I mentioned in the foregoing epistle, that the chiefs of the Mandans
frequently have a plurality of wives. Such is the custom amongst all of
these North Western tribes, and a few general remarks on this subject
will apply to them all, and save the trouble of repeating them.
Polygamy is countenanced amongst all of the North American Indians, so
far as I have visited them; and it is no uncommon thing to find a chief
with six, eight, or ten, and some with twelve or fourteen wives in his
lodge. Such is an ancient custom, and in their estimation is right as
well as necessary. Women in a savage state, I believe, are always held
in a rank inferior to that of the men, in relation to whom in many
respects they stand rather in the light of menials and slaves than
otherwise; and as they are the “hewers of wood and drawers of water,”
it becomes a matter of necessity for a chief (who must be liberal,
keep open doors, and entertain, for the support of his popularity) to
have in his wigwam a sufficient number of such handmaids or menials to
perform the numerous duties and drudgeries of so large and expensive an
establishment.
There are two other reasons for this custom which operate with
equal, if not with greater force than the one above assigned. In the
first place, these people, though far behind the civilized world in
acquisitiveness, have still more or less passion for the accumulation
of wealth, or, in other words, for the luxuries of life; and a
chief, excited by a desire of this kind, together with a wish to be
able to furnish his lodge with something more than ordinary for the
entertainment of his own people, as well as strangers who fall upon his
hospitality, sees fit to marry a number of wives, who are kept at hard
labour during most of the year; and the avails of that labour enable
him to procure those luxuries, and give to his lodge the appearance
of respectability which is not ordinarily seen. Amongst those tribes
who trade with the Fur Companies, this system is carried out to a
great extent, and the women are kept for the greater part of the
year, dressing buffalo robes and other skins for the market; and the
brave or chief, who has the greatest number of wives, is considered
the most affluent and envied man in the tribe; for his table is most
bountifully supplied, and his lodge the most abundantly furnished with
the luxuries of civilized manufacture, who has at the year’s end the
greatest number of robes to vend to the Fur Company.
The manual labour amongst savages is all done by the women; and as
there are no daily labourers or persons who will “_hire out_” to labour
for another, it becomes necessary for him who requires more than the
labour or services of one, to add to the number by legalizing and
compromising by the ceremony of marriage, his stock of labourers; who
can thus, and thus alone, be easily enslaved, and the results of their
labour turned to good account.
There is yet the other inducement, which probably is more effective
than either; the natural inclination which belongs to man, who
stands high in the estimation of his people and wields the sceptre
of power—surrounded by temptations which he considers it would be
unnatural to resist, where no law or regulation of society stands
in the way of his enjoyment. Such a custom amongst savage nations
can easily be excused too, and we are bound to excuse it, when
we behold man in a state of nature, as he was made, following a
natural inclination, which is sanctioned by ancient custom and by
their religion, without a law or regulation of their society to
discountenance it; and when, at the same time, such an accumulation of
a man’s household, instead of quadrupling his expenses (as would be
the case in the civilized world), actually becomes his wealth, as the
results of their labour abundantly secure to him all the necessaries
and luxuries of life.
There are other and very rational grounds on which the propriety
of such a custom may be urged, one of which is as follows:—as all
nations of Indians in their natural condition are unceasingly at war
with the tribes that are about them, for the adjustment of ancient
and never-ending feuds, as well as from a love of glory, to which in
Indian life the battle-field is almost the only road, their warriors
are killed off to that extent, that in many instances two and sometimes
three women to a man are found in a tribe. In such instances I have
found that the custom of polygamy has kindly helped the community to an
evident relief from a cruel and prodigious calamity.
The instances of which I have above spoken, are generally confined to
the chiefs and medicine-men; though there is no regulation prohibiting
a poor or obscure individual from marrying several wives, other than
the personal difficulties which lie between him and the hand which he
wishes in vain to get, for want of sufficient celebrity in society, or
from a still more frequent objection, that of his inability (from want
of worldly goods) to deal in the customary way with the fathers of the
girls whom he would appropriate to his own household.
There are very few instances indeed, to be seen in these regions, where
a poor or ordinary citizen has more than one wife; but amongst chiefs
and braves of great reputation, and doctors, it is common to see some
six or eight living under one roof, and all apparently quiet and
contented; seemingly harmonizing, and enjoying the modes of life and
treatment that falls to their lot.
Wives in this country are mostly treated for with the father, as in all
instances they are regularly bought and sold. In many cases the bargain
is made with the father alone, without ever consulting the inclinations
of the girl, and seems to be conducted on his part as a mercenary
contract entirely, where he stands out for the highest price he can
possibly command for her. There are other instances to be sure, where
the parties approach each other, and from the expression of a mutual
fondness, make their own arrangements, and pass their own mutual vows,
which are quite as sacred and inviolable as similar assurances when
made in the civilized world. Yet even in such cases, the marriage is
never consummated without the necessary form of making presents to the
father of the girl.
It becomes a matter of policy and almost of absolute necessity, for the
white men who are Traders in these regions to connect themselves in
this way, to one or more of the most influential families in the tribe,
which in a measure identifies their interest with that of the nation,
and enables them, with the influence of their new family connexions,
to carry on successfully their business transactions with them. The
young women of the best families only can aspire to such an elevation;
and the most of them are exceedingly ambitious for such a connexion,
inasmuch as they are certain of a delightful exemption from the slavish
duties that devolve upon them when married under other circumstances;
and expect to be, as they generally are, allowed to lead a life of ease
and idleness, covered with mantles of blue and scarlet cloth—with beads
and trinkets, and ribbons, in which they flounce and flirt about, the
envied and tinselled belles of every tribe.
These connexions, however, can scarcely be called marriages, for I
believe they are generally entered into without the form or solemnizing
ceremony of a marriage, and on the part of the father of the girls,
conducted purely as a mercenary or business transaction; in which
they are very expert, and practice a deal of shrewdness in exacting
an adequate price from a purchaser whom they consider possessed of
so large and so rich a stock of the world’s goods; and who they deem
abundantly able to pay liberally for so delightful a commodity.
Almost every Trader and every clerk who commences in the business of
this country, speedily enters into such an arrangement, which is done
with as little ceremony as he would bargain for a horse, and just as
unceremoniously do they annul and abolish this connexion when they
wish to leave the country, or change their positions from one tribe to
another; at which time the woman is left, a fair and proper candidate
for matrimony or speculation, when another applicant comes along, and
her father equally desirous for another horse or gun, &c. which he can
easily command at her second espousal.
From the enslaved and degraded condition in which the women are held in
the Indian country, the world would naturally think that theirs must
be a community formed of incongruous and unharmonizing materials; and
consequently destitute of the fine, reciprocal feelings and attachments
which flow from the domestic relations in the civilized world; yet it
would be untrue, and doing injustice to the Indians, to say that they
were in the least behind us in conjugal, in filial, and in paternal
affection. There is no trait in the human character which is more
universal than the attachments which flow from these relations, and
there is no part of the human species who have a stronger affection and
a higher regard for them than the North American Indians.
There is no subject in the Indian character of more importance to be
rightly understood than this, and none either that has furnished me
more numerous instances and more striking proofs, of which I shall
make use on a future occasion, when I shall say a vast deal more of
marriage—of divorce—of polygamy—and of Indian domestic relations. For
the present I am scribbling about the looks and usages of the Indians
who are about me and under my eye; and I must not digress too much into
general remarks, lest I lose sight of those who are near me, and the
first to be heralded.
Such, then, are the Mandans—their women are beautiful and modest,—and
amongst the respectable families, virtue is as highly cherished and
as inapproachable, as in any society whatever; yet at the same time a
chief may marry a dozen wives if he pleases, and so may a white man;
and if either wishes to marry the most beautiful and modest girl in the
tribe, she is valued only equal, perhaps, to two horses, a gun with
powder and ball for a year, five or six pounds of beads, a couple of
gallons of whiskey, and a handful of awls.
The girls of this tribe, like those of most of these north-western
tribes, marry at the age of twelve or fourteen, and some at the age of
eleven years; and their beauty, from this fact, as well as from the
slavish life they lead, soon after marriage vanishes. Their occupations
are almost continual, and they seem to go industriously at them, as if
from choice or inclination, without a murmur.
The principal occupations of the women in this village, consist in
procuring wood and water, in cooking, dressing robes and other skins,
in drying meat and wild fruit, and raising corn (maize). The Mandans
are somewhat of agriculturists, as they raise a great deal of corn and
some pumpkins and squashes. This is all done by the women, who make
their hoes of the shoulder-blade of the buffalo or the elk, and dig the
ground over instead of ploughing it, which is consequently done with a
vast deal of labour. They raise a very small sort of corn, the ears of
which are not longer than a man’s thumb. This variety is well adapted
to their climate, as it ripens sooner than other varieties, which would
not mature in so cold a latitude. The green corn season is one of great
festivity with them, and one of much importance. The greater part of
their crop is eaten during these festivals, and the remainder is
gathered and dried on the cob, before it has ripened, and packed away
in “_caches_” (as the French call them), holes dug in the ground, some
six or seven feet deep, the insides of which are somewhat in the form
of a jug, and tightly closed at the top. The corn, and even dried meat
and pemican, are placed in these _caches_, being packed tight around
the sides., with prairie grass, and effectually preserved through the
severest winters.
Corn and dried meat are generally laid in in the fall, in sufficient
quantities to support them through the winter. These are the principal
articles of food during that long and inclement season; and in addition
to them, they oftentimes have in store great quantities of dried
squashes and dried “_pommes blanches_,” a kind of turnip which grows in
great abundance in these regions, and of which I have before spoken.
These are dried in great quantities, and pounded into a sort of meal,
and cooked with the dried meat and corn. Great quantities also of wild
fruit of different kinds are dried and laid away in store for the
winter season, such as buffalo berries, service berries, strawberries,
and wild plums.
The buffalo meat, however, is the great staple and “staff of life” in
this country, and seldom (if ever) fails to afford them an abundant and
wholesome means of subsistence. There are, from a fair computation,
something like 250,000 Indians in these western regions, who live
almost exclusively on the flesh of these animals, through every part of
the year. During the summer and fall months they use the meat fresh,
and cook it in a great variety of ways, by roasting, broiling, boiling,
stewing, smoking, &c.; and by boiling the ribs and joints with the
marrow in them, make a delicious soup, which is universally used, and
in vast quantities. The Mandans, I find, have no regular or stated
times for their meals, but generally eat about twice in the twenty-four
hours. The pot is always boiling over the fire, and any one who is
hungry (either of the household or from any other part of the village)
has a right to order it taken off, and to fall to eating as he pleases.
Such is an unvarying custom amongst the North American Indians, and I
very much doubt, whether the civilized world have in their institutions
any system which can properly be called more humane and charitable.
Every man, woman, or child in Indian communities is allowed to enter
any one’s lodge, and even that of the chief of the nation, and eat when
they are hungry, provided misfortune or necessity has driven them to
it. Even so can the poorest and most worthless drone of the nation; if
he is too lazy to hunt or to supply himself, he can walk into any lodge
and everyone will share with him as long as there is anything to eat.
He, however, who thus begs when he is able to hunt, pays dear for his
meat, for he is stigmatized with the disgraceful epithet of a poltroon
and a beggar.
The Mandans, like all other tribes, sit at their meals cross-legged,
or rather with their ancles crossed in front of them, and both feet
drawn close under their bodies; or, which is very often the case also,
take their meals in a reclining posture, with the legs thrown out, and
the body resting on one elbow and fore-arm, which are under them. The
dishes from which they eat are invariably on the ground or floor of
the lodge, and the group resting on buffalo robes or mats of various
structure and manufacture.
The position in which the women sit at their meals and on other
occasions is different from that of the men, and one which they
take and rise from again, with great ease and much grace, by merely
bending the knees both together, inclining the body back and the head
and shoulders quite forward, they squat entirely down to the ground,
inclining both feet either to the right or the left. In this position
they always rest while eating, and it is both modest and graceful, for
they seem, with apparent ease, to assume the position and rise out of
it, without using their hands in any way to assist them.
These women, however, although graceful and civil, and ever so
beautiful or ever so hungry, are not allowed to sit in the same group
with the men while at their meals. So far as I have yet travelled in
the Indian country, I never have seen an Indian woman eating with
her husband. Men form the first group at the banquet, and women, and
children and dogs all come together at the next, and these gormandize
and glut themselves to an enormous extent, though the men very seldom
do.
It is time that an error on this subject, which has gone generally
abroad in the world, was corrected. It is everywhere asserted, and
almost universally believed, that the Indians are “enormous eaters;”
but comparatively speaking, I assure my readers that this is an error.
I venture to say that there are no persons on earth who practice
greater prudence and self-denial, than the men do (amongst the wild
Indians), who are constantly in war and in the chase, or in their
athletic sports and exercises; for all of which they are excited by
the highest ideas of pride and honour, and every kind of excess is
studiously avoided; and for a very great part of their lives, the most
painful abstinence is enforced upon themselves, for the purpose of
preparing their bodies and their limbs for these extravagant exertions.
Many a man who has been a few weeks along the frontier, amongst the
drunken, naked and beggared part of the Indian race, and run home
and written a book on Indians, has, no doubt, often seen them eat to
beastly excess; and he has seen them also guzzle whiskey (and perhaps
_sold_ it to them) till he has seen them glutted and besotted, without
will or energy to move; and many and thousands of such things can
always be seen, where white people have made beggars of them, and they
have nothing to do but lie under a fence and beg a whole week to get
meat and whiskey enough for one feast and one carouse; but amongst the
wild Indians in this country there are no beggars—no drunkards—and
every man, from a beautiful natural precept, studies to keep his body
and mind in such a healthy shape and condition as will at all times
enable him to use his weapons in self-defence, or struggle for the
prize in their manly games.
As I before observed, these men generally eat but twice a day, and many
times not more than once, and those meals are light and simple compared
with the meals that are swallowed in the civilized world; and by the
very people also, who sit at the festive board three times a day,
making a jest of the Indian for his eating, when they actually guzzle
more liquids, besides their eating, than would fill the stomach of an
Indian.
There are, however, many seasons and occasions in the year with all
Indians, when they fast for several days in succession; and others
where they can _get_ nothing to eat; and at such times (their habits
are such) they may be seen to commence with an enormous meal, and
because they do so, it is an insufficient reason why we should for ever
remain under so egregious an error with regard to a single custom of
these people.
I have seen so many of these, and lived with them, and travelled with
them, and oftentimes felt as if I should starve to death on an equal
allowance, that I am fully convinced I am correct in saying that the
North American Indians, taking them in the aggregate, even where they
have an abundance to subsist on, eat less than any civilized population
of equal numbers, that I have ever travelled amongst.
Their mode of curing and preserving the buffalo meat is somewhat
curious, and in fact it is almost incredible also; for it is all cured
or dried in the sun, without the aid of salt or smoke! The method of
doing this is the same amongst all the tribes, from this to the Mexican
Provinces, and is as follows:—The choicest parts of the flesh from the
buffalo are cut out by the squaws, and carried home on their backs or
on horses, and there cut “_across the grain_,” in such a manner as will
take alternately the layers of lean and fat; and having prepared it
all in this way, in strips about half an inch in thickness, it is hung
up by hundreds and thousands of pounds on poles resting on crotches,
out of the reach of dogs or wolves, and exposed to the rays of the sun
for several days, when it becomes so effectually dried, that it can
be carried to any part of the world without damage. This seems almost
an unaccountable thing, and the more so, as it is done in the hottest
months of the year, and also in all the different latitudes of an
Indian country.
So singular a fact as this can only be accounted for, I consider, on
the ground of the extraordinary rarity and purity of the air which
we meet with in these vast tracts of country, which are now properly
denominated “the great buffalo plains,” a series of exceedingly
elevated plateaus of _steppes_ or _prairies_, lying at and near the
base of the Rocky Mountains.
It is a fact then, which I presume will be new to most of the world,
that meat can be cured in the sun without the aid of smoke or salt;
and it is a fact equally true and equally surprising also, that none
of these tribes use salt in any way, although their country abounds
in salt springs; and in many places, in the frequent walks of the
Indian, the prairie may be seen, for miles together, covered with an
incrustation of salt as white as the drifted snow.
I have, in travelling with Indians, encamped by such places, where they
have cooked and eaten their meat, when I have been unable to prevail on
them to use salt in any quantity whatever. The Indians cook their meat
more than the civilized people do, and I have long since learned, from
necessity, that meat thus cooked can easily be eaten and relished too,
without salt or other condiment.
The fact above asserted applies exclusively to those tribes of Indians
which I have found in their primitive state, living entirely on meat;
but everywhere along our Frontier, where the game of the country
has long since been chiefly destroyed, and these people have become
semi-civilized, raising and eating, as we do, a variety of vegetable
food, they use (and no doubt require), a great deal of salt; and in
many instances use it even to destructive excess.
LETTER—No. 18.