of May 1729. The family
was descended from Anthony Jenkinson (d. 1611), sea-captain, merchant
and traveller, the first Englishman to penetrate into Central Asia.
Charles was educated at Charterhouse school and University College,
Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1752. In 1761 he entered parliament
as member for Cockermouth and was made under-secretary of state by Lord
Bute; he won the favour of George III., and when Bute retired Jenkinson
became the leader of the "king's friends" in the House of Commons. In
1763 George Grenville appointed him joint secretary to the treasury; in
1766, after a short retirement, he became a lord of the admiralty and
then a lord of the treasury in the Grafton administration; and from 1778
until the close of Lord North's ministry in 1782 he was
secretary-at-war. From 1786 to 1801 he was president of the board of
trade and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and he was popularly
regarded as enjoying the confidence of the king to a special degree. In
1772 Jenkinson became a privy councillor and vice-treasurer of Ireland,
and in 1775 he purchased the lucrative sinecure of clerk of the pells in
Ireland and became master of the mint. In 1786 he was created Baron
Hawkesbury, and ten years later earl of Liverpool. He died in London on
the 17th of December 1808. Liverpool was twice married: firstly to
Amelia (d. 1770), daughter of William Watts, governor of Fort William,
Bengal, and secondly to Catherine, daughter of Sir Cecil Bisshoff,
Bart., and widow of Sir Charles Cope, Bart.; he had a son by each
marriage. He wrote several political works, but except his _Treatise on
the Coins of the Realm_ (1805) these are without striking merits. They
are, _Dissertation on the establishment of a national and constitutional
force in England independent of a standing army_ (1756); _Discourse on
the conduct of the government of Great Britain respecting neutral
nations_ (1758, new ed., 1837); and _Collection of Treaties between
Great Britain and other Powers 1648-1783_ (1785). His _Coins of the
Realm_ was reprinted by the Bank of England in 1880.
His son, ROBERT BANKS JENKINSON, 2nd earl (1770-1828), was educated at
Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he had George Canning,
afterwards his close political associate, for a contemporary. In 1790 he
entered parliament as member for Appleby; he became master of the mint
in 1799 and foreign secretary in Addington's administration in 1801,
when he conducted the negotiations for the abortive treaty of Amiens. On
the accession of Pitt to power in 1804, he obtained the home office,
having in the previous year been elevated as Baron Hawkesbury to the
House of Lords, where he acted as leader of the government. He declined
the premiership on the death of Pitt in 1806, and remained out of office
until Portland became prime minister in 1807, when he again became
secretary of state for home affairs. In 1808 he succeeded his father as
earl of Liverpool. In the ministry of Spencer Perceval (1809-1812) he
was secretary for war and the colonies. After the assassination of
Perceval in May 1812 he became prime minister, and retained office till
compelled in February 1827 to resign by the illness (paralysis) which
terminated his life on the 4th of December 1828.
The political career of the 2nd Lord Liverpool was of a negative
character so far as legislation was concerned; but he held office in
years of great danger and depression, during which he "kept order among
his colleagues, composed their quarrels, and oiled the wheels to make it
possible for the machinery of government to work" (Spencer Walpole). The
energy of Castlereagh and Canning secured the success of the foreign
policy of his cabinet, but in his home policy he was always retrograde.
The introduction of the bill of pains and penalties against Queen
Caroline greatly increased his unpopularity, originated by the severe
measures of repression employed to quell the general distress, which had
been created by the excessive taxation which followed the Napoleonic
wars. Lord Liverpool was destitute of wide sympathies and of true
political insight, and his resignation of office was followed almost
immediately by the complete and permanent reversal of his domestic
policy. He was twice married but had no children, and he was succeeded
by his half-brother CHARLES CECIL COPE JENKINSON, 3rd earl (1784-1851),
who left three daughters. The baronetcy then passed to a cousin, and the
peerage became extinct. But in 1905 the earldom was revived in the
person of the 3rd earl's grandson, CECIL GEORGE SAVILE FOLJAMBE
(1846-1907), who had been a Liberal member of parliament from 1880 to
1892, and in 1893 was created Baron Hawkesbury. He was succeeded in 1907
by his son, Arthur (b. 1870).
For the life of the 2nd earl see the anonymous _Memoirs of the Public
Life and Administration of Liverpool_ (1827); C. D. Yonge, _Life and
Administration of the 2nd Earl of Liverpool_ (1868); T. E. Kebbel,
_History of Toryism_ (1886); and Sir S. Walpole, _History of England_,
vol. ii. (1890).
LIVERPOOL, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and
seaport of Lancashire, England, 201 m. N.W. of London by rail, situated
on the right bank of the estuary of the Mersey, the centre of the city
being about 3 m. from the open sea. The form of the city is that of an
irregular semicircle, having the base line formed by the docks and quays
extending about 9 m. along the east bank of the estuary, which here runs
nearly north and south, and varies in breadth from 1 to 2 m. On the
north the city is partly bounded by the borough of Bootle, along the
shore of which the line of docks is continued. The area of the city is
16,619 acres exclusive of water area. The population at the census of
1901 was 684,958; the estimated population in 1908 was 753,203; the
birth-rate for 1907 was 31.7 and the death-rate 18.3; in 1908 the
rateable value was £4,679,520.
[Illustration: Liverpool Map.]
The city lies on a continuous slope varying in gradient, but in some
districts very steep. Exposed to the western sea breezes, with a dry
subsoil and excellent natural drainage, the site is naturally healthy.
The old borough, lying between the pool, now completely obliterated, and
the river, was a conglomeration of narrow alleys without any regard to
sanitary provisions; and during the 16th and 17th centuries it was
several times visited by plague. When the town expanded beyond its
original limits, and spread up the slopes beyond the pool, a better
state of things began to exist. The older parts of the town have at
successive periods been entirely taken down and renovated. The
commercial part of the city is remarkable for the number of palatial
piles of offices, built chiefly of stone, among which the banks and
insurance offices stand pre-eminent. The demand for cottages about the
beginning of the 19th century led to the construction of what are called
"courts," being narrow _culs de sac_, close packed, with no through
ventilation. This resulted in a high rate of mortality, to contend with
which enormous sums have been expended in sanitary reforms of various
kinds. The more modern cottages and blocks of artisan dwellings have
tended to reduce the rate of mortality.
_Parks._--The earliest public park, the Prince's Park, was laid out in
1843 by private enterprise, and is owned by trustees, but the reversion
has been acquired by the corporation. Sefton Park, the most extensive,
containing 269 acres, was opened in 1872. A large portion of the land
round the margin has been leased for the erection of villas. Wavertree,
Newsham, Sheil and Stanley Parks have also been constructed at the
public expense. Connected with Wavertree Park are the botanic gardens. A
palm house in Sefton Park was opened in 1896 and a conservatory in
Stanley Park in 1900. Since 1882 several of the city churchyards and
burial grounds and many open spaces have been laid out as gardens and
recreation grounds. A playground containing 108 acres in Wavertree was
presented to the city in 1895 by an anonymous donor, and in 1902 the
grounds of a private residence outside the city boundaries containing 94
acres were acquired and are now known as Calderstones Park. In 1906
about 100 acres of land in Roby, also outside the boundaries, was
presented to the city. The total area of the parks and gardens of the
city, not including the two last named, is 881½ acres. A boulevard about
1 m. in length, planted with trees in the centre, leads to the entrance
of Prince's Park.
_Public Buildings._--Scarcely any of the public buildings date from an
earlier period than the 19th century. One of the earliest, and in many
respects the most interesting, is the town-hall in Castle Street. This
was erected from the designs of John Wood of Bath, and was opened in
1754. The building has since undergone considerable alterations and
extensions, but the main features remain. It is a rectangular stone
building in the Corinthian style, with an advanced portico added to the
original building in 1811, and crowned with a lofty dome surmounted by a
seated statue of Britannia, added in 1802. The interior was destroyed by
fire in 1795, and was entirely remodelled in the restoration. In 1900
considerable alterations in the internal structure were made, and the
council chamber extended so as to afford accommodation for the enlarged
council. It contains a splendid suite of apartments, including a
ball-room approached by a noble staircase. The building is occupied by
the mayor as the municipal mansion house. A range of municipal offices
was erected in Dale Street in 1860. The building is in the Palladian
style, with a dominating tower and square pyramidal spire.
The crowning architectural feature of Liverpool is St George's Hall,
completed in 1854. The original intention was to erect a hall suited for
the triennial music festivals which had been held in the town. About the
same time the corporation proposed to erect law-courts for the assizes,
which had been transferred to Liverpool and Manchester. In the
competitive designs, the first prize was gained in both cases by Harvey
Lonsdale Elmes. He was employed to combine the two objects in a new
design, of which the present building is the outcome. It is fortunate in
its situation, occupying the most central position in the town, and
surrounded by an area sufficiently extensive to exhibit its proportions,
an advantage which was accentuated in 1898 by the removal of St John's
church, which previously prevented an uninterrupted view of the west
side. The plan is simple. The centre is occupied by the great hall, 169
ft. in length, and, with the galleries, 87 ft. wide and 74 ft. high,
covered with a solid vault in masonry. Attached to each end, and opening
therefrom, are the law-courts. A corridor runs round the hall and the
courts, communicating with the various accessory rooms. Externally the
east front is faced with a fine portico of sixteen Corinthian columns
about 60 ft. in height. An advanced portico of similar columns fronts
the south end crowned with a pediment filled with sculpture. The style
is Roman, but the refinement of the details is suggestive of the best
period of Grecian art. The great hall is finished with polished granite
columns, marble balustrades and pavements, polished brass doors with
foliated tracery. The fine organ was built by Messrs Willis of London,
from the specification of Dr Samuel Wesley. Elmes having died in 1847
during the progress of the work, the building was completed by C. R.
Cockerell, R.A.
Next to the public buildings belonging to the city, the most important
is the exchange, forming three sides of a quadrangle on the north side
of the town-hall. The town-hall was originally built to combine a
mercantile exchange with municipal offices, but the merchants preferred
to meet in the open street adjoining. This, with other circumstances,
led to the erection of a new exchange, a building of considerable merit,
which was begun in 1803 and opened in 1808. It had scarcely been in use
for more than fifty years when it was found that the wants of commerce
had outstripped the accommodation, and the structure was taken down to
make room for the present building.
The revenue buildings, begun in 1828 on the site of the original
Liverpool dock, formerly combined the customs, inland revenue,
post-office and dock board departments but are now only used by the two
first named. It is a heavy structure, with three advanced porticoes in
the Ilyssus Ionic style. Near by stands the sailors' home, a large
building in the Elizabethan style. The Philharmonic Hall in Hope Street,
with not much pretension externally, is one of the finest music rooms in
the kingdom; it accommodates an audience of about 2500.
The group of buildings forming the county sessions house, the free
public library, museum, central technical school and gallery of art are
finely situated on the slope to the north of St George's Hall. The
library and gallery of art are separate buildings, connected by the
circular reading-room in the middle. The latter possesses some features
in construction worthy of note, having a circular floor 100 ft. in
diameter without columns or any intermediate support, and a lecture-room
underneath, amphitheatrical in form, with grades or benches hewn out of
the solid rock. In 1884 the county sessions house just mentioned,
adjoining the art gallery was opened for public business. In 1899 new
post-office buildings in Victoria Street were completed. In 1907 two
important additions were made to the buildings of Liverpool, the new
offices of the dock board, built on the site of a portion of the Old
George's dock, and the new cotton exchange in Oldhall street. The fine
mass of buildings which constitute the university and the Royal
Infirmary, lying between Brownlow Hill and Pembroke Place, both groups
designed by Alfred Waterhouse, was begun in 1885.
Liverpool cathedral, intended when completed to be the largest in the
country, from designs by G. F. Bodley and G. Gilbert Scott, was begun in
1904, when the foundation stone was laid by King Edward VII. The
foundations were completed in 1906 and the superstructure begun. The
foundation of the chapter-house was laid in that year by the duke of
Connaught, and work was then begun on the Lady chapel, the vestries and
the choir.
_Railways._--There are three terminal passenger stations in Liverpool,
the London & North Western at Lime Street, the Lancashire & Yorkshire
at Exchange and the combined station of the Midland, Great Northern &
Great Central at Central. By the Mersey tunnel (opened in 1886)
connexion is made with the Wirral railway, the Great Central, the
Great Western and the London & North Western, on the Cheshire side of
the river. The Liverpool electric overhead railway running along the
line of docks from Seaforth to Dingle was opened in 1893, and in 1905
a junction was made with the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway by which
through passenger traffic between Southport and the Dingle has been
established. In 1895 the Riverside station at the Prince's dock was
completed, giving direct access from the landing stage to the London
and North Western system.
_Water Supply._--The original supply of water was from wells in the
sandstone rock, but in 1847 an act was passed, under which extensive
works were constructed at Rivington, about 25 m. distant, and a much
larger supply was obtained. The vast increase of population led to
further requirements, and in 1880 another act gave power to impound
the waters of the Vyrnwy, one of the affluents of the Severn. These
works were completed in 1892, a temporary supply having been obtained
a year earlier. The corporation had also, however, obtained power to
impound the waters of the Conwy and Marchnant rivers, and to bring
them into Lake Vyrnwy, the main reservoir, by means of tunnels. This
work was completed and opened by the prince of Wales (George V.) in
March 1910.
_Tramways._--The corporation in 1896 purchased the property, rights,
powers and privileges of the Liverpool Electric Supply Company, and in
the following year the undertaking of the Liverpool Tramway Company,
which they formally took over in the autumn of the same year. Since
that date a large and extended system of electric tramways has been
laid down, which has led to a very remarkable increase in the receipts
and the number of passengers carried.
_Administration of Justice._--The city has quarter-sessions for
criminal cases, presided over by the recorder, and held eight times in
the year. At least two police courts sit daily, and more if required.
One is presided over by the stipendiary magistrate and the others by
the lay magistrates and the coroner. The court of passage is a very
ancient institution, possibly dating from the foundation of the
borough by King John, and intended for cases arising out of the
imports and exports passing through the town. Its jurisdiction has
been confirmed and settled by parliament and it is competent to try
civil cases arising within the city to any amount. The mayor is
_ex-officio_ the judge, but the presiding judge is an assessor
appointed by the crown and paid by the corporation. The court sits
about five times a year. There is a Liverpool district registry of the
chancery of the County Palatine of Lancaster which has concurrent
jurisdiction with the high court (chancery division) within the
hundred of West Derby. The vice-chancellor holds sittings in
Liverpool. There is a Liverpool district registry of the high court of
justice with common law, chancery, probate and admiralty jurisdiction,
under two district registrars. The Liverpool county court has the
usual limited jurisdiction over a wide local area, together with
bankruptcy jurisdiction over the county court districts of St Helens,
Widnes, Ormskirk and Southport, and admiralty jurisdiction over the
same districts with the addition of Birkenhead, Chester, Runcorn and
Warrington. There are two judges attached to the court.