Ratong river below Mon Lepcha -- Ferns -- Vegetation of Yoksun,
tropical -- _Araliaceae,_ fodder for cattle -- Rice-paper plant --
Geology of Yoksun -- Lake -- Old temples -- Funereal cypresses --
Gigantic chait -- Altars -- Songboom -- Weather -- Catsuperri --
Velocity of Ratong -- Worship at Catsuperri lake -- Scenery -- Willow
-- Lamas and ecclesiastical establishments of Sikkim -- Tengling --
Changachelling temples and monks -- Portrait of myself on walls --
Block of mica-schist -- Lingcham Kajee asks for spectacles --
Hee-hill -- Arrive at Little Rungeet -- At Dorjiling -- Its deserted
and wintry appearance.
On the following day we marched to Yoksun: the weather was fair,
though it was evidently snowing on the mountains above. I halted at
the Ratong river, at the foot of Mon Lepcha, where I found its
elevation to be 7,150 feet; its edges were frozen, and the
temperature of the water 36 degrees; it is here a furious torrent
flowing between gneiss rocks which dip south-south-east, and is
flanked by flat-topped beds of boulders, gravel and sand, twelve to
fourteen feet thick. Its vegetation resembles that of Dorjiling, but
is more alpine, owing no doubt to the proximity of Kinchinjunga.
The magnificent _Rhododendron argenteum_ was growing on its banks.
On the other hand, I was surprised to see a beautiful fern (a
_Trichomanes,_ very like the Irish one) which is not found at
Dorjiling. The same day, at about the same elevation, I gathered
sixty species of fern, many of very tropical forms.* [They consisted
of the above-mentioned _Trichomanes,_ three _Hymenophyllae, Vittaria,
Pleopeltis,_ and _Marattia,_ together with several _Selaginellas._]
No doubt the range of such genera is extended in proportion to the
extreme damp and equable climate, here, as about Dorjiling.
Tree-ferns are however absent, and neither plantains, epiphytical
_Orchideae,_ nor palms, are so abundant, or ascend so high as on the
outer ranges. About Yoksun itself, which occupies a very warm
sheltered flat, many tropical genera occur, such as tall bamboos of
two kinds, grasses allied to the sugar-cane, scarlet _Erythrina,_ and
various _Araliaceae,_ amongst which was one species whose pith was of
so curious a structure, that I had no hesitation in considering the
then unknown Chinese substance called rice-paper to belong to a
closely allied plant.* [The Chinese rice-paper has long been known to
be cut from cylinders of pith which has always a central hollow
chamber, divided into compartments by septa or excessively thin
plates. It is only within the last few months that my supposition has
been confirmed, by my father's receiving from China, after many years
of correspondence, specimens of the rice-paper plant itself, which
very closely resemble, in botanical characters, as well as in outward
appearance of size and habit, the Sikkim plant.]
The natives collect the leaves of many Aralias as fodder for cattle,
for which purpose they are of the greatest service in a country where
grass for pasture is so scarce; this is the more remarkable, since
they belong to the natural family of ivy, which is usually poisonous;
the use of this food, however, gives a peculiar taste to the butter.
In other parts of Sikkim, fig-leaves are used for the same purpose,
and branches of a bird-cherry (_Prunus_), a plant also of a very
poisonous family, abounding in prussic acid.
We were received with great kindness by the villagers of Yoksun, who
had awaited our return with some anxiety, and on hearing of our
approach had collected large supplies of food; amongst other things
were tares (called by the Lepchas "Kullai"), yams ("Book"), and a
bread made by bruising together damp maize and rice into tough thin
cakes ("Ketch-ung tapha"). The Lamas of Doobdi were especially civil,
having a favour to ask, which was that I would intercede with
Dr. Campbell to procure the permission of the Nepalese to reopen the
Kanglanamo pass, and thus give some occupation to their herds of
yaks, which were now wandering idly about.
I botanized for two days on the Yoksun flat, searching for evidence
of lacustrine strata or moraines, being more than ever convinced by
the views I had obtained of this place from Mon Lepcha, that its
uniformity of surface was due to water action. It is certainly the
most level area of its size that I know of in Sikkim, though situated
in one of the deepest valleys, and surrounded on almost all sides by
very steep mountains; and it is far above the flat gravel terraces of
the present river-beds. I searched the surface of the flat for gravel
beds in vain, for though it abounds in depressions that must have
formerly been lake-beds, and are now marshes in the rainy season,
these were all floored with clay. Along the western edge, where the
descent is very steep for 1800 feet to the Ratong, I found no traces
of stratified deposits, though the spurs which projected from it were
often flattened at top. The only existing lake has sloping clay
banks, covered with spongy vegetable mould; it has no permanent
affluent or outlet, its present drainage being subterranean, or more
probably by evaporation; but there is an old water-channel several
feet above its level. It is eighty to a hundred yards across, and
nearly circular; its depth three or four feet, increased to fifteen
or sixteen in the rains; like all similar pools in Sikkim, it
contains little or no animal life at this season, and I searched in
vain for shells, insects, or frogs. All around were great blocks of
gneiss, some fully twelve feet square.
The situation of this lake is very romantic, buried in a tall forest
of oaks and laurels, and fringed by wild camellia shrubs; the latter
are not the leafy, deep green, large-blossomed plants of our
greenhouses, but twiggy bushes with small scattered leaves, and
little yellowish flowers like those of the tea-plant. The massive
walls of a ruined temple rise close to the water, which looks like
the still moat of a castle: beside it are some grand old funereal
cypresses, with ragged scattered branches below, where they struggle
for light in the dense forest, but raising their heads aloft as
bright green pyramids.
Illustration--ALTAR AND SONG-BOOM AT YOKSUN.
After some difficulty I found the remains of a broad path that
divided into two; one of them led to a second ruined temple, fully a
mile off, and the other I followed to a grove, in which was a
gigantic chait; it was a beautiful lane throughout, bordered with
bamboo, brambles, gay-flowered _Melastomaceae_ like hedge-roses, and
scarlet _Erythrina_: there were many old mendongs and chaits on the
way, which I was always careful to leave on the right hand in
passing, such being the rule among Boodhists, the same which ordains
that the praying-cylinder or "Mani" be made to revolve in a direction
against the sun's motion.
This great chait is the largest in Sikkim; it is called "Nirbogong,"
and appears to be fully forty feet high; facing it is a stone altar
about fifteen feet long and four broad, and behind this again is a
very curious erection called "Song-boom," used for burning juniper as
incense; it resembles a small smelting furnace, and consists of an
elongated conical stone building eight feet high, raised on a single
block; it is hollow, and divided into three stories or chambers; in
the lower of which is a door, by which fuel is placed inside, and the
smoke ascending through holes in the upper slabs, escapes by lateral
openings from the top compartment. These structures are said to be
common in Tibet, but I saw no other in Sikkim.
During my stay at Yoksun, the weather was very cold, especially at
night, considering the elevation (5,600 feet): the mean temperature
was 39 degrees, the extremes being 19.2 degrees and 60 degrees; and
even at 8 a.m. the thermometer, laid on the frosty grass, stood at 20
degrees; temperatures which are rare at Dorjiling, 1500 feet higher.
I could not but regard with surprise such half tropical genera as
perennial-leaved vines, _Saccharum, Erythrina,_ large bamboos,
_Osbeckia_ and cultivated millet, resisting such low temperatures.*
[This is no doubt due to the temperature of the soil being always
high: I did not sink a thermometer at Yoksun, but from observations
taken at similar elevations, the temperature of the earth, at three
feet depth, may be assumed to be 55 degrees.]
On the 14th January I left Yoksun for the lake and temples of
Catsuperri, the former of which is by much the largest in Sikkim.
After a steep descent of 1800 feet, we reached the Ratong, where its
bed is only 3,790 feet above the sea; it is here a turbulent stream,
twelve yards across, with the usual features of gravel terraces, huge
boulders of gneiss and some of the same rock _in situ,_ striking
north-east. Some idea of its velocity may be formed from the descent
it makes from the foot of Mon Lepcha, where the elevation of its bed
was 7,150 feet, giving a fall of 3,350 feet in only ten miles.
Hence I ascended a very steep spur, through tropical vegetation, now
become so familiar to me that I used to count the number of species
belonging to the different large natural orders, as I went along.
I gathered only thirty-five ferns at these low elevations, in the
same space as produces from fifty to sixty in the more equable and
humid regions of 6000 feet; grasses on the other hand were much more
numerous. The view of the flat of Yoksun from Lungschung village,
opposite to it, and on about the same level, is curious; as is that
of the hamlet of Lathiang on the same side, which I have before
noticed as being placed on a very singular flat shelf above the
Ratong, and is overhung by rocks.
Ascending very steeply for several thousand feet, we reached a hollow
on the Catsuperri spur, beyond which the lake lies buried in a deep
forest. A Lama from the adjacent temple accompanied us, and I found
my people affecting great solemnity as they approached its sacred
bounds; they incessantly muttered "Om mani," etc., kotowed to trees
and stones, and hung bits of rag on the bushes. A pretence of
opposing our progress was made by the priest, who of course wanted
money; this I did not appear to notice, and after a steep descent, we
were soon on the shores of what is, for Sikkim, a grand sheet of
water, (6,040 feet above the sea), without any apparent outlet: it
may be from three to five hundred yards across in the rains, but was
much less now, and was bordered by a broad marsh of bog moss
(_Sphagnum_), in which were abundance of _Azolla,_ colouring the
waters red, and sedges. Along the banks were bushes of _Rhododendron
barbatum_ and _Berberis insignis,_* [This magnificent new species has
not been introduced into England; it forms a large bush, with
deep-green leaves seven inches long, and bunches of yellow flowers.]
but the mass of the vegetation was similar to that of Dorjiling.
We crossed the marsh to the edge of the lake by a rude paved way of
decaying logs, through which we often plunged up to our knees.
The Lama had come provided with a piece of bark, shaped like a boat,
some juniper incense and a match-box, with which he made a fire, and
put it in the boat, which he then launched on the lake as a votive
offering to the presiding deity. It was a dead calm, but the impetus
he gave to the bark shot it far across the lake, whose surface was
soon covered with a thick cloud of white smoke. Taking a rupee from
me, the priest then waved his arm aloft, and pretended to throw the
money into the water, singing snatches of prayers in Tibetan, and at
times shrieking at the top of his voice to the Dryad who claims these
woods and waters as his own. There was neither bird, beast, nor
insect to be seen, and the scenery was as impressive to me, as the
effect of the simple service was upon my people, who prayed with
redoubled fervour, and hung more rags on the bushes.
I need hardly say that this invocation of the gods of the woods and
waters forms no part of Lama worship; but the Lepchas are but half
Boodhists; in their hearts they dread the demons of the grove, the
lake, the snowy mountain and the torrent, and the crafty Lama takes
advantage of this, modifies his practices to suit their requirements,
and is content with the formal recognition of the spiritual supremacy
of the church. This is most remarkably shown in their acknowledgment
of the day on which offerings had been made from time immemorial by
the pagan Lepchas to the genius of Kinchinjunga, by holding it as a
festival of the church throughout Sikkim.* [On that occasion an
invocation to the mountain is chanted by priests and people in
chorus. Like the Lama's address to the genius of Catsuperri lake, its
meaning, if it ever had any, is not now apparent. It runs thus:--
"Kanchin-jinga, Pemi Kadup
Gnetche Tangla, Dursha tember
Zu jinga Pemsum Serkiem
Dischze Kubra Kanchin tong."
This was written for me by Dr. Campbell, who, like myself, has vainly
sought its solution; it is probably a mixture of Tibetan and Lepcha,
both as much corrupted as the celebrated "Om mani padmi boom," which
is universally pronounced by Lepchas "Menny pemmy boom." This reminds
me that I never got a solution of this sentence from a Lama, of
whatever rank or learning; and it was only after incessant inquiry,
during a residence of many years in Nepal, that Mr. Hodgson at last
procured the interpretation, or rather paraphrase: "Hail to him
(Sakya) of the lotus and the jewel," which is very much the same as
M. Klaproth and other authorities have given.]
The two Catsuperri temples occupy a spur 445 feet above the lake, and
6,485 feet above the sea; they are poor, and only remarkable for a
miserable weeping-willow tree planted near them, said to have been
brought from Lhassa. The monks were very civil to me, and offered
amongst other things a present of excellent honey. One was an
intelligent man, and gave me much information: he told me that there
were upwards of twenty religious establishments in Sikkim, containing
more than 1000 priests. These have various claims upon the devout:
thus, Tassiding, Doobdi, Changachelling, and Pemiongchi, are
celebrated for their antiquity, and the latter also for being the
residence of the head Lama; Catsuperri for its lake; Raklang for its
size, etc. All are under one spiritual head, who is the Tupgain Lama,
or eldest son of the Rajah; and who resides at the Phadong convent,
near Tumloong: the Lama of Pemiongchi is, however, the most highly
respected, on account of his age, position, and sanctity. Advancement
in the hierarchy is dependent chiefly on interest, but indirectly on
works also; pilgrimages to Lhassa and Teshoo Loombo are the highest
of these, and it is clearly the interest of the supreme pontiffs of
those ecclesiastical capitals to encourage such, and to intimate to
the Sikkim authorities, the claims those who perform them have for
preferment. Dispensations for petty offences are granted to Lamas of
low degree and monks, by those of higher station, but crimes against
the church are invariably referred to Tibet, and decided there.
The election to the Sikkim Lamaseries is generally conducted on the
principle of self-government, but Pemiongchi and some others are
often served by Lamas appointed from Tibet, or ordained there, at
some of the great convents. I never heard of an instance of any
Sikkim Lama arriving at such sanctity as to be considered immortal,
and to reappear after death in another individual, nor is there any
election of infants. All are of the Ningma, Dookpa, or Shammar sect,
and are distinguished by their red mitres; they were once dominant
throughout Tibet, but after many wars* [The following account of the
early war between the red and the yellow-mitred Lamas was given me by
Tchebu Lama:--For twenty-five generations the red-cape (Dookpa or
Ningma) prevailed in Tibet, when they split into two sects, who
contended for supreme power; the Lama of Phado, who headed the
dissenters, and adopted a yellow mitre, being favoured by the Emperor
of China, to whom reference was made. A persecution of the red Lamas
followed, who were caught by the yellow-caps, and their mitres
plunged into dyeing vats kept always ready at the Lamaseries.
The Dookpa, however, still held Teshoo Loombo, and applied to the
Sokpo (North Tibet) Lamas for aid, who bringing horses and camels,
easily prevailed over the Gelookpa or yellow sect, but afterwards
treacherously went over to them, and joined them in an attack on
Teshoo Loombo, which was plundered and occupied by the Gelookpas.
The Dookpa thereafter took refuge in Sikkim and Bhotan, whence the
Bhotan Rajah became their spiritual chief under the name of Dhurma
Rajah, and is now the representative of that creed. Goorucknath is
still the Dookpa's favourite spiritual deity of the older creed,
which is, however, no longer in the ascendant. The Dalai Lama of
Teshoo Loombo is a Gelookpa, as is the Rimbochay Lama, and the Potala
Lama of Lhassa, according to Tchebu Lama, but Turner ("Travels in
Tibet," p. 315) says the contrary; the Gelookpa consider Sakya Thoba
(or Tsongkaba) alias Mahamouni, as their great avatar.] with the
yellow-caps, they were driven from that country, and took refuge
principally in the Himalaya. The Bhotan or Dhurma* [Bhotan is
generally known as the Dhurma country. See note, Chapter V.] Rajah
became the spiritual head of this sect, and, as is well known,
disputes the temporal government also of his country with the Deva
Rajah, who is the hereditary temporal monarch, and never claims
spiritual jurisdiction. I am indebted to Dr. Campbell for a copy and
translation of the Dhurma Rajah's great seal, containing the
attributes of his spirituality, a copy of which I have appended to
the end of this chapter.
The internal organisation of the different monastic establishments is
very simple. The head or Teshoo Lama* [I have been informed by
letters from Dr. Campbell that the Pemiongchi Lama is about to remove
the religious capital of Sikkim to Dorjiling, and build there a grand
temple and monastery; this will be attractive to visitors, and afford
the means of extending our knowledge of East Tibet.] rules supreme;
then come the monks and various orders of priests, and then those who
are candidates for orders, and dependents, both lay-brothers and
slaves: there are a few nunneries in Sikkim, and the nuns are all
relatives or connections of the Rajah, his sister is amongst them.
During the greater part of the year, all lead a more or less idle
life; the dependents being the most occupied in carrying wood and
water, cultivating the land, etc.
The lay-brothers are often skilful workmen, and are sometimes lent or
hired out as labourers, especially as housebuilders and decorators.
No tax of any kind is levied on the church, which is frequently very
rich in land, flocks, and herds, and in contributions from the
people: land is sometimes granted by the Rajah, but is oftener
purchased by the priests, or willed, or given by the proprietor.
The services, to which I have already alluded, are very irregularly
performed; in most temples only on festival days, which correspond to
the Tibetan ones so admirably described in MM. Huc and Gabet's
narrative; in a few, however, service is performed daily, especially
in such as stand near frequented roads, and hence reap the
richest harvest.
Like all the natives of Tibet and Sikkim, the priests are intolerably
filthy; in some cases so far carrying out their doctrines as not even
to kill the vermin with which they swarm. All are nominally bound to
chastity, but exemptions in favour of Lamas of wealth, rank, or
power, are granted by the supreme pontiffs, both in Tibet and Sikkim.
I constantly found swarms of children about the Lamaseries, who were
invariably called nephews and nieces.
Descending from the Catsuperri temples, I encamped at the village of
Tengling (elevation 5,257 feet), where I was waited upon by a bevy of
forty women, Lepchas and Sikkim Bhoteeas, accompanied by their
children, and bringing presents of fowls, rice and vegetables, and
apologising for the absence of their male relatives, who were gone to
carry tribute to the Rajah. Thence I marched to Changachelling, first
descending to the Tengling river, which divides the Catsuperri from
the Molli ridge, and which I crossed.
Tree-ferns here advance further north than in any other part of
Sikkim. I did not visit the Molli temples, but crossed the spur of
that name, to the Rungbee river, whose bed is 3,300 feet above the
sea; thence I ascended upwards of 3,500 feet to the Changachelling
temples, passing Tchongpong village. The ridge on which both
Pemiongchi and Changachelling are built, is excessively narrow at
top; it is traversed by a "via Sacra," connecting these two
establishments; this is a pretty wooded walk, passing mendongs and
chaits hoary with lichens and mosses; to the north the snows of
Kinchinjunga are seen glimmering between the trunks of oaks, laurels,
and rhododendrons, while to the south the Sinchul and Dorjiling spurs
shut out the view of the plains of India.
Changachelling temples and chaits crown a beautiful rocky eminence on
the ridge, their roofs, cones and spires peeping through groves of
bamboo, rhododendrons, and arbutus; the ascent is by broad flights of
steps cut in the mica-slate rocks, up which shaven and girdled monks,
with rosaries and long red gowns, were dragging loads of bamboo
stems, that produced a curious rattling noise. At the summit there is
a fine temple, with the ruins of several others, and of many houses:
the greater part of the principal temple, which is two-storied and
divided into several compartments, is occupied by families. The monks
were busy repairing the part devoted to worship, which consists of a
large chamber and vestibule of the usual form: the outside walls are
daubed red, with a pigment of burnt felspathic clay, which is dug
hard by. Some were painting the vestibule with colours brought from
Lhassa, where they had been trained to the art. Amongst other figures
was one playing on a guitar, a very common symbol in the vestibules
of Sikkim temples: I also saw an angel playing on the flute, and a
snake-king offering fruit to a figure in the water, who was grasping
a serpent. Amongst the figures I was struck by that of an Englishman,
whom, to my amusement, and the limner's great delight, I recognised
as myself. I was depicted in a flowered silk coat instead of a tartan
shooting jacket, my shoes were turned up at the toes, and I had on
spectacles and a tartar cap, and was writing notes in a book. On one
side a snake-king was politely handing me fruit, and on the other a
horrible demon was writhing.
A crowd had collected to see whether I should recognise myself, and
when I did so, the merriment was extreme. They begged me to send them
a supply of vermilion, goldleaf, and brushes; our so called
camel's-hair pencils being much superior to theirs, which are made of
marmot's hair.
I was then conducted to a house, where I found salted and buttered
tea and Murwa beer smoking in hospitable preparation. As usual, the
house was of wood, and the inhabited apartments above the low
basement story were approached by an outside ladder, like a Swiss
cottage: within were two rooms floored with earth; the inner was
small, and opened on a verandah that faced Kinchinjunga, whence the
keen wind whistled through the apartment.
The head Lama, my jolly fat friend of the 20th of December, came to
breakfast with me, followed by several children, nephews and nieces
he said; but they were uncommonly like him for such a distant
relationship, and he seemed extremely fond of them, and much pleased
when I stuffed them with sugar.
Changachelling hill is remarkable for having on its summit an immense
tabular mass of chlorite slate, resting apparently horizontally on
variously inclined rocks of the same: it is quite flat-topped, ten to
twelve yards each way, and the sides are squared by art; the country
people attribute its presence here to a miracle.
The view of the Kinchin range from this spot being one of the finest
in Sikkim, and the place itself being visible from Dorjiling, I took
a very careful series of bearings, which, with those obtained at
Pemiongchi, were of the utmost use in improving my map, which was
gradually progressing. To my disappointment I found that neither
priest nor people knew the name of a single snowy mountain. I also
asked in vain for some interpretation of the lines I have quoted at
earlier; they said they were Lepcha worship, and that they only used
them for the gratification of the people, on the day of the great
festival of Kinchinjunga.
Hence I descended to the Kulhait river, on my route back to
Dorjiling, visiting my very hospitable tippling friend, the Kajee of
Lingcham, on the way down: he humbly begged me to get him a pair of
spectacles, for no other object than to look wise, as he had the eyes
of a hawk; he told me that mine drew down universal respect in
Sikkim, and that I had been drawn with them on, in the temple at
Changachelling; and that a pair would not only wonderfully become
him, but afford him the most pleasing recollections of myself.
Happily I had the means of gratifying him, and have since been told
that he wears them on state occasions.
I encamped by the river, 3,160 feet above the sea, amongst figs and
plantains, on a broad terrace of pebbles, boulders and sand, ten feet
above the stream; the rocks in the latter were covered with a red
conferva. The sand on the banks was disposed in layers, alternately
white and red, the white being quartz, and the red pulverised
garnets. The arranging of these sand-bands by the water must be due
to the different specific gravities of the garnet and quartz; the
former being lighter, is lifted by the current on to the surface of
the quartz, and left there when the waters retire.
On the next day I ascended Hee hill, crossed it at an elevation of
7,290 feet, and camped on the opposite side at 6,680 feet, in a dense
forest. The next march was still southward to the little Rungeet
guard-house, below Dorjiling spur, which I reached after a fatiguing
walk amidst torrents of rain. The banks of the little Rungeet river,
which is only 1,670 feet above the sea, are very flat and low, with
broad terraces of pebbles and shingle, upon which are huge gneiss
boulders, fully 200 feet above the stream.
On the 19th of January, I ascended the Tukvor spur to Dorjiling, and
received a most hospitable welcome from my friend Mr. Muller, now
almost the only European inhabitant of the place; Mr. Hodgson having
gone down on a shooting excursion in the Terai, and Dr. Campbell
being on duty on the Bhotan frontier. The place looked what it really
was--wholly deserted. The rain I had experienced in the valley, had
here been snow, and the appearance of the broad snowed patches clear
of trees, and of the many houses without smoke or inhabitant, and the
tall scattered trees with black bark and all but naked branches, was
dismal in the extreme. The effect was heightened by an occasional
Hindoo, who flitted here and there along the road, crouching and
shivering, with white cotton garments and bare legs.
The delight of my Lepcha attendants at finding themselves safely at
home again, knew no bounds; and their parents waited on me with
presents, and other tokens of their goodwill and gratitude. I had no
lack of volunteers for a similar excursion in the following season,
though with their usual fickleness, more than half failed me, long
before the time arrived for putting their zeal to the proof.
------------
I am indebted to Dr. Campbell for the accompanying impression and
description of the seal of the Dhurma Rajah, or sovereign pontiff of
Bhotan, and spiritual head of the whole sect of the Dookpa, or
red-mitred Lama Boodhists. The translations were made by Aden Tchehu
Lama, who accompanied us into Sikkim in 1849, and I believe they are
quite correct. The Tibetan characters run from left to right.
The seal of the Dhurma Rajah is divided into a centre portion and
sixteen rays. In the centre is the word Dookyin, which means "The
Dookpa Creed"; around the "Dookyin" are sixteen similar letters,
meaning "I," or "I am." The sixteen radial compartments contain his
titles and attributes, thus, commencing from the centre erect one,
and passing round from left to right:--
1. I am the Spiritual and Temporal Chief of the Realm.
2. The Defender of the Faith.
3. Equal to Saruswati in learning.
4. Chief of all the Boodhs.
5. Head expounder of the Shasters.
6. Caster out of devils.
7. The most learned in the Holy Laws.
8. An Avatar of God (or, by God's will).
9. Absolver of sins.
10. I am above all the Lamas of the Dookpa Creed.
11. I am of the best of all Religions--the Dookpa.
12. The punisher of unbelievers.
18. Unequalled in expounding the Shasters.
14. Unequalled in holiness and wisdom.
15. The head (or fountain) of all Religious Knowledge.
16. The Enemy of all false Avatars.