born about 1614. Her father, Sir White Beckenshaw, was descended from an
old Hampshire family; her husband, John Lisle (d. 1664), had been one of
the judges at the trial of Charles I., and was subsequently a member of
Cromwell's House of Lords--hence his wife's courtesy title. Lady Lisle
seems to have leaned to Royalism, but with this attitude she combined a
decided sympathy with religious dissent. On the 20th of July 1685, a
fortnight after the battle of Sedgemoor, the old lady consented to
shelter John Hickes, a well-known Nonconformist minister, at her
residence, Moyles Court, near Ringwood. Hickes, who was a fugitive from
Monmouth's army, brought with him Richard Nelthorpe, also a partizan of
Monmouth, and under sentence of outlawry. The two men passed the night
at Moyles Court, and on the following morning were arrested, and their
hostess, who had denied their presence in the house, was charged with
harbouring traitors. Her case was tried by Judge Jeffreys at the opening
of the "Bloody Assizes" at Winchester. She pleaded that she had no
knowledge that Hickes's offence was anything more serious than illegal
preaching, that she had known nothing previously of Nelthorpe (whose
name was not included in the indictment, but was, nevertheless,
mentioned to strengthen the case for the Crown), and that she had no
sympathy with the rebellion. The jury reluctantly found her guilty, and,
the law recognizing no distinction between principals and accessories in
treason, she was sentenced to be burned. Jeffreys ordered that the
sentence should be carried out that same afternoon, but a few days'
respite was subsequently granted, and James II. allowed beheading to be
substituted for burning. Lady Lisle was executed in Winchester
market-place on the 2nd of September 1685. By many writers her death has
been termed a judicial murder, and one of the first acts of parliament
of William and Mary reversed the attainder on the ground that the
prosecution was irregular and the verdict injuriously extorted by "the
menaces and violences and other illegal practices" of Jeffreys. It is,
however, extremely doubtful whether Jeffreys, for all his gross
brutality, exceeded the strict letter of the existing law.
See Howell, _State Trials_; H. B. Irving, _Life of Judge Jeffreys_;
Stephen, _History of the Criminal Law of England_.
LISMORE, an island in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, Argyllshire,
Scotland, 5 m. N.W. of Oban. Pop. (1901) 500. It lies S.W. and N.E., is
9½ m. long and 1¾ m. broad, and has an area of 9600 acres. It divides
the lower end of the loch into two channels, the Lynn of Morvern on the
W. and the Lynn of Lome on the E. The name is derived from the Gaelic
_lios mòr_, "great garden." Several ruined castles stand on the coast,
and the highest point of the island is 500 ft. above the sea. The
inhabitants raise potatoes, oats, cattle and horses, and these, with
dairy produce, form the bulk of the trade. Steamers call at
Auchnacrosan. A Columban monastery was founded in Lismore by St Moluag
about 592. About 1200 the see of Argyll was separated from Dunkeld by
Bishop John, "the Englishman," and Lismore soon afterwards became the
seat of the bishop of Argyll, sometimes called "Episcopus Lismoriensis,"
quite distinct from the bishop of the Isles (Sudreys and Isle of Man),
called "Episcopus Sodoriensis" or "Insularum," whose see was divided in
the 14th century into the English bishopric of Sodor and Man and the
Scottish bishopric of the Isles. The Rev. John Macaulay (d. 1789),
grandfather of Lord Macaulay, the historian, and the Rev. Donald M'Nicol
(1735-1802), who took up the defence of the Highlands against Dr
Johnson, were ministers of Lismore.
For the _Book of the Dean of Lismore_ see CELT: _Scottish Gaelic
Literature_.
LISMORE, a town of Rous county, New South Wales, Australia, 320 m.
direct N. by E. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4378. It is the principal town of
the north coast district, and the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The
surrounding country is partly pastoral, and partly agricultural, the
soil being very fertile. The town has a cathedral, school of art, and
other public buildings, while its industrial establishments include
saw-mills, sugar-mills, butter factories and an iron foundry. Standing
at the head of navigation of the Richmond river, Lismore has a large
export trade in dairy produce, poultry, pigs, and pine and cedar timber.
LISMORE, a market town and seat of a diocese in Co. Waterford, Ireland,
43 m. W.S.W. of Waterford by the Waterford and Mallow branch of the
Great Southern & Western Railway. Pop. (1901) 1583. It is beautifully
situated on a steep eminence rising abruptly from the Blackwater. At the
verge of the rock on the western side is the old baronial castle,
erected by King John in 1185, which was the residence of the bishops
till the 14th century. It was besieged in 1641 and 1643, and in 1645 it
was partly destroyed by fire. The present fabric is largely modern;
while the portico was designed by Inigo Jones. To the east, on the
summit of the height, is the cathedral of St Carthagh, of various dates.
There are portions probably of the 12th and 13th centuries, but the bulk
of the building is of the 17th century, and considerable additions,
including the tower and spire, were made in the 19th. There are a
grammar school, a free school and a number of charities. Some trade is
carried on by means of the river, and the town is the centre of a salmon
fishery district.
The original name of Lismore was Maghsciath. A monastery founded here by
St Carthagh in 633 became so celebrated as a seat of learning that it is
said no fewer than twenty churches were erected in its vicinity. The
bishopric, which is said to have originated with this foundation, was
united to that of Waterford in 1363. In the 9th and beginning of the
10th centuries the town was repeatedly plundered by the Danes, and in
978 the town and abbey were burned by the men of Ossory. Henry II.,
after landing at Waterford, received in Lismore castle the allegiance of
the archbishops and bishops of Ireland. In 1518 the manor was granted to
Sir Walter Raleigh, from whom it passed to Sir Richard Boyle, afterwards
earl of Cork. From the earls of Cork it descended by marriage to the
dukes of Devonshire. It was incorporated as a municipal borough in the
time of Charles I., when it also received the privilege of returning
members to parliament, but at the Union in 1800 it was disfranchised and
also ceased to exercise its municipal functions.
LISSA (Serbo-Croation _Vis_; Lat. _Issa_), an island in the Adriatic
sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lissa lies 31 m. S. by W. of
Spalato, and is the outermost island of the Dalmatian Archipelago. Its
greatest length is 10½ m.; its greatest breadth 4½ m. In shape it is a
long, roughly drawn parallelogram, surrounded by a wall of rock, which
incloses the fertile central plain, and is broken, on the north, west
and east by natural harbours. Its culminating point is Mount Hum (1942
ft.), on the south-west. The island, which belongs to the administrative
district of Lesina, is divided between two communes, named after the
chief towns, Lissa (_Vis_), on the north, and Comisa (_Komia_), on the
west. Lissa, the capital, has a strongly fortified harbour. It contains
the palace of the old Venetian counts Gariboldi, the former residence of
the English governor, the monastery of the Minorites and at a little
distance to the west the ruins of the ancient city of Issa. The
islanders gain their livelihood by viticulture, for which Issa was once
famous, by sardine fishing and by the distillation of rosemary oil. Pop.
(1900) 9918, of whom 5261 belonged to the town and commune of Lissa, and
4657 to Comisa.
Issa is said to have been settled by people from Lesbos, the Issa of the
Aegean. The Parians, assisted by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse,
introduced a colony in the 4th century B.C. During the First Punic War
(265-241 B.C.) the Issaeans with their beaked ships helped the Roman
Duilius; and the great republic, having defended their island against
the attacks of Agron of Illyria and his queen Teuta, again found them
serviceable allies in the war with Philip of Macedon (c. 215-211). As
early as 996 the Venetians ruled the island, and, though they retired
for a time before the Ragusans, their power was effectually established
in 1278. Velo Selo, then the chief settlement, was destroyed by
Ferdinand of Naples in 1483 and by the Turks in 1571. The present city
arose shortly afterwards. During the Napoleonic wars, the French held
Lissa until 1811, and during this period the island prospered greatly,
its population increasing from 4000 to 12,000 between 1808 and 1811. In
the latter year the French squadron was defeated by the British (see
below); though in the same year a French fleet, flying British colours,
entered Lissa, and only retired after burning 64 merchantmen.
Thenceforward the island gained a valuable trade in British goods,
which, being excluded from every port under French control, were
smuggled into Dalmatia. In 1812 the British established an
administrative system, under native officials, in Lissa and the
adjoining islands of Curzola and Lagosta. All three were ceded to
Austria in 1815.
_Battles of Lissa._--Two naval actions have been fought in modern times
near this island. The first took place on the 13th of March 1811, and
was fought between a Franco-Venetian squadron, under the command of an
officer named Dubourdieu (of whom little or nothing else is known), and
Captain (afterwards Sir) William Hoste with a small British force. The
Franco-Venetian squadron (Venice was then part of the dominions of the
emperor Napoleon) consisted of six frigates, of which four were of forty
guns, and of five corvettes or small craft. The British squadron was
composed of three frigates, the "Amphion," 32 (Captain William Hoste),
the "Cerberus" (Captain Henry Whitby) and the "Active," 38 (Captain
James A. Gordon). With them was the "Volage," 22 (Captain Phipps
Hornby). The action has a peculiar interest because the French captain
imitated the method of attack employed by Nelson at Trafalgar. He came
down from windward in two lines parallel to one another, and at an angle
to the British squadron. Captain Hoste was not compelled to lie still as
the allies did at Trafalgar. He stood on, and as the two French lines
had to overtake him as he slipped away at an angle to their course, one
of them got in the way of the other. Captain Hoste materially forwarded
the success of his manoeuvre by leading the foremost French ship, the
"Favorite," 40, on to a reef, which was known to himself, but not to the
enemy. Both squadrons then turned, and the Franco-Venetians falling into
great confusion were defeated in spite of the gallant fighting of the
individual ships. Two prizes were taken and Dubourdieu was killed.
The second naval battle of Lissa was fought between the Austrian and
Italian navies on the 20th of July 1866. The island, then in possession
of the Austrians, was attacked by an Italian squadron from Ancona of 12
ironclads and 22 wooden vessels. One of the ironclads was damaged in a
bombardment of the forts, and two were detached on other service, when
an Austrian squadron of 7 ironclads, one unarmoured warship the "Kaiser"
and a number of small craft which had left Fasano under the command of
Admiral Tegethoff came to interrupt their operations. The Italian
admiral Persano arranged his ships in a single long line ahead, which
allowing for the necessary space between them meant that the Italian
formation stretched for more than 2 m. Just before the action began
Admiral Persano shifted his flag from the "Ré d'Italia," the fourth ship
in order from the van, to the ram "Affondatore," the fifth. This made it
necessary for the "Affondatore" and the ships astern to shorten speed,
and, as the leading vessels stood on, a gap was created in the Italian
line. Admiral Tegethoff, who was on the port bow of the Italians,
attacked with his squadron in three divisions formed in obtuse angles.
The Italians opened a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a distance of
1000 yds. The Austrians did not reply till they were at a distance of
300 yds. Under Tegethoff's vigorous leadership, and aided by the
disorder in the Italian line, the Austrians brought on a brief, but to
the Italians destructive, mêlée. They broke through an interval between
the third and fourth Italian ships. The unarmed Austrian ships headed to
attack the unarmed Italians in the rear. At this point an incident
occurred to which an exaggerated importance was given. The Italian
ironclad "Ré di Portogallo" of 5600 tons, in the rear of the line, stood
out to cover the unarmoured squadron by ramming the Austrians. She was
herself rammed by the wooden "Kaiser" (5000 tons), but received little
injury, while the Austrian was much injured. The "Kaiser" and the wooden
vessels then made for the protection of fort San Giorgio on Lissa
unpursued. In the centre, where the action was hottest, the Austrian
flagship "Ferdinand Max" of 5200 tons rammed and sank the "Ré d'Italia."
The Italian "Palestro" of 2000 tons was fired by a shell and blew up. By
midday the Italians were in retreat, and Tegethoff anchored at San
Giorgio. His squadron had suffered very little from the wild fire of the
Italians. The battle of the 20th July was the first fought at sea by
modern ironclad steam fleets, and therefore attracted a great deal of
attention. The sinking of the "Ré d'Italia" and the ramming of the
"Portogallo" by the "Kaiser" gave an immense impulse to the then popular
theory that the ram would be a leading, if not the principal, weapon in
modern sea warfare. This calculation has not been borne out by more
recent experience, and indeed was not justified by the battle itself, in
which the attempts to ram were many and the successes very few. The "Ré
d'Italia" was struck only because she was suddenly and most
injudiciously backed, so that she had no way on when charged by the
"Ferdinand Max."
For the first battle of Lissa see James's _Naval History_, vol. v.
(1837). A clear account of the second battle will be found in Sir S.
Eardley-Wilmot's _Development of Navies_ (London, 1892); see also H.
W. Wilson's _Ironclads in Action_ (London, 1896). (D. H.)
LISSA (Polish _Lézno_), a town in the Prussian province of Posen, 25 m.
N.E. from Glogau by rail and at the junction of lines to Breslau, Posen
and Landsberg. Pop. (1905) 16,021. The chief buildings are the handsome
palace, the medieval town-hall, the four churches and the synagogue. Its
manufactures consist chiefly of shoes, machinery, liqueurs and tobacco;
it also possesses a large steam flour-mill, and carries on a brisk trade
in grain and cattle.
Lissa owes its rise to a number of Moravian Brothers who were banished
from Bohemia by the emperor Ferdinand I. in the 16th century and found a
refuge in a village on the estate of the Polish family of Leszczynski.
Their settlement received municipal rights in 1561. During the Thirty
Years' War the population was reinforced by other refugees, and Lissa
became an important commercial town and the chief seat of the Moravian
Brothers in Poland. Johann Amos Comenius was long rector of the
celebrated Moravian school here. In 1656 and 1707 Lissa was burned down.
See Voigt, _Aus Lissas erster Blütezeit_ (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden,
_Geschichte der Lissaer Schule_ (Lissa, 1905).
LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846), German economist, was born at Reutlingen,
Württemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Unwilling to follow the
occupation of his father, who was a prosperous tanner, he became a clerk
in the public service, and by 1816 had risen to the post of ministerial
under-secretary. In 1817 he was appointed professor of administration
and politics at the university of Tübingen, but the fall of the ministry
in 1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Württemberg chamber,
he was active in advocating administrative reforms. He was eventually
expelled from the chamber and in April 1822 sentenced to ten months'
imprisonment with hard labour in the fortress of Asperg. He escaped to
Alsace, and after visiting France and England returned in 1824 to finish
his sentence, and was released on undertaking to emigrate to America.
There he resided from 1825 to 1832, first engaging in farming and
afterwards in journalism. It was in America that he gathered from a
study of Alexander Hamilton's work the inspiration which made him an
economist of his pronounced "National" views. The discovery of coal on
some land which he had acquired made him financially independent, and he
became United States consul at Leipzig in 1832. He strongly advocated
the extension of the railway system in Germany, and the establishment of
the _Zollverein_ was due largely to his enthusiasm and ardour. His
latter days were darkened by many misfortunes; he lost much of his
American property in a financial crisis, ill-health also overtook him,
and he brought his life to an end by his own hand on the 30th of
November 1846.
List holds historically one of the highest places in economic thought as
applied to practical objects. His principal work is entitled _Das
Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie_ (1841). Though his practical
conclusions were different from those of Adam Müller (1779-1829), he was
largely influenced not only by Hamilton but also by the general mode of
thinking of that writer, and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam
Smith. It was particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the
modern economical system that he protested, and against the absolute
doctrine of free trade, which was in harmony with that principle. He
gave prominence to the national idea, and insisted on the special
requirements of each nation according to its circumstances and
especially to the degree of its development.
He refused to Smith's system the title of the industrial, which he
thought more appropriate to the mercantile system, and designated the
former as "the exchange-value system." He denied the parallelism
asserted by Smith between the economic conduct proper to an individual
and to a nation, and held that the immediate private interest of the
separate members of the community would not lead to the highest good
of the whole. That the nation was an existence, standing between the
individual and humanity, and formed into a unity by its language,
manners, historical development, culture and constitution. That this
unity must be the first condition of the security, wellbeing, progress
and civilization of the individual; and private economic interests,
like all others, must be subordinated to the maintenance, completion
and strengthening of the nationality. The nation having a continuous
life, its true wealth must consist--and this is List's fundamental
doctrine--not in the quantity of exchange-values which it possesses,
but in the full and many-sided development of its productive powers.
Its economic education should be more important than the immediate
production of values, and it might be right that one generation should
sacrifice its gain and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of
the future. In the sound and normal condition of a nation which has
attained economic maturity, the three productive powers of
agriculture, manufactures and commerce should be alike developed. But
the two latter factors are superior in importance, as exercising a
more effective and fruitful influence on the whole culture of the
nation, as well as on its independence. Navigation, railways, all
higher technical arts, connect themselves specially with these
factors; whilst in a purely agricultural state there is a tendency to
stagnation. But for the growth of the higher forms of industry all
countries are not adapted--only those of the temperate zones, whilst
the torrid regions have a natural monopoly in the production of
certain raw materials; and thus between these two groups of countries
a division of labour and confederation of powers spontaneously takes
place.
List then goes on to explain his theory of the stages of economic
development through which the nations of the temperate zone, which are
furnished with all the necessary conditions, naturally pass, in
advancing to their normal economic state. These are (1) pastoral life,
(2) agriculture, (3) agriculture united with manufactures; whilst in
the final stage agriculture, manufactures and commerce are combined.
The economic task of the state is to bring into existence through
legislative and administrative action the conditions required for the
progress of the nation through these stages. Out of this view arises
List's scheme of industrial politics. Every nation, according to him,
should begin with free trade, stimulating and improving its
agriculture by intercourse with richer and more cultivated nations,
importing foreign manufactures and exporting raw products. When it is
economically so far advanced that it can manufacture for itself, then
a system of protection should be employed to allow the home industries
to develop themselves fully, and save them from being overpowered in
their earlier efforts by the competition of more matured foreign
industries in the home market. When the national industries have grown
strong enough no longer to dread this competition, then the highest
stage of progress has been reached; free trade should again become the
rule, and the nation be thus thoroughly incorporated with the
universal industrial union. What a nation loses for a time in exchange
values during the protective period she much more than gains in the
long run in productive power--the temporary expenditure being strictly
analogous, when we place ourselves at the point of view of the life of
the nation, to the cost of the industrial education of the
individual. The practical conclusion which List drew for Germany was
that she needed for her economic progress an extended and conveniently
bounded territory reaching to the sea-coast both on north and south,
and a vigorous expansion of manufactures and commerce, and that the
way to the latter lay through judicious protective legislation with a
customs union comprising all German lands, and a German marine with a
Navigation Act. The national German spirit, striving after
independence and power through union, and the national industry,
awaking from its lethargy and eager to recover lost ground, were
favourable to the success of List's book, and it produced a great
sensation. He ably represented the tendencies and demands of his time
in his own country; his work had the effect of fixing the attention,
not merely of the speculative and official classes, but of practical
men generally, on questions of political economy; and his ideas were
undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern Germany, as applied by
the practical genius of Bismarck.
See biographies of List by Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1878) and Jentsch
(Berlin, 1901), also _Fr. List, ein Vorläufer und ein Opfer für das
Vaterland_ (Anon., 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1877); M. E. Hirst's _Life of
Friedrich List_ (London, 1909) contains a bibliography and a reprint
of List's _Outlines of American Political Economy_ (1827).