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HIMALAYAN JOURNALS
or
NOTES OF A NATURALIST
IN BENGAL, THE SIKKIM AND NEPAL HIMALAYAS,
THE KHASIA MOUNTAINS, etc.
JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S.
Volume I
First published 1854
To CHARLES DARWIN, F.R.S., etc.
These volumes are dedicated,
by his affectionate friend,
J.D. HOOKER
Kew, Jan. 12th, 1854
-------------------------
PREFACE
HAVING accompanied Sir James Boss on his voyage of discovery to the
Antarctic regions, where botany was my chief pursuit, on my return I
earnestly desired to add to my acquaintance with the natural history
of the temperate zones, more knowledge of that of the tropics than I
bad hitherto had the opportunity of acquiring. My choice lay between
India and the Andes, and I decided upon the former, being principally
influenced by Dr. Falconer, who promised me every assistance which
his position as Superintendent of the H.E.I.C. Botanic Garden at
Calcutta, would enable hum to give. He also drew my attention to the
fact that we were ignorant even of the geography of the central and
eastern parts of these mountains, while all to the north was involved
in a mystery equally attractive to the traveller and the naturalist.
On hearing of the kind interest taken by Baron Humboldt in my
proposed travels, and at the request of my father (Sir William
Hooker), the Earl of Carlisle (then Chief Commissioner of Woods and
Forests) undertook to represent to Her Majesty's Government the
expediency of securing my collections for the Royal Gardens at Kew;
and owing to the generous exertions of that nobleman, and of the late
Earl of Auckland (then First Lord of the Admiralty), my journey
assumed the character of a Government mission, £400 per annum being
granted by the Treasury for two years.
I did not contemplate proceeding beyond the Himalaya and Tibet, when
Lord Auckland desired that I should afterwards visit Borneo, for the
purpose of reporting on the capabilities of Labuan, with reference to
the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo, spices,
guttapercha, etc. To this end a commission in the navy (to which
service I was already attached) was given me, such instructions were
drawn up as might facilitate my movements in the East, and a suitable
sum of money was placed at my disposal.
Soon after leaving England, my plans became, from various causes,
altered. The Earl of Auckland* [It is with a melancholy satisfaction
that I here record the intentions of that enlightened nobleman.
The idea of turning to public account what was intended as a
scientific voyage, occurred to his lordship when considering my
application for official leave to proceed to India; and from the hour
of my accepting the Borneo commission with which he honoured me, he
displayed the most active zeal in promoting its fulfilment.
He communicated to me his views as to the direction in which I should
pursue my researches, furnished me with official and other
information, and provided me with introductions of the most essential
use.] was dead; the interest in Borneo had in a great measure
subsided; H.M.S. "Maeander," to which I had been attached for service
in Labuan, had left the Archipelago; reports of the unhealthy nature
of the coast had excited alarm; and the results of my researches in
the Himalaya had proved of more interest and advantage than had been
anticipated. It was hence thought expedient to cancel the Borneo
appointment, and to prolong my services for a third year in India;
for which purpose a grant of £300 (originally intended for defraying
the expense of collecting only, in Borneo) was transferred as salary
for the additional year to be spent in the Himalaya.
The portion of the Himalaya best worth exploring, was selected for me
both by Lord Auckland and Dr. Falconer, who independently recommended
Sikkim, as being ground untrodden by traveller or naturalist.
Its ruler was, moreover, all but a dependant of the British
government, and it was supposed, would therefore be glad to
facilitate my researches.
No part of the snowy Himalaya eastward of the northwest extremity of
the British possessions had been visited since Turner's embassy to
Tibet in 1789; and hence it was highly important to explore
scientifically a part of the chain which, from its central position,
might be presumed to be typical of the whole range. The possibility
of visiting Tibet, and of ascertaining particulars respecting the
great mountain Chumulari,* [My earliest recollections in reading are
of "Turner's Travels in Tibet," and of "Cook's Voyages." The account
of Lama worship and of Chumulari in the one, and of Kerguelen's Land
in the other, always took a strong hold on my fancy. It is,
therefore, singular that Kerguelen's Land should have been the first
strange country I ever visited (now fourteen years ago), and that in
the first King's ship which has touched there since Cook's voyage,
and whilst following the track of that illustrious navigator in south
polar discovery. At a later period I have been nearly the first
European who has approached Chumulari since Turner's embassy.] which
was only known from Turner's account, were additional inducements to
a student of physical geography; but it was not then known that
Kinchinjunga, the loftiest known mountain on the globe, was situated
on my route, and formed a principal feature in the physical geography
of Sikkim.
My passage to Egypt was provided by the Admiralty in H.M.
steam-vessel "Sidon," destined to convey the Marquis of Dalhousie,
Governor-General of India, thus far on his way. On his arrival in
Egypt, his Lordship did me the honour of desiring me to consider
myself in the position of one of his suite, for the remainder of the
voyage, which was performed in the "Moozuffer," a steam frigate
belonging to the Indian Navy. My obligations to this nobleman had
commenced before leaving England, by his promising me every facility
he could command; and he thus took the earliest opportunity of
affording it, by giving me such a position near himself as ensured me
the best reception everywhere; no other introduction being needed.
His Lordship procured my admission into Sikkim, and honoured me
throughout my travels with the kindest encouragement.
During the passage out, some days were spent in Egypt, at Aden,
Ceylon, and Madras. I have not thought it necessary to give here the
observations made in those well-known countries; they are detailed in
a series of letters published in the "London Journal of Botany," as
written for my private friends. Arriving at Calcutta in January, I
passed the remainder of the cold season in making myself acquainted
with the vegetation of the plains and hills of Western Bengal, south
of the Ganges, by a journey across the mountains of Birbhoom and
Behar to the Soane valley, and thence over the Vindhya range to the
Ganges, at Mirzapore, whence I descended that stream to Bhaugulpore;
and leaving my boat, struck north to the Sikkim Himalaya. This
excursion is detailed in the "London Journal of Botany," and the
Asiatic Society of Bengal honoured me by printing the meteorological
observations made during its progress.
During the two years' residence in Sikkim which succeeded, I was laid
under obligations of no ordinary nature to Brian H. Hodgson, Esq.,
B.C.S., for many years Resident at the Nepal Court; whose guest I
became for several months. Mr. Hodgson's high position as a man of
science requires no mention here; but the difficulties he overcame,
and the sacrifices he made, in attaining that position, are known to
few. He entered the wilds of Nepal when very young, and in
indifferent health; and finding time to spare, cast about for the
best method of employing it: he had no one to recommend or direct a
pursuit, no example to follow, no rival to equal or surpass; he had
never been acquainted with a scientific man, and knew nothing of
science except the name. The natural history of men and animals, in
its most comprehensive sense, attracted his attention; he sent to
Europe for books, and commenced the study of ethnology and zoology.
His labours have now extended over upwards of twenty-five years'
residence in the Himalaya. During this period he has seldom had a
staff of less than from ten to twenty persons (often many more), of
various tongues and races, employed as translators and collectors,
artists, shooters, and stuffers. By unceasing exertions and a
princely liberality, Mr. Hodgson has unveiled the mysteries of the
Boodhist religion, chronicled the affinities, languages, customs, and
faiths of the Himalayan tribes; and completed a natural history of
the animals and birds of these regions. His collections of specimens
are immense, and are illustrated by drawings and descriptions taken
from life, with remarks on the anatomy,* [In this department he
availed himself of the services of Dr. Campbell, who was also
attached to the Residency at Nepal, as surgeon and assistant
political agent.] habits, and localities of the animals themselves.
Twenty volumes of the Journals, and the Museum of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, teem with the proofs of his indefatigable zeal; and
throughout the cabinets of the bird and quadruped departments of our
national museum, Mr. Hodgson's name stands pre-eminent. A seat in the
Institute of France, and the cross of the Legion of Honour, prove the
estimation in which his Boodhist studies are held on the continent of
Europe. To be welcomed to the Himalaya by such a person, and to be
allowed the most unreserved intercourse, and the advantage of all his
information and library, exercised a material influence on the
progress I made in my studies, and on my travels. When I add that
many of the subjects treated of in these volumes were discussed
between us, it will be evident that it is impossible for me to divest
much of the information thus insensibly obtained, of the appearance
of being the fruits of my own research.
Dr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Dorjiling, is likewise the
Governor-General's agent, or medium of communication between the
British Government and the Sikkim Rajah; and as such, invested with
many discretionary powers. In the course of this narrative, I shall
give a sketch of the rise, progress, and prospects of the Sanatarium,
or Health-station of Dorjiling, and of the anomalous position held by
the Sikkim Rajah. The latter circumstance led indirectly to the
detention of Dr. Campbell (who joined me in one of my journeys) and
myself, by a faction of the Sikkim court, for the purpose of
obtaining from the Indian Government a more favourable treaty than
that then existing. This mode of enforcing a request by _douce
violence_ and detention, is common with the turbulent tribes east
of Nepal, but was in this instance aggravated by violence towards my
fellow-prisoner, through the ill will of the persons who executed the
orders of their superiors, and who had been punished by Dr. Campbell
for crimes committed against both the British and Nepalese
governments. The circumstances of this outrage were misunderstood at
the time; its instigators were supposed to be Chinese; its
perpetrators Tibetans; and we the offenders were assumed to have
thrust ourselves into the country, without authority from our own
government, and contrary to the will of the Sikkim Rajah; who was
imagined to be a tributary of China, and protected by that nation,
and to be under no obligation to the East Indian government.
With regard to the obligations I owe to Dr. Campbell, I confine
myself to saying that his whole aim was to promote my comfort, and to
secure my success, in all possible ways. Every object I had in view
was as sedulously cared for by him as by myself: I am indebted to his
influence with Jung Bahadoor* [It was in Nepal that Dr. Campbell
gained the friendship of Jung Bahadoor, the most remarkable proof of
which is the acceding to his request, and granting me leave to visit
the eastern parts of his dominions; no European that I am aware of,
having been allowed, either before or since, to travel anywhere
except to and from the plains of India and valley of Katmandu, in
which the capital city and British residency are situated.] for the
permission to traverse his dominions, and to visit the Tibetan passes
of Nepal. His prudence and patience in negotiating with the Sikkim
court, enabled me to pursue my investigations in that country. My
journal is largely indebted to his varied and extensive knowledge of
the people and productions of these regions.
In all numerical calculations connected with my observations, I
received most essential aid from John Muller, Esq., Accountant of the
Calcutta Mint, and from his brother, Charles Muller, Esq., of Patna,
both ardent amateurs in scientific pursuits, and who employed
themselves in making meteorological observations at Dorjiling, where
they were recruiting constitutions impaired by the performance of
arduous duties in the climate of the plains. I cannot sufficiently
thank these gentlemen for the handsome manner in which they
volunteered me their assistance in these laborious operations.
Mr. J. Muller resided at Dorjiling during eighteen months of my stay
in Sikkim, over the whole of which period his generous zeal in my
service never relaxed; he assisted me in the reduction of many
hundreds of my observations for latitude, time, and elevation,
besides adjusting and rating my instruments; and I can recall no more
pleasant days than those thus spent with these hospitable friends.
Thanks to Dr. Falconer's indefatigable exertions, such of my
collections as reached Calcutta were forwarded to England in
excellent order; and they were temporarily deposited in Kew Gardens
until their destination should be determined. On my return home, my
scientific friends interested themselves in procuring from the
Government such aid as might enable me to devote the necessary time
to the arrangement, naming, and distributing of my collections, the
publication of my manuscripts, etc. I am in this most deeply indebted
to the disinterested and generous exertions of Mr. L. Horner, Sir
Charles Lyell, Dr. Lindley, Professor E. Forbes, and many others; and
most especially to the Presidents of the Royal Society (the Earl of
Rosse), of the Linnean (Mr. R. Brown), and Geological (Mr. Hopkins),
who in their official capacities memorialized in person the Chief
Commissioner of Woods and Forests on this subject; Sir William Hooker
at the same time bringing it under the notice of the First Lord of
the Treasury. The result was a grant of £400 annually for three years.
Dr. T. Thomson joined me in Dorjiling in the end of 1849, after the
completion of his arduous journeys in the North-West Himalaya and
Tibet, and we spent the year 1850 in travelling and collecting,
returning to England together in 1851. Having obtained permission
from the Indian Government to distribute his botanical collections,
which equal my own in extent and value, we were advised by all our
botanical friends to incorporate, and thus to distribute them. The
whole constitute an Herbarium of from 6000 to 7000 species of Indian
plants, including an immense number of duplicates; and it is now in
process of being arranged and named, by Dr. Thomson and myself,
preparatory to its distribution amongst sixty of the principal public
and private herbaria in Europe, India, and the United States
of America.
For the information of future travellers, I may state that the total
expense of my Indian journey, including outfit, three years and a
half travelling, and the sending of my collections to Calcutta, was
under £2000 (of which £1200 were defrayed by government), but would
have come to much more, had I not enjoyed the great advantages I have
detailed. This sum does not include the purchase of books and
instruments, with which I supplied myself, and which cost about £200,
nor the freight of the collections to England, which was paid by
Government. Owing to the kind services of Mr. J. C. Melvill,
Secretary of the India House, many small parcels of seeds, etc., were
conveyed to England, free of cost; and I have to record my great
obligations and sincere thanks to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam
Navigation Company, for conveying, without charge, all small parcels
of books, instruments and specimens, addressed to or by myself.
It remains to say something of the illustrations of this work.
The maps are from surveys of my own, made chiefly with my own
instruments, but partly with some valuable ones for the use of which
I am indebted to my friend Captain H. Thuillier, Deputy
Surveyor-General of India, who placed at my disposal the resources of
the magnificent establishment under his control, and to whose
innumerable good offices I am very greatly beholden.
The landscapes, etc. have been prepared chiefly from my own drawings,
and will, I hope, be found to be tolerably faithful representations
of the scenes. I have always endeavoured to overcome that tendency to
exaggerate heights, and increase the angle of slopes, which is I
believe the besetting sin, not of amateurs only, but of our most
accomplished artists. As, however, I did not use instruments in
projecting the outlines, I do not pretend to have wholly avoided this
snare; nor, I regret to say; has the lithographer, in all cases, been
content to abide by his copy. My drawings will be considered tame
compared with most mountain landscapes, though the subjects comprise
some of the grandest scenes in nature. Considering how conventional
the treatment of such subjects is, and how unanimous artists seem to
be as to the propriety of exaggerating those features which should
predominate in the landscape, it may fairly be doubted whether the
total effect of steepness and elevation, especially in a mountain
view, can, on a small scale, be conveyed by a strict adherence to
truth. I need hardly add, that if such is attainable, it is only by
those who have a power of colouring that few pretend to. In the list
of plates and woodcuts I have mentioned the obligations I am under to
several friends for the use of drawings, etc.
With regard to the spelling of native names, after much anxious
discussion I have adopted that which assimilates most to the English
pronunciation. For great assistance in this, for a careful revision
of the sheets as they passed through the press, and for numerous
valuable suggestions throughout, I am indebted to my
fellow-traveller, Dr. Thomas Thomson.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Sunderbunds vegetation -- Calcutta Botanic Garden -- Leave for
Burdwan -- Rajah's gardens and menagerie -- Coal-beds, geology, and
plants of -- Lac insect and plant -- Camels -- Kunker -- Cowage --
Effloresced soda on soil -- Glass, manufacture of -- Atmospheric
vapours -- Temperature, etc. -- Mahowa oil and spirits -- Maddaobund
-- Jains -- Ascent of Paras-nath -- Vegetation of that mountain.
CHAPTER II.
Doomree -- Vegetation of table-land -- Lieutenant Beadle -- Birds --
Hot springs of Soorujkoond -- Plants near them -- Shells in them --
Cholera-tree -- Olibanum -- Palms, form of -- Dunwah pass -- Trees,
native and planted -- Wild peacock -- Poppy fields -- Geography and
geology of Behar and Central India -- Toddy-palm -- Ground,
temperature of -- Baroon -- Temperature of plants -- Lizard -- Cross
the Soane -- Sand, ripple-marks on -- Kymore hills -- Ground,
temperature of -- Limestone -- Rotas fort and palace -- Nitrate of
lime -- Change of climate -- Lime stalagmites, enclosing leaves --
Fall of Soane -- Spiders, etc. -- Scenery and natural history of
upper Soane valley -- _Hardwickia binata_ -- Bhel fruit --
Dust-storm -- Alligator -- Catechu -- _Cochlospermum_ --
Leaf-bellows -- Scorpions -- Tortoises -- Florican -- Limestone
spheres -- Coles -- Tiger-hunt -- Robbery.
CHAPTER III.
Ek-powa Ghat -- Sandstones -- Shahgunj -- Table-land, elevation, etc.
-- Gum-arabic -- Mango -- Fair -- Aquatic plants -- Rujubbund --
Storm -- False sunset and sunrise -- Bind hills -- Mirzapore --
Manufactures, imports, etc. -- Climate -- Thuggee -- Chunar --
Benares -- Mosque -- Observatory -- Sar-nath -- Ghazeepore --
Rose-gardens -- Manufactory of attar -- Lord Cornwallis' tomb --
Ganges, scenery and natural history of -- Pelicans -- Vegetation --
Insects -- Dinapore -- Patna -- Opium godowns and manufacture --
Mudar, white and purple -- Monghyr islets -- Hot springs of
Seetakoond -- Alluvium of Ganges -- Rocks of Sultun-gunj --
Bhaugulpore -- Temples of Mt. Manden -- Coles and native tribes --
Bhaugulpore rangers -- Horticultural gardens.
CHAPTER IV.
Leave Bhaugulpore -- Kunker -- Colgong -- Himalaya, distant view of
-- Cosi, mouth of -- Difficult navigation -- Sand-storms --
Caragola-Ghat -- Purnea -- Ortolans -- Mahanuddy, transport of
pebbles, etc. -- Betel-pepper, cultivation of -- Titalya -- Siligoree
-- View of outer Himalaya -- Terai -- Mechis -- Punkabaree -- Foot of
mountains -- Ascent to Dorjiling -- Cicadas -- Leeches -- Animals --
Kursiong, spring vegetation of -- Pacheem -- Arrive at Dorjiling --
Dorjiling, origin and settlement of -- Grant of land from Rajah --
Dr. Campbell appointed superintendent -- Dewan, late and present --
Aggressive conduct of the latter -- Increase of the station -- Trade
-- Titalya fair -- Healthy climate for Europeans and children --
Invalids, diseases prejudicial to.
CHAPTER V.
View from Mr. Hodgson's of range of snowy mountains -- Their extent
and elevation -- Delusive appearance of elevation -- Sinchul, view
from and vegetation of -- Chumulari -- Magnolias, white and purple --
_Rhododendron Dalhousiae, arboreum_ and _argentium_ -- Natives of
Dorjiling -- Lepchas, origin, tradition of flood, morals, dress,
arms, ornaments, diet -- Cups, origin and value -- Marriages --
Diseases -- Burial -- Worship and religion -- Bijooas -- Kumpa Rong,
or Arrat -- Limboos, origin, habits, language, etc. -- Moormis --
Magras -- Mechis -- Comparison of customs with those of the natives
of Assam, Khasia, etc.
CHAPTER VI.
Excursion from Dorjiling to Great Rungeet -- Zones of vegetation --
Tree-ferns -- Palms, upper limit of -- Leebong, tea plantations --
Ging -- Boodhist remains -- Tropical vegetation -- Pines -- Lepcha
clearances -- Forest fires -- Boodhist monuments -- Fig --
Cane-bridge and raft over Rungeet -- Sago-palm -- India-rubber -- Yel
Pote -- Butterflies and other insects -- Snakes -- Camp --
Temperature and humidity of atmosphere -- Junction of Teesta and
Rungeet -- Return to Dorjiling -- Tonglo, excursion to -- Bamboo,
flowering -- Oaks -- _Gordonia_ -- Maize, hermaphrodite flowered
-- Figs -- Nettles -- Peepsa -- Simonbong, cultivation at -- European
fruits at Dorjiling-Plains of India.
CHAPTER VII.
Continue the ascent of Tonglo -- Trees -- Lepcha construction of hut
-- Simsibong -- Climbing-trees -- Frogs -- Magnolias, etc. -- Ticks
-- Leeches -- Cattle, murrain amongst -- Summit of Tonglo --
Rhododendrons -- _Skimmia_ -- Yew -- Rose -- Aconite -- Bikh
poison -- English genera of plants -- Ascent of tropical orders --
Comparison with south temperate zone -- Heavy rain -- Temperature,
etc. -- Descent -- Simonbong temple -- Furniture therein --
Praying-cylinder -- Thigh-bone trumpet -- Morning orisons -- Present
of Murwa beer, etc.
CHAPTER VIII.
Difficulty in procuring leave to enter Sikkim -- Obtain permission to
travel in East Nepal -- Arrangements -- Coolies -- Stores -- Servants
-- Personal equipment -- Mode of travelling -- Leave Dorjiling --
Goong ridge -- Behaviour of Bhotan coolies -- Nepal frontier -- Myong
valley -- Ilam -- Sikkim massacre -- Cultivation -- Nettles -- Camp
at Nanki on Tonglo -- Bhotan coolies run away -- View of Chumulari --
Nepal peaks to west -- Sakkiazong -- _Buceros_ -- Road to
Wallanchoon -- Oaks -- Scarcity of water -- Singular view of
mountain-valleys -- Encampment -- My tent and its furniture --
Evening occupations -- Dunkotah-Cross ridge of Sakkiazong -- Yews --
Silver-firs-View of Tambur valley -- Pemmi river -- Pebbly terraces
-- Geology -- Holy springs -- Enormous trees -- _Luculia
gratissima_ -- Khawa river, rocks of -- Arrive at Tambur --
Shingle and gravel terraces -- Natives, indolence of -- Canoe ferry
-- Votive offerings -- Bad road -- Temperature, etc. -- Chingtam
village, view from -- Mywa river and Guola -- House -- Boulders --
Chain-bridge -- Meepo, arrival of -- Fevers.
CHAPTER IX.
Leave Mywa -- Suspension bridge -- Landslips -- Vegetation -- Slope
of river-bed -- Bees' nests -- Glacial phenomena -- Tibetans,
clothing, ornaments, amulets, salutation, children, dogs -- Last
Limboo village, Taptiatok -- Beautiful scenery -- Tibet village of
Lelyp -- _Opuntia -- Edgeworthia -- Crab-apple_ -- Chameleon and
porcupine -- Praying-machine -- _Abies Brunoniana_ -- European
plants -- Grand scenery -- Arrive at Wallanchoon -- Scenery around --
Trees -- Tibet houses -- Manis and Mendongs -- Tibet household --
Food -- Tea-soup -- Hospitality -- Yaks and Zobo, uses and habits of
-- Bhoteeas -- Yak-hair tents -- Guobah of Walloong -- Jatamansi --
Obstacles to proceeding-Climate and weather -- Proceed --
Rhododendrons, etc. -- Lichens -- _Poa annua_ and Shepherd's
purse -- Tibet camp -- Tuquoroma -- Scenery of pass -- Glaciers and
snow -- Summit -- Plants, woolly, etc.
CHAPTER X.
Return from Wallanchoon pass -- Procure a bazaar at village -- Dance
of Lamas -- Blackening face, Tibetan custom of -- Temple and convent
-- Leave for Kanglachem pass -- Send part of party back to Dorjiling
-- Yangma Guola -- Drunken Tibetans -- Guobah of Wallanchoon -- Camp
at foot of Great Moraine -- View from top -- Geological speculations
-- Height of moraines -- Cross dry lake-bed -- Glaciers -- More
moraines -- Terraces -- Yangma temples -- Jos, books and furniture --
Peak of Nango -- Lake -- Arrive at village -- Cultivation -- Scenery
-- Potatos -- State of my provisions -- Pass through village --
Gigantic boulders -- Terraces -- Wild sheep -- Lake-beds -- Sun's
power -- Piles of gravel and detritus -- Glaciers and moraines --
Pabuk, elevation of -- Moonlight scene -- Return to Yangma --
Temperature, etc. -- Geological causes of phenomena in valley --
Scenery of valley on descent.
CHAPTER XI.
Ascend to Nango mountain -- Moraines -- Glaciers -- Vegetation --
_Rhododendron Hodgsoni_ -- Rocks -- Honey-combed surface of snow
-- Perpetual snow -- Top of pass -- View -- Elevation -- Geology --
Distance of sound -- Plants -- Temperature -- Scenery -- Cliffs of
granite and hurled boulders -- Camp -- Descent -- Pheasants -- Larch
-- Himalayan pines -- Distribution of Deodar, note on --
Tassichooding temples -- Kambachen village -- Cultivation -- Moraines
in valley, distribution of -- Picturesque lake-beds, and their
vegetation -- Tibetan sheep and goats -- _Cryptogramma crispa_
-- Ascent to Choonjerma pass -- View of Junnoo -- Rocks of its summit
-- Misty ocean -- Nepal peaks -- Top of pass -- Temperature, and
observations -- Gorgeous sunset -- Descent to Yalloong valley --
Loose path -- Night scenes -- Musk deer.
CHAPTER XII.
Yalloong valley -- Find Kanglanamo pass closed -- Change route for
the southward -- _Picrorhiza_ -- View of Kubra --
_Rhododendron Falconeri_ -- Yalloong river -- Junction of gneiss
and clay-slate -- Cross Yalloong range -- Yiew -- Descent -- Yew --
Vegetation -- Misty weather -- Tongdam village -- Khabang -- Tropical
vegetation -- Sidingbah mountain -- View of Kinchinjunga --
Yangyading village -- Slopes of hills, and courses of rivers --
Khabili valley -- Ghorkha Havildar's bad conduct -- Ascend Singalelah
-- Plague of ticks -- Short commons -- Cross Islumbo pass -- Boundary
of Sikkim -- Kulhait valley -- Lingcham -- Reception by Kajee -- Hear
of Dr. Campbell's going to meet Rajah -- Views in valley -- Leave for
Teesta river -- Tipsy Kajee -- Hospitality -- Murwa beer -- Temples
-- _Acorus Calamus_ -- Long Mendong -- Burning of dead --
Superstitions -- Cross Great Rungeet -- Boulders, origin of --
Purchase of a dog -- Marshes -- Lamas -- Dismiss Ghorkhas -- Bhoteea
house -- Murwa beer.
CHAPTER XIII.
Raklang pass -- Uses of nettles -- Edible plants -- Lepcha war --
Do-mani stone -- Neongong -- Teesta valley -- Pony, saddle, etc. --
Meet Campbell -- Vegetation and scenery -- Presents -- Visit of Dewan
-- Characters of Rajah and Dewan -- Accounts of Tibet -- Lhassa --
Siling -- Tricks of Dewan -- Walk up Teesta -- Audience of Rajah --
Lamas -- Kajees -- Tchebu Lama, his character and position -- Effects
of interview -- Heir-apparent -- Dewan's house -- Guitar -- Weather
-- Fall of river -- Tibet officers -- Gigantic trees -- Neongong lake
-- Mainom, ascent of -- Vegetation -- Camp on snow -- Silver-firs --
View from top -- Kinchin, etc. -- Geology -- Vapours -- Sunset effect
-- Elevation -- Temperature, etc. -- Lamas of Neongong -- Temples --
Religious festival Bamboo, flowering -- Recross pass of Raklang --
Numerous temples, villages, etc. -- Domestic animals -- Descent to
Great Rungeet.
CHAPTER XIV.
Tassiding, view of and from -- Funereal cypress -- Camp at Sunnook --
Hot vapours -- Lama's house -- Temples, decorations, altars, idols,
general effect -- Chaits -- Date of erection -- Plundered by Ghorkas
-- Cross Ratong -- Ascend to Pemiongehi -- Relation of river-beds to
strike of rocks -- Slopes of ravines -- Pemiongehi, view of --
Vegetation -- Elevation -- Temple, decorations, etc. -- Former
capital of Sikkim -- History of Sikkim -- Nightingales -- Campbell
departs -- Tchonpong -- _Edgeworthia_ -- Cross Rungbee and
Ratong -- Hoar-frost on plantains -- Yoksun -- Walnuts -- View --
Funereal cypresses -- Doobdi -- Gigantic cypresses -- Temples --
Snow-fall -- Sikkim, etc. -- Toys.
CHAPTER XV.
Leave Yoksun for Kinchinjunga -- Ascend Ratong valley --
Salt-smuggling over Ratong -- Landslips -- Plants -- Buckeem --
Blocks of gneiss -- Mon Lepcha -- View -- Weather -- View from Gubroo
-- Kinchinjunga, tops of -- Pundimcliff -- Nursing -- Vegetation of
Himalaya -- Coup d'oeil of Jongri -- Route to Yalloong -- Arduous
route of salt-traders from Tibet -- Kinchin, ascent of -- Lichens --
Surfaces sculptured by snow and ice -- Weather at Jongri -- Snow --
Shades for eyes.
CHAPTER XVI.
Ratong river below Mon Lepcha -- Ferns -- Vegetation of Yoksun,
tropical -- _Araliaceae_, fodder for cattle -- Rice-paper plant
-- Geology of Yoksun -- Lake -- Old temples -- Funereal cypresses --
Gigantic chart -- Altars -- Songboom -- Weather -- Catsuperri --
Velocity of Ratong -- Worship at Catsuperri lake -- Scenery -- Willow
-- Lamas and ecclesiastical establishments of Sikkim -- Tengling --
Changachelling temples and monks -- Portrait of myself on walls --
Block of mica-schist -- Lingcham Kajee asks for spectacles --
Hee-hill -- Arrive at Little Rungeet -- At Dorjiling -- Its deserted
and wintry appearance.
CHAPTER XVII.
Dispatch collections -- Acorns -- Heat -- Punkabaree -- Bees --
Vegetation -- Haze -- Titalya -- Earthquake -- Proceed to Nepal
frontier -- Terai, geology of -- Physical features of Himalayan
valleys -- Elephants, purchase of, etc. -- River-beds -- Mechi river
-- Return to Titalya -- Leave for Teesta -- Climate of plains --
Jeelpigoree -- Cooches -- Alteration in the appearance of country by
fires, etc. -- Grasses -- Bamboos -- Cottages -- Rajah of Cooch Behar
-- Condition of people -- Hooli festival -- Ascend Teesta -- Canoes
-- Cranes -- Forest -- Baikant-pore -- Rummai -- Religion -- Plants
at foot of mountains -- Exit of Teesta -- Canoe voyage down to
Rangamally -- English genera of plants -- Birds -- Beautiful scenery
-- Botanizing on elephants -- Willow -- Siligoree -- Cross Terai --
Geology -- Iron -- Lohar-ghur -- Coal and sandstone beds -- Mechi
fisherman -- Hailstorm -- Ascent to Kursiong -- To Dorjiling --
Vegetation -- Geology -- Folded quartz-beds -- Spheres of feldspar --
Lime deposits.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
LITHOGRAPHIC VIEWS.
Fig. I. The Dhak, _Butea frondosa,_ and _Cochlospermum
gossypium,_ with the Kymore Hills in the background. p.53
Fig. II. View of Kinchinjunga from Mr. Hodgson's bungalow at
Dorjiling, from a sketch by W. Tayler, Esq., B.C.S. Frontispiece.
Fig. III. From Chingtam, looking up the Tambur Valley. p.196
Fig. VI. Nango mountain, from the summit of the great moraine in
Yangma Valley, looking eastward. p.232
Fig. V. Junnoo mountain from the Choonjerma Pass. p.264
WOOD ENGRAVINGS.
Fig. 1. Old tamarind trees. p.17
Fig. 2. Crossing the Soane River above Tura, with the Kymore Hills in
the background. p.47
Fig. 3. Equatorial sun-dial, Benares Observatory. p.74
Fig. 4. Equinoctial sun-dial, Benares Observatory. p.75
Fig. 5. Azimuth circle, Benares Observatory. p.76
Fig. 6. Monghyr on the Ganges. p.88
Fig. 7. Punkabaree, Sikkim Terai, and Balasun River. The trees in the
foreground are _Araliaceae._ p.105
Fig. 8. Lepcha girl and Boodhist priest. From a sketch by Miss
Colvile. p.129
Fig. 9. _Pinus longifolia,_ in the great Rungeet Valley. p.148
Fig. 10. Construction of a cane suspension-bridge. p.149
Fig. 11. Lepcha boy carrying a bamboo water-vessel. From a sketch by
Miss Colvile. p.156
Fig. 12. Amulet usually worn by Lepchas. p.161
Fig. 13. Trunk-like root of _Wightia gigantea,_ ascending a
tree, which its stout rootlets clasp. p.164
Fig. 14. Interior of Boodhist temple at Simonbong. p.172
Fig. 15. Trumpet made of a human thigh-bone. p.173
Fig. 16. Tibetan amulet set with turquoises. p.176
Fig. 17. Head of Tibet Mastiff. From a sketch taken in the zoological
gardens by C. Jenyns, Esq. p.203
Fig. 18. View on the Tambur River, with _Ambies brunoniana_.
p.207
Fig. 19. Wallanchoon village, East Nepal. p.210
Fig. 20. Head of a Tibetan demon. From a model in the possession of
Captain H. Strachey. p.226
Fig. 21. Ancient moraines surrounding the lower lake-bed in the
Yangma valley (looking west). p.234
Fig. 22. Second lake-bed in the Yangma valley, with Nango mountain,
(looking east). p.237
Fig. 23. Diagram of the terraces and glacial boulders, etc., at the
fork of the Yangma valley (looking north-west up the valley). The
terraces are represented as much too level and angular, and the
boulders too large, the woodcut being intended as a diagram rather
than as a view. p.242
Fig. 24. View of the head of the Yangma valley, and ancient moraines
of debris, which rise in confused hills several hundred feet above
the floor of the valley below the Kanglachem pass (elevation 16,000
feet). p.245
Fig. 25. Skulls of _Ovis ammon._ Sketched by J. E. Winterbottom,
Esq. p.249
Fig. 26. Ancient moraines, in which small lake-beds occur, in the
Kambachen valley (elevation 11,400 feet). p.260
Fig. 21. Brass box to contain amulets, from Tibet. p.270
Fig. 23. Pemiongchi goompa (or temple) with Chaits in the foreground.
p.286
Fig. 29. Costumes of Sikkim lamas and monks, with the bell, mani,
dobje, and trident. p.291
Fig. 30. The Do-mani stone, with gigantic Tibetan characters. p.294
Fig. 31. Implements of worship in the Sikkim temples. p.314
Fig. 32. Chaits at Tassiding, with decayed funereal cypresses. p.316
Fig. 33. Vestibule of temple at Tassiding. p.319
Fig. 34. Southern temple, at Tassiding. p.320
Fig. 35. Middle temple, at Tassiding, with mounted yaks. p.321
Fig. 36. Chair, altar, and images in the great temple at Tassiding.
p.322
Fig. 37. Ground-plan of southern temple at Tassiding. p.323
Fig. 38. Interior of temple at Pemiongchi, the walls covered with
allegorical paintings. p.329
Fig. 39. Doobdi temple, with young and old funereal cypress. p.337
Fig. 40. Summit of Kinchinjunga, with Pundim on the right; its black
cliff traversed by white granite veins. p.347
Fig. 41. Image of Maitrya, the coming Boodh. p.357
Fig. 42. Stone altar, and erection for burning juniper ashes. p.361
Fig. 43. Facsimile of the vermilion seal of the Dhurma Rajah of
Bhotan, head of the Dookpa sect of Boodhists. Opposite p.372
Fig. 44. A Mech, native of the Sikkim Terai. Sketched by Miss
Colvile. p.406
Fig. 45. Mech pocket-comb (of wood). p.408
HIMALAYAN JOURNALS.
CHAPTER I.
Sunderbunds vegetation -- Calcutta Botanic Garden -- Leave for
Burdwan -- Rajah's gardens and menagerie -- Coal-beds, geology, and
plants of -- Lac insect and plant -- Camels -- Kunker -- Cowage --
Effloresced soda on soil -- Glass, manufacture of -- Atmospheric
vapours -- Temperature, etc. -- Mahowa oil and spirits -- Maddaobund
-- Jains -- Ascent of Paras-nath -- Vegetation of that mountain.
I left England on the 11th of November, 1847, and performed the
voyage to India under circumstances which have been detailed in the
Introduction. On the 12th of January, 1848, the "Moozuffer" was
steaming amongst the low swampy islands of the Sunderbunds.
These exhibit no tropical luxuriance, and are, in this respect,
exceedingly disappointing. A low vegetation covers them, chiefly made
up of a dwarf-palm (_Phoenix paludosa_) and small mangroves, with a
few scattered trees on the higher bank that runs along the water's
edge, consisting of fan-palm, toddy-palm, and _Terminalia._ Every now
and then, the paddles of the steamer tossed up the large fruits of
_Nipa fruticans,_ a low stemless palm that grows in the tidal waters
of the Indian ocean, and bears a large head of nuts. It is a plant of
no interest to the common observer, but of much to the geologist, from
the nuts of a similar plant abounding in the tertiary formations at
the mouth of the Thames, and having floated about there in as great
profusion as here, till buried deep in the silt and mud that now forms
the island of Sheppey.* [Bowerbank "On the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of
the Isle of Sheppey," and Lyell's "Elements of Geology," 3rd ed. p.
201.]
Higher up, the river Hoogly is entered, and large trees, with
villages and cultivation, replace the sandy spits and marshy jungles
of the great Gangetic delta. A few miles below Calcutta, the scenery
becomes beautiful, beginning with the Botanic Garden, once the
residence of Roxburgh and Wallich, and now of Falconer,--classical
ground to the naturalist. Opposite are the gardens of Sir Lawrence
Peel; unrivalled in India for their beauty and cultivation, and
fairly entitled to be called the Chatsworth of Bengal. A little
higher up, Calcutta opened out, with the batteries of Fort William in
the foreground, thundering forth a salute, and in a few minutes more
all other thoughts were absorbed in watching the splendour of the
arrangements made for the reception of the Governor-General of India.
During my short stay in Calcutta, I was principally occupied in
preparing for an excursion with Mr. Williams of the Geological
Survey, who was about to move his camp from the Damooda valley
coal-fields, near Burdwan, to Beejaghur on the banks of the Soane,
where coal was reported to exist, in the immediate vicinity of
water-carriage, the great desideratum of the Burdwan fields.
My time was spent partly at Government-House, and partly at Sir
Lawrence Peel's residence. The former I was kindly invited to
consider as my Indian home, an honour which I appreciate the more
highly, as the invitation was accompanied with the assurance that I
should have entire freedom to follow my own pursuits; and the
advantages which such a position afforded me, were, I need not say,
of no ordinary kind.
At the Botanic Gardens I received every assistance from Dr.
McLelland,* [Dr. Falconer's _locum tenens,_ then in temporary
charge of the establishment.] who was very busy, superintending the
publication of the botanical papers and drawings of his friend, the
late Dr. Griffith, for which native artists were preparing copies on
lithographic paper.
Of the Gardens themselves it is exceedingly difficult to speak; the
changes had been so very great, and from a state with which I had no
acquaintance. There had been a great want of judgment in the
alterations made since Dr. Wallich's time, when they were celebrated
as the most beautiful gardens in the east, and were the great object
of attraction to strangers and townspeople. I found instead an
unsightly wilderness, without shade (the first requirement of every
tropical garden) or other beauties than some isolated grand trees,
which had survived the indiscriminate destruction of the useful and
ornamental which had attended the well-meant but ill-judged attempt
to render a garden a botanical class-book. It is impossible to praise
too highly Dr. Griffith's abilities and acquirements as a botanist,
his perseverance and success as a traveller, or his matchless
industry in the field and in the closet; and it is not wonderful,
that, with so many and varied talents, he should have wanted the eye
of a landscape-gardener, or the education of a horticulturist.
I should, however, be wanting in my duty to his predecessor, and to
his no less illustrious successor, were these remarks withheld,
proceeding, as they do, from an unbiassed observer, who had the
honour of standing in an equally friendly relation to all parties.
Before leaving India, I saw great improvements, but many years must
elapse before the gardens can resume their once proud pre-eminence.
I was surprised to find the Botanical Gardens looked upon by many of
the Indian public, and even by some of the better informed official
men, as rather an extravagant establishment, more ornamental than
useful. These persons seemed astonished to learn that its name was
renowned throughout Europe, and that during the first twenty years
especially of Dr. Wallich's superintendence, it had contributed more
useful and ornamental tropical plants to the public and private
gardens of the world than any other establishment before or since.*
[As an illustration of this, I may refer to a Report presented to the
government of Bengal, from which it appears that between January,
1836, and December, 1840, 189,932 plants were distributed gratis to
nearly 2000 different gardens.] I speak from a personal knowledge of
the contents of our English gardens, and our colonial ones at the
Cape, and in Australia, and from an inspection of the ponderous
volumes of distribution lists, to which Dr. Falconer is daily adding.
The botanical public of Europe and India is no less indebted than the
horticultural to the liberality of the Hon. East India Company, and
to the energy of the several eminent men who have carried their views
into execution.* [I here allude to the great Indian herbarium,
chiefly formed by the staff of the Botanic Gardens under the
direction of Dr. Wallich, and distributed in 1829 to the principal
museums of Europe. This is the most valuable contribution of the kind
ever made to science, and it is a lasting memorial: of the princely
liberality of the enlightened men who ruled the counsels of India in
those days. No botanical work of importance has been published since
1829, without recording its sense of the obligation, and I was once
commissioned by a foreign government, to purchase for its national
museum, at whatever cost, one set of these collections, which was
brought to the hammer on the death of its possessor. I have heard it
remarked that the expense attending the distribution was enormous,
and I have reason to know that this erroneous impression has had an
unfavourable influence upon the destination of scarcely less valuable
collections, which have for years been lying untouched in the cellars
of the India House. I may add that officers who have exposed their
lives and impaired their health in forming similar ones at the orders
and expense of the Indian government, are at home, and thrown upon
their own resources, or the assistance of their scientific brethren,
for the means of publishing and distributing the fruits of their
labours.] The Indian government, itself, has already profited largely
by these gardens, directly and indirectly, and might have done so
still more, had its efforts been better seconded either by the
European or native population of the country. Amongst its greatest
triumphs may be considered the introduction of the tea-plant from
China, a fact I allude to, as many of my English readers may not be
aware that the establishment of the tea-trade in the Himalaya and
Assam is almost entirely the work of the superintendents of the
gardens of Calcutta and Seharunpore.
From no one did I receive more kindness than from Sir James Colvile,
President of the Asiatic Society, who not only took care that I
should be provided with every comfort, but presented me with a
completely equipped palkee, which, for strength and excellence of
construction, was everything that a traveller could desire.
Often _en route_ did I mentally thank him when I saw other
palkees breaking down, and travellers bewailing the loss of those
forgotten necessaries, with which his kind attention had
furnished me.
I left Calcutta to join Mr. Williams' camp on the 28th of January,
driving to Hoogly on the river of that name, and thence following the
grand trunk-road westward towards Burdwan. The novelty of
palkee-travelling at first renders it pleasant; the neatness with
which every thing is packed, the good-humour of the bearers, their
merry pace, and the many more comforts enjoyed than could be expected
in a conveyance _horsed by men_, the warmth when the sliding
doors are shut, and the breeze when they are open, are all fully
appreciated on first starting, but soon the novelty wears off, and
the discomforts are so numerous, that it is pronounced, at best, a
barbarous conveyance. The greedy cry and gestures of the bearers,
when, on changing, they break a fitful sleep by poking a torch in
your face, and vociferating "Bucksheesh, Sahib;" their discontent at
the most liberal largesse, and the sluggishness of the next set who
want bribes, put the traveller out of patience with the natives.
The dust when the slides are open, and the stifling heat when shut
during a shower, are conclusive against the vehicle, and on getting
out with aching bones and giddy head at the journey's end, I shook
the dust from my person, and wished never to see a palkee again.
On the following morning I was passing through the straggling
villages close to Burdwan, consisting of native hovels by the road
side, with mangos and figs planted near them, and palms waving over
their roofs. Crossing the nearly dry bed of the Damooda, I was set
down at Mr. M'Intosh's (the magistrate of the district), and never
more thoroughly enjoyed a hearty welcome and a breakfast.
In the evening we visited the Rajah of Burdwan's palace and
pleasure-grounds, where I had the first glimpse of oriental
gardening: the roads were generally raised, running through rice
fields, now dry and hard, and bordered with trees of Jack, Bamboo,
_Melia, Casuarina,_ etc. Tanks were the prominent features:
chains of them, full of Indian water-lilies, being fringed with rows
of the fan-palm, and occasionally the Indian date. Close to the house
was a rather good menagerie, where I saw, amongst other animals, a
pair of kangaroos in high health and condition, the female with young
in her pouch. Before dark I was again in my palkee, and hurrying
onwards. The night was cool and clear, very different from the damp
and foggy atmosphere I had left at Calcutta. On the following morning
I was travelling over a flat and apparently rising country, along an
excellent road, with groves of bamboos and stunted trees on either
hand, few villages or palms, a sterile soil, with stunted grass and
but little cultivation; altogether a country as unlike what I had
expected to find in India as well might be. All around was a dead
flat or table-land, out of which a few conical hills rose in the
west, about 1000 feet high, covered with a low forest of dusky green
or yellow, from the prevalence of bamboo. The lark was singing
merrily at sunrise, and the accessories of a fresh air and dewy grass
more reminded me of some moorland in the north of England than of the
torrid regions of the east.
At 10 p.m. I arrived at Mr. Williams' camp, at Taldangah, a dawk
station near the western limit of the coal basin of the Damooda
valley. His operations being finished, he was prepared to start,
having kindly waited a couple of days for my arrival.
Early on the morning of the last day of January, a motley group of
natives were busy striking the tents, and loading the bullocks,
bullock-carts and elephants: these proceeded on the march, occupying
in straggling groups nearly three miles of road, whilst we remained
to breakfast with Mr. F. Watkins, Superintendent of the East India
Coal and Coke Company, who were working the seams.
The coal crops out at the surface; but the shafts worked are sunk
through thick beds of alluvium. The age of these coal-fields is quite
unknown, and I regret to say that my examination of their fossil
plants throws no material light on the subject. Upwards of thirty
species of fossil plants have been procured from them, and of these
the majority are referred by Dr. McLelland* [Reports of the
Geological Survey of India. Calcutta, 1850.] to the inferior oolite
epoch of England, from the prevalence of species of _Zamia,
Glossopteris,_ and _Taeniopteris._ Some of these genera,
together with _Vertebraria_ (a very remarkable Indian fossil),
are also recognised in the coal-fields of Sind and of Australia.
I cannot, however, think that botanical evidence of such a nature is
sufficient to warrant a satisfactory reference of these Indian
coal-fields to the same epoch as those of England or of Australia; in
the first place the outlines of the fronds of ferns and their
nervation are frail characters if employed alone for the
determination of existing genera, and much more so of fossil
fragments: in the second place recent ferns are so widely
distributed, that an inspection of the majority affords little clue
to the region or locality they come from: and in the third place,
considering the wide difference in latitude and longitude of
Yorkshire, India, and Australia, the natural conclusion is that they
could not have supported a similar vegetation at the same epoch.
In fact, finding similar fossil plants at places widely different in
latitude, and hence in climate, is, in the present state of our
knowledge, rather an argument against than for their having existed
cotemporaneously. The _Cycadeae,_ especially, whose fossil
remains afford so much ground for geological speculations, are far
from yielding such precise data as is supposed. Species of the order
are found in Mexico, South Africa, Australia, and India, some
inhabiting the hottest and dampest, and others the driest climates on
the surface of the globe; and it appears to me rash to argue much
from the presence of the order in the coal of Yorkshire and India,
when we reflect that the geologist of some future epoch may find as
good reasons for referring the present Cape, Australian, or Mexican
Flora to the same period as that of the Lias and Oolites, when the
_Cycadeae_ now living in the former countries shall
be fossilised.
Specific identity of their contained fossils may be considered as
fair evidence of the cotemporaneous origin of beds, but amongst the
many collections of fossil plants that I have examined, there is
hardly a specimen, belonging to any epoch, sufficiently perfect to
warrant the assumption that the species to which it belonged can be
again recognised. The botanical evidences which geologists too often
accept as proofs of specific identity are such as no botanist would
attach any importance to in the investigation of existing plants.
The faintest traces assumed to be of vegetable origin are habitually
made into genera and species by naturalists ignorant of the
structure, affinities and distribution of living plants, and of such
materials the bulk of so-called systems of fossil plants is composed.
A number of women were here employed in making gunpowder, grinding
the usual materials on a stone, with the addition of water from the
Hookah; a custom for which they have an obstinate prejudice.
The charcoal here used is made from an _Acacia_: the Seiks, I
believe, employ _Justicia Adhatoda,_ which is also in use all
over India: at Aden the Arabs prefer the _Calotropis_, probably
because it is most easily procured. The grain of all these plants is
open, whereas in England, closer-grained and more woody trees,
especially willows, are preferred.
The jungle I found to consist chiefly of thorny bushes, Jujube of two
species, an _Acacia_ and _Butea frondosa,_ the twigs of the
latter often covered with lurid red tears of Lac, which is here
collected in abundance. As it occurs on the plants and is collected
by the natives it is called Stick-lac, but after preparation
Shell-lac. In Mirzapore, a species of _Celtis_ yields it, and
the Peepul very commonly in various parts of India. The elaboration
of this dye, whether by the same species of insect, or by many from
plants so widely different in habit and characters, is a very curious
fact; since none have red juice, but some have milky and
others limpid.
After breakfast, Mr. Williams and I started on an elephant, following
the camp to Gyra, twelve miles distant. The docility of these animals
is an old story, but it loses so much in the telling, that their
gentleness, obedience, and sagacity seemed as strange to me as if I
had never heard or read of these attributes. The swinging motion,
under a hot sun, is very oppressive, but compensated for by being so
high above the dust. The Mahout, or driver, guides by poking his
great toes under either ear, enforcing obedience with an iron goad,
with which he hammers the animal's head with quite as much force as
would break a cocoa-nut, or drives it through his thick skin down to
the quick. A most disagreeable sight it is, to see the blood and
yellow fat oozing out in the broiling sun from these great punctures!
Our elephant was an excellent one, when he did not take obstinate
fits, and so docile as to pick up pieces of stone when desired, and
with a jerk of the trunk throw them over his head for the rider to
catch, thus saving the trouble of dismounting to geologise!
Of sights on the road, unfrequented though this noble line is, there
were plenty for a stranger; chiefly pilgrims to Juggernath, most on
foot, and a few in carts or pony gigs of rude construction.
The vehicles from the upper country are distinguished by a far
superior build, their horses are caparisoned with jingling bells, and
the wheels and other parts are bound with brass. The kindness of the
people towards animals, and in some cases towards their suffering
relations, is very remarkable, and may in part have given origin to
the prevalent idea that they are less cruel and stern than the
majority of mankind; but that the "mild" Hindoo, however gentle on
occasion, is cruel and vindictive to his brother man and to animals,
when his indolent temper is roused or his avarice stimulated, no one
can doubt who reads the accounts of Thuggee, Dacoitee, and poisoning,
and witnesses the cruelty with which beasts of burthen are treated.
A child carrying a bird, kid, or lamb, is not an uncommon sight, and
a woman with a dog in her arms is still more frequently seen.
Occasionally too, a group will bear an old man to see Juggernath
before he dies, or a poor creature with elephantiasis, who hopes to
be allowed to hurry himself to his paradise, in preference to
lingering in helpless inactivity, and at last crawling up to the
second heaven only. The costumes are as various as the religious
castes, and the many countries to which the travellers belong.
Next in wealth to the merchants, the most thriving-looking wanderer
is the bearer of Ganges' holy water, who drives a profitable trade,
his gains increasing as his load lightens, for the further he wanders
from the sacred stream, the more he gets for the contents of his jar.
Of merchandise we passed very little, the Ganges being still the high
road between north-west India and Bengal. Occasionally a string of
camels was seen, but, owing to the damp climate, these are rare, and
unknown east of the meridian of Calcutta. A little cotton, clumsily
packed in ragged bags, dirty, and deteriorating every day, even at
this dry season, proves in how bad a state it must arrive at the
market during the rains, when the low wagons are dragged through
the streams.
The roads here are all mended with a curious stone, called Kunker,
which is a nodular concretionary deposit of limestone, abundantly
imbedded in the alluvial soil of a great part of India.* [Often
occurring in strata, like flints.] It resembles a coarse gravel, each
pebble being often as large as a walnut, and tuberculated on the
surface: it binds admirably, and forms excellent roads, but
pulverises into a most disagreeable impalpable dust.
A few miles beyond Taldangah we passed from the sandstone, in which
the coal lies, to a very barren country of gneiss and granite rocks,
upon which the former rests; the country still rising, more hills
appear, and towering far above all is Paras-nath, the culminant
point, and a mountain whose botany I was most anxious to explore.
The vegetation of this part of the country is very poor, no
good-sized trees are to be seen, all is a low stunted jungle.
The grasses were few, and dried up, except in the beds of the
rivulets. On the low jungly hills the same plants appear, with a few
figs, bamboo in great abundance, several handsome _Acanthaceae_; a
few _Asclepiadeae_ climbing up the bushes; and the Cowage plant, now
with over-ripe pods, by shaking which, in passing, there often falls
such a shower of its irritating microscopic hairs, as to make the
skin tingle for an hour.
On the 1st of February, we moved on to Gyra, another insignificant
village. The air was cool, and the atmosphere clear. The temperature,
at three in the morning, was 65 degrees, with no dew, the grass only
61 degrees°. As the sun rose, Parasnath appeared against the clear
grey sky, in the form of a beautiful broad cone, with a rugged peak,
of a deeper grey than the sky. It is a remarkably handsome mountain,
sufficiently lofty to be imposing, rising out of an elevated country,
the slope of which, upward to the base of the mountain, though
imperceptible, is really considerable; and it is surrounded by lesser
hills of just sufficient elevation to set it off. The atmosphere,
too, of these regions is peculiarly favourable for views: it is very
dry at this season; but still the hills are clearly defined, without
the harsh outlines so characteristic of a moist air. The skies are
bright, the sun powerful; and there is an almost imperceptible haze
that seems to soften the landscape, and keep every object in
true perspective.
Our route led towards the picturesque hills and values in front.
The rocks were all hornblende and micaceous schist, cut through by
trap-dykes, while great crumbling masses (or bosses) of quartz
protruded through the soil. The stratified rocks were often exposed,
pitched up at various inclinations: they were frequently white with
effloresced salts, which entering largely into the composition tended
to hasten their decomposition, and being obnoxious to vegetation,
rendered the sterile soil more hungry still. There was little
cultivation, and that little of the most wretched kind; even
rice-fields were few and scattered; there was no corn, or gram
(_Ervum Lens_), no Castor-oil, no Poppy, Cotton, Safflower, or other
crops of the richer soils that flank the Ganges and Hoogly; a very
little Sugar-cane, Dhal (_Cajana_), Mustard, Linseed, and Rape, the
latter three cultivated for their oil. Hardly a Palm was to be seen;
and it was seldom that the cottages could boast of a Banana,
Tamarind, Orange, Cocoa-nut or Date. The Mahowa (_Bassia latifolia_)
and Mango were the commonest trees. There being no Kunker in the soil
here, the roads were mended with angular quartz, much to the
elephants' annoyance.
We dismounted where some very micaceous stratified rock cropped out,
powdered with a saline efflorescence.* [An impure carbonate of soda.
This earth is thrown into clay vessels with water, which after
dissolving the soda, is allowed to evaporate, when the remainder is
collected, and found to contain so much silica, as to be capable of
being fused into glass. Dr. Boyle mentions this curious fact (Essay
on the Arts and Manufactures of India, read before the Society of
Arts, February 18, 1852), in illustration of the probably early epoch
at which the natives of British India were acquainted with the art of
making glass. More complicated processes are employed, and have been
from a very early period, in other parts of the continent.] Jujubes
(_Zizyphus_) prevailed, with the _Carissa carandas_ (in fruit), a
shrub belonging to the usually poisonous family of Dog-banes
(_Apocyneae_); its berries make good tarts, and the plant itself
forms tolerable hedges.
The country around Fitcoree is rather pretty, the hills covered with
bamboo and brushwood, and as usual, rising rather suddenly from the
elevated plains. The jungle affords shelter to a few bears and
tigers, jackals in abundance, and occasionally foxes; the birds seen
are chiefly pigeons. Insects are very scarce; those of the locust
tribe being most prevalent, indicative of a dry climate.
The temperature at 3 a.m.. was 65 degrees; at 3 p.m. 82 degrees; and
at 10 p.m., 68 degrees, from which there was no great variation
during the whole time we spent at these elevations. The clouds were
rare, and always light and high, except a little fleecy spot of
vapour condensed close to the summit of Paras-nath. Though the nights
were clear and starlight, no dew was deposited, owing to the great
dryness of the air. On one occasion, this drought was so great during
the passage of a hot wind, that at night I observed the wet-bulb
thermometer to stand 20.5 degrees below the temperature of the air,
which was 66 degrees; this indicated a dew-point of 11.5 degrees, or
54.5 degrees below the air, and a saturation-point of 0.146; there
being only 0.102 grains of vapour per cubic foot of air, which latter
was loaded with dust. The little moisture suspended in the atmosphere
is often seen to be condensed in a thin belt of vapour, at a
considerable distance above the dry surface of the earth, thus
intercepting the radiation of heat from the latter to the clear sky
above. Such strata may be observed, crossing the hills in ribbonlike
masses, though not so clearly on this elevated region as on the
plains bounding the lower course of the Soane, where the vapour is
more dense, the hills more scattered, and the whole atmosphere more
humid. During the ten days I spent amongst the hills I saw but one
cloudy sunrise, whereas below, whether at Calcutta, or on the banks
of the Soane, the sun always rose behind a dense fog-bank.
At 9.30 a.m. the black-bulb thermometer rose in the sun to 130
degrees. The morning observation before 10 or 11 a..m. always gives a
higher result than at noon, though the sun's declination is so
considerably less, and in the hottest part of the day it is lower
still (3.30 p.m. 109 degrees), an effect no doubt due to the vapours
raised by the sun, and which equally interfere with the photometer
observations. The N.W. winds invariably rise at about 9 a.m. and blow
with increasing strength till sunset; they are due to the rarefaction
of the air over the heated ground, and being loaded with dust, the
temperature of the atmosphere is hence raised by the heated
particles. The increased temperature of the afternoon is therefore
not so much due to the accumulation of caloric from the sun's rays,
as to the passage of a heated current of air derived from the much
hotter regions to the westward. It would be interesting to know how
far this N.W. diurnal tide extends; also the rate at which it gathers
moisture in its progress over the damp regions of the Sunderbunds.
Its excessive dryness in N.W. India approaches that of the African
and Australian deserts; and I shall give an abstract of my own
observations, both in the vallies of the Soane and Ganges, and on the
elevated plateaus of Behar and of Mirzapore.* [See Appendix A.]
On the 2nd of February we proceeded to Tofe-Choney, the hills
increasing in height to nearly 1000 feet, and the country becoming
more picturesque. We passed some tanks covered with _Villarsia_, and
frequented by flocks of white egrets. The existence of artificial
tanks so near a lofty mountain, from whose sides innumerable
water-courses descend, indicates the great natural dryness of the
country during one season of the year. The hills and vallies were
richer than I expected, though far from luxuriant. A fine _Nauclea_
is a common shady tree, and _Bignonia indica_, now leafless, but with
immense pods hanging from the branches. _Acanthaceae_ is the
prevalent natural order, consisting of gay-flowered _Eranthemums,
Ruellias, Barlerias,_ and such hothouse favourites.* [Other plants
gathered here, and very typical of the Flora of this dry region, were
_Linum trigynum, Feronia elephantum, Aegle marmelos, Helicteres
Asoca, Abrus precatorius, Flemingia_; various _Desmodia, Rhynchosiae,
Glycine,_ and _Grislea tomentosa_ very abundant, _Conocarpus
latifoliusa, Loranthus longiflorus,_ and another species;
_Phyllanthus Emblica,_ various _Convolvuli, Cuscuta,_ and several
herbaceous _Compositae._]
This being the most convenient station whence to ascend Paras-nath,
we started at 6 a.m. for the village of Maddaobund, at the north base
of the mountain, or opposite side from that on which the grand
trunk-road runs. After following the latter for a few miles to the
west, we took a path through beautifully wooded plains, with
scattered trees of the Mahowa (_Bassia latifolia_), resembling
good oaks: the natives distil a kind of arrack from its fleshy
flowers, which are also eaten raw. The seeds, too, yield a concrete
oil, by expression, which is used for lamps and occasionally
for frying.
Some villages at the west base of the mountain occupy a better soil,
and are surrounded with richer cultivation; palms, mangos, and the
tamarind, the first and last rare features in this part of Bengal,
appeared to be common, with fields of rice and broad acres of flax
and rape, through the latter of which the blue _Orobanche indica_
swarmed. The short route to Maddaobund, through narrow rocky vallies,
was impracticable for the elephants, and we had to make a very
considerable detour, only reaching that village at 2 p.m. All the
hill people we observed were a fine-looking athletic race; they
disclaimed the tiger being a neighbour, which every palkee-bearer
along the road declares to carry off the torch-bearers, torch and
all. Bears they said were scarce, and all other wild animals, but a
natural jealousy of Europeans often leads the natives to deny the
existence of what they know to be an attraction to the proverbially
sporting Englishman.
Illustration - OLD TAMARIND TREES.
The site of Maddaobund, elevated 1230 feet, in a clearance of the
forest, and the appearance of the snow-white domes and bannerets of
its temples through the fine trees by which it is surrounded, are
very beautiful. Though several hundred feet above any point we had
hitherto reached, the situation is so sheltered that the tamarind,
peepul, and banyan trees are superb. A fine specimen of the latter
stands at the entrance to the village, not a broadheaded tree, as is
usual in the prime of its existence, but a mass of trunks irregularly
throwing out immense branches in a most picturesque manner; the
original trunk is apparently gone, and the principal mass of root
stems is fenced in. This, with two magnificent tamarinds, forms a
grand clump. The ascent of the mountain is immediately from the
village up a pathway worn by the feet of many a pilgrim from the most
remote parts of India.
Paras-nath is a mountain of peculiar sanctity, to which circumstance
is to be attributed the flourishing state of Maddaobund. The name is
that of the twenty-third incarnation of Jinna (Sanscrit "Conqueror"),
who was born at Benares, lived one hundred years, and was buried on
this mountain, which is the eastern metropolis of Jain worship, as
Mount Aboo is the western (where are their libraries and most
splendid temples). The origin of the Jain sect is obscure, though its
rise appears to correspond with the wreck of Boodhism throughout
India in the eleventh century. The Jains form in some sort a
transition-sect between Boodhists and Hindoos, differing from the
former in acknowledging castes, and from both in their worship of
Paras-nath's foot, instead of that of Munja-gosha of the Boodhs, or
Vishnoo's of the Hindoos. As a sect of Boodhists their religion is
considered pure, and free from the obscenities so conspicuous in
Hindoo worship; whilst, in fact, perhaps the reverse is the case;
but the symbols are fewer, and indeed almost confined to the feet of
Paras-nath, and the priests jealously conceal their esoteric
doctrines.
The temples, though small, are well built, and carefully kept.
No persuasion could induce the Brahmins to allow us to proceed beyond
the vestibule without taking off our shoes, to which we were not
inclined to consent. The bazaar was for so small a village large, and
crowded to excess with natives of all castes, colours, and provinces
of India, very many from the extreme W. and N.W., Rajpootana, the
Madras Presidency, and Central India. Numbers had come in good cars,
well attended, and appeared men of wealth and consequence; while the
quantities of conveyances of all sorts standing about, rather
reminded me of an election, than of anything I had seen in India.
The natives of the place were a more Negro-looking race than the
Bengalees to whom I had previously been accustomed; and the curiosity
and astonishment they displayed at seeing (probably many of them for
the first time) a party of Englishmen, were sufficiently amusing.
Our coolies with provisions not having come up, and it being two
o'clock in the afternoon, I having had no breakfast, and being
ignorant of the exclusively Jain population of the village, sent my
servant to the bazaar, for some fowls and eggs; but he was mobbed for
asking for these articles, and parched rice, beaten flat, with some
coarse sugar, was all I could obtain; together with sweetmeats so
odiously flavoured with various herbs, and sullied with such
impurities, that we quickly made them over to the elephants.
Not being able to ascend the mountain and return in one day,
Mr. Williams and his party went back to the road, leaving Mr. Haddon
and myself, who took up our quarters under a tamarind-tree.
In the evening a very gaudy poojah was performed. The car, filled
with idols, was covered with gilding and silk, and drawn by noble
bulls, festooned and garlanded. A procession was formed in front; and
it opened into an avenue, up and down which gaily dressed
dancing-boys paced or danced, shaking castanets, the attendant
worshippers singing in discordant voices, beating tom-toms, cymbals,
etc. Images (of Boodh apparently) abounded on the car, in front of
which a child was placed. The throng of natives was very great and
perfectly orderly, indeed, sufficiently apathetic: they were
remarkably civil in explaining what they understood of their
own worship.
At 2 p.m., the thermometer was only 65 degrees, though the day was
fine, a strong haze obstructing the sun's rays; at 6 p.m., 58
degrees; at 9 p.m., 56 degrees, and the grass cooled to 49 degrees.
Still there was no dew, though the night was starlight.
Having provided doolies, or little bamboo chairs slung on four men's
shoulders, in which I put my papers and boxes, we next morning
commenced the ascent; at first through woods of the common trees,
with large clumps of bamboo, over slaty rocks of gneiss, much
inclined and sloping away from the mountain. The view from a ridge
500 feet high was superb, of the village, and its white domes half
buried in the forest below, the latter of which continued in sight
for many miles to the northward. Descending to a valley some ferns
were met with, and a more luxuriant vegetation, especially of
_Urticeae._ Wild bananas formed a beautiful, and to me novel
feature in the woods.
The conical hills of the white ants were very abundant. The structure
appears to me not an independent one, but the debris of clumps of
bamboos, or of the trunks of large trees, which these insects have
destroyed. As they work up a tree from the ground, they coat the bark
with particles of sand glued together, carrying up this artificial
sheath or covered way as they ascend. A clump of bamboos is thus
speedily killed; when the dead stems fall away, leaving the mass of
stumps coated with sand, which the action of the weather soon
fashions into a cone of earthy matter.
Ascending again, the path strikes up the hill, through a thick forest
of Sal (_Vateria robusta_) and other trees, spanned with cables
of scandent _Bauhinia_ stems. At about 3000 feet above the sea,
the vegetation becomes more luxuriant, and by a little stream I
collected five species of ferns and some mosses,--all in a dry state,
however. Still higher, _Clematis, Thalictrum,_ and an increased
number of grasses are seen; with bushes of _Verbenaceae_ and
_Compositae._ The white ant apparently does not enter this
cooler region. At 3500 feet the vegetation again changes, the trees
all become gnarled and scattered; and as the dampness also increases,
more mosses and ferns appear. We emerged from the forest at the foot
of the great ridge of rocky peaks, stretching E. and W. three or four
miles. Abundance of a species of berberry and an _Osbeckia_
marked the change in the vegetation most decidedly, and were frequent
over the whole summit, with coarse grasses, and various bushes.
At noon we reached the saddle of the crest (alt. 4230 feet), where
was a small temple, one of five or six which occupy various
prominences of the ridge. The wind, N.W., was cold, the temp. 56
degrees. The view was beautiful, but the atmosphere too hazy: to the
north were ranges of low wooded hills, and the course of the Barakah
and Adji rivers; to the south lay a flatter country, with lower
ranges, and the Damooda river, its all but waterless bed snowy-white
from the exposed granite blocks with which its course is strewn.
East and west the several sharp ridges of the mountain itself are
seen; the western considerably the highest. Immediately below, the
mountain flanks appear clothed with impenetrable forest, here and
there interrupted by rocky eminences; while to the north the grand
trunk road shoots across the plains, like a white thread, as straight
as an arrow, spanning here and there the beds of the mountain
torrents.
On the south side the vegetation was more luxuriant than on the
north, though, from the heat of the sun, the reverse might have been
expected. This is owing partly to the curve taken by the ridge being
open to the south, and partly to the winds from that quarter being
the moist ones. Accordingly, trees which I had left 3000 feet below
in the north ascent, here ascended to near the summit, such as figs
and bananas. A short-stemmed palm (_Phoenix_) was tolerably
abundant, and a small tree (_Pterospermum_) on which a species
of grass grew epiphytically; forming a curious feature in the
landscape.
The situation of the principal temple is very fine, below the saddle
in a hollow facing the south, surrounded by jungles of plantain and
banyan. It is small, and contains little worthy of notice but the
sculptured feet of Paras-nath, and some marble Boodh idols;
cross-legged figures with crisp hair and the Brahminical cord.
These, a leper covered with ashes in the vestibule, and an
officiating priest, were all we saw. Pilgrims were seen on various
parts of the mountain in very considerable numbers, passing from one
temple to another, and generally leaving a few grains of dry rice at
each; the rich and lame were carried in chairs, the poorer walked.
The culminant rocks are very dry, but in the rains may possess many
curious plants; a fine _Kalanchoe_ was common, with the berberry, a
beautiful _Indigofera,_ and various other shrubs; a _Bolbophyllum_
grew on the rocks, with a small _Begonia,_ and some ferns. There were
no birds, and very few insects, a beautiful small _Pontia_ being the
only butterfly. The striped squirrel was very busy amongst the rocks;
and I saw a few mice, and the traces of bears.
At 3 p.m., the temperature was 54 degrees, and the air deliciously
cool and pleasant. I tried to reach the western peak (perhaps 300
feet above the saddle), by keeping along the ridge, but was cut off
by precipices, and ere I could retrace my steps it was time to
descend. This I was glad to do in a doolie, and I was carried to the
bottom, with only one short rest, in an hour and three quarters.
The descent was very steep the whole way, partly down steps of sharp
rock, where one of the men cut his foot severely. The pathway at the
bottom was lined for nearly a quarter of a mile with sick, halt,
maimed, lame, and blind beggars, awaiting our descent. It was truly a
fearful sight, especially the lepers, and numerous unhappy victims
to elephantiasis.
Though the botany of Paras-nath proved interesting, its elevation was
not accompanied by such a change from the flora of its base as I had
expected. This is no doubt due to its dry climate and sterile soil;
characters which it shares with the extensive elevated area of which
it forms a part, and upon which I could not detect above 300 species
of plants during my journey. Yet, that the atmosphere at the summit
is more damp as well as cooler than at the base, is proved as well by
the observations as by the vegetation;* [Of plants eminently typical
of a moister atmosphere, I may mention the genera _Bolbophyllum,
Begonia, Aeginetia, Disporum, Roxburghia, Panax, Eugenia, Myrsine,
Shorea, Millettia,_ ferns, mosses, and foliaceous lichens; which
appeared in strange association with such dry-climate genera as
_Kalanchoe, Pterospermum,_ and the dwarf-palm, _Phoenix._ Add to this
list the _Berberis asiatica, Clematis nutans, Thalictrum
glyphocarpum,_ 27 grasses, _Cardamine,_ etc., and the mountain top
presents a mixture of the plants of a damp hot, a dry hot, and of a
temperate climate, in fairly balanced proportions. The prime elements
of a tropical flora were however wholly wanting on Paras-nath, where
are neither Peppers, _Pothos, Arum,_ tall or climbing palms,
tree-ferns, _Guttiferae,_ vines, or laurels.] and in some respects,
as the increased proportion of ferns, additional epiphytal orchideous
plants, _Begonias,_ and other species showed, its top supported a
more tropical flora than its base.