GUIDE TO THE STUDY
OF
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
[Illustration]
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[Illustration:
FIG. 1.--Oyster Bank in South Carolina. Showing colonies of “coon”
oysters growing in area between tides. Consult Möbius, Dean, and Grave
for the ecological conditions of the animals on oyster banks. This is
a representative animal community. Photo. by B. Dean, loaned by U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries. ]
GUIDE TO THE STUDY
OF
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
BY
CHARLES C. ADAMS, PH.D.
ASSOCIATE IN ANIMAL ECOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF ZOÖLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
NEW YORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1913
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1913,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1913.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
During the past ten years the writer has been trying to find some
consistent and satisfactory working plan for handling the almost
bewildering number of facts, of ecological significance, which have
been accumulating in the literature of zoölogy, biology, and the allied
sciences. This book is the outgrowth of the effort as it has developed
in the study and teaching of animal ecology. I have not attempted
to make this an exhaustive treatment of the subject, but rather to
indicate briefly some of its general bearings and a method of approach.
I have tried to keep in mind the needs of the beginner in ecology.
An ecological point of view is described more fully than the other
subjects discussed, so that the student may see the need of familiarity
with those tests or criteria by means of which he may be able to
determine for himself ecological relations and the validity of
ecological studies. The other phases are treated less fully in the
discussions and with more detail bibliographically so that this may be
a useful source book. The geographical (in the ordinary sense of the
word) aspect has been deliberately omitted. The references should be
looked upon from the standpoint presented in the general portions of
this book, and if the facts and inferences aid in the interpretation of
the relations which exist between animals and the sum total of their
environments, one may fairly consider that they are of ecological worth.
In the arrangement of the references I have tried to group related
papers, but many defy any single system. Some of the publications
deserve to be in several lists, but little duplication has been made,
as this would unduly prolong the lists. The annotations will supplement
the titles and their grouping in indicating the contents and importance
of the papers for our purpose. It has often been difficult to select
from several almost equally valuable and useful papers. Others with
different interests, aims, and experience would doubtless make a
different choice. It will therefore be a favor, if those who use this
handbook and feel that important papers have been excluded, will
communicate this fact to the author.
This book is not intended as a treatise on the science of ecology;
its aim is primarily educational. This is the justification, if any
were necessary, for placing emphasis upon the point of view and the
importance of an understanding of explanatory processes and of the
methods of scientific investigation. Any adequate treatment of this
subject would exceed the space of this volume and it is reserved for
future elaboration.
At present ecology is a science with its facts out of all proportion
to their organization or integration. There is thus an immediate need
of integration, and this above all requires a clear conception of the
scientific method as a tool, and independent thinking as well. The
fact that scientific work progresses more rapidly when consciously
pursued than otherwise should serve as ample justification for this
emphasis.
A word of explanation is desirable to explain certain features of
this volume. It is the outcome of coöperative work on the part of the
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and certain members of
the Ecological Survey Committee of the Illinois Academy of Science,
Professors E. N. Transeau and T. L. Hankinson. A local ecological study
was made, as a piece of coöperative work, and directions for study
were to be an introductory section of my part of this report. But as
this part grew on my hands, with the permission of Professor S. A.
Forbes, Director of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, I
decided to publish it separately. This part was written two years and
a half ago, and when separate publication was decided upon, additional
references to the literature were added to bring it to date. These
circumstances explain the emphasis placed upon ecological surveying and
also the brevity of treatment of other aspects.
Further, I am indebted to Professor Forbes for reading the manuscript
and for valuable criticisms, and likewise, for similar assistance, to
my wife, Alice Norton Adams. Skillful help on the proof and index has
been given by Miss Marion E. Sparks.
CHARLES C. ADAMS.
URBANA, ILL., U.S.A.,
June 9, 1913.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
CHAPTER
I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 1
II. THE VALUE AND METHOD OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 23
III. FIELD STUDY 36
IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS 49
V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 55
1. The Scientific Method 55
2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens,
Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases
of Technique 57
3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and
on Proof Reading 65
VI. REFERENCES TO IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES
AND HABITS OF INSECTS AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES 70
VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF
EXTERNAL NATURE.”(THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT) 79
VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT,
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR “THE LIVING ORGANISM AND THE
CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN IT.” (THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF
THE ANIMAL) 92
1. General Physiology and Development 95
2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers 100
3. Animal Behavior as a Process 102
4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies 107
5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and
Behavior 108
IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE
ANIMAL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS. (THE DYNAMIC OR
PROCESS RELATIONS OF ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS) 122
1. The Struggle for Existence 123
2. The Dynamic Relations of Associations and Aggregations,
with Special Reference to Animal Associations 130
_a._ The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to
Plant Galls 141
_b._ Subterranean and Cave Associations 143
_c._ Selected References on Aggregations and Associations 145
INDEX 151
INDEX TO NAMES 179
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG.
1. An Oyster Habitat on the South Carolina Coast _Frontispiece_
2. Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Overcrowded
Condition _facing page_ 7
3. Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Destruction
of Clams by Predaceous Animals ” ” 8
4. A Small Mountain Stream as an Animal Environment ” ” 86
5. A Small River as an Animal Environment ” ” 87
6. An Illinois Prairie Remnant as an Animal Environment ” ” 139
7. An Illinois Deciduous Forest as an Animal Environment ” ” 146
RELATION OF ECOLOGY TO BIOLOGY
“I shall try to show that life is response to the order of nature....
But if it be admitted, it follows that biology is the study of
response, and that the study of that order of nature to which response
is made is as well within its province as the study of the living
organism which responds, for all the knowledge we can get of both these
aspects of nature is needed as a preparation for the study of that
relation between them which constitutes life.”
“To study life we must consider three things:
_first_, the orderly sequence of external nature;
_second_, the living organism and the changes which take place in it;
and,
_third_, that continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena
which constitutes life.”
“The physical sciences deal with the external world, and in the
laboratory we study the structure and activities of organisms by very
similar methods; but if we stop there, neglecting the relation of
the living being to its environment, our study is not biology or the
science of life.”
W. K. BROOKS.
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW
Ecology has no aim, but ecologists have. The problems of the ecologist
are not fundamentally different from those of any other kind of
naturalist. The superficial differences in aim are due to the different
points of view, or methods of approach, rather than to any essential
difference in the character of the problems.
The essentially biological core of ecology may be best shown by
considering the relation which this science bears to other branches of
biology, a relation which has been admirably expressed by the eminent
physiologist, Burdon-Sanderson (’94, pp. 438-439), as follows:
“Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning to think about the
activities of an organism is that they are naturally distinguishable
into two kinds, according as we consider the action of the whole
organism in its relation to the external world or to other organisms,
or the action of the parts or organs in their relation to each other.
The distinction to which we are thus led between the _internal_
and _external_ relation of plants and animals has of course always
existed, but has only lately come into such prominence that it divides
biologists more or less completely into two camps--on the one hand
those who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism
and its parts by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry,
carrying this investigation as far as the conditions under which
each process manifests itself will permit; on the other, those who
interest themselves rather in considering the place which each organism
occupies, and the part which it plays in the economy of nature. It is
apparent that the two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate
to what the organism _does_, rather than to what it is, and therefore
both have equal right to be included in the one great science of life,
or biology, yet lead in directions which are scarcely even parallel. So
marked, indeed, is the distinction, that Professor Haeckel some twenty
years ago proposed to separate the study of organisms with reference
to their place in nature under the designation of ‘œcology,’ defining
it as comprising ‘the relations of the animal to its organic as well
as to its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly or hostile
relations to those animals or plants with which it comes into direct
contact.’[1] Whether this term expresses it or not, the distinction is
a fundamental one. Whether with the œcologist we regard the organism in
relation to the world, or with the physiologist as a wonderful complex
of vital energies, the two branches have this in common, that both
studies fix their attention, not on stuffed animals, butterflies in
cases, or even microscopical sections of the animal or plant body--all
of which relate to the framework of life--but on life itself.”
[1] These he identifies with “those complicated mutual relations which
Darwin designates as conditions of the struggle for existence.” Along
with chorology--the distribution of animals--œcology constitutes what
he calls _Relations-physiologie_. Haeckel, “Entwickelungsgang u.
Aufgaben der Zoologie,” Jenaische Zeitschr., 1869, Vol. V, p. 353.
The quotations from Brooks, on a preceding page, show even more
explicitly the intimate relation which exists between biology and
ecology. At first glance they may seem to prove almost too much--that
biology and ecology are synonymous. They show at least that ecology
is concerned with fundamental biological problems--the responses of
organisms to their complete environments.
The relations which different branches of ecology bear to one another
may be discussed under three headings, individual, aggregate, and
associational ecology. These phases are superficially so distinct that
students of one branch may be almost unaware of the existence of the
coördinate branches and may not realize that each is a part of the
larger unit.
_Individual Ecology._--The study of individual ecology is the
investigation of the development (_process_ of formation) of the
structure, function, and behavior of a given individual or kind of
animal from the standpoint of its relations and responses to the
complete environment. All ecologically significant facts should be
considered. Such a study may be devoted to an animal, as, for example,
a bumblebee, a crawfish, or a garter snake, and may be limited to
a single habitat or locality, or extended throughout the entire
geographic range of an animal. From this standpoint the individual
studied becomes the hub of the microcosm, from which all relations and
responses radiate. Most of the physiological studies of ecological
bearing and many investigations of animal behavior have been made from
this viewpoint. The organism is thus considered as an agent which,
transforming and utilizing substance and energy, produces a varied
number of physiological conditions and forms of activity, which in turn
furnish the basis for the constant process of response between the
organism and its environment.
_Aggregate Ecology._--The study of aggregate ecology is the
investigation of the ecological development, relations, and responses
of animals based upon hereditary or taxonomic units, as in a family
community, or in genera, families, orders, etc. These groups or
aggregates are made the basis for the ecologic study, as a hive
of bees, birds, dragon flies (Odonata), the genus _Bombus_. From
this approach the activities and responses of the group are traced
throughout all environments and associations within the area studied,
or throughout the world, and its responses and adjustments to the whole
environment receive primary attention. The hereditary or taxonomic unit
is here the hub of the microcosm. Perhaps most of the contributions to
ecology by the taxonomists are made from this standpoint. Here also the
aggregate is considered as an agent or entity which produces many kinds
of activities and adjustments to the environment.
_Associational Ecology._--Associational ecology is devoted to the
investigation of the development, interrelations, and responses of
animals which are grouped or associated in the same habitats and
environments. In this case the associates in a given association and
habitat are considered as a unit, whose activities and interrelations
and responses are investigated in the same manner as if it were a
single animal. The interactions among members of an association are to
be compared to the similar relations existing between the different
cells, organs, or activities of a single individual. Such groupings
have a composition which has developed into an arrangement, or
“spacing,” of individuals within it, and which produces a particular
plan or pattern, as a result of the innumerable responsive activities
on the part of the individuals which live together. For example, when
the animals living in a small brook, the littoral zone of a lake, in a
colony of breeding gulls, or on the floor of a forest, are treated as a
unit, the entire history of the animals in the habitat is considered as
a response to the conditions of life.
In this form of study the association becomes the center of all
radiating relations and responses. Such an association is an agent
which transforms substance and energy, producing varied physiological
conditions and responses in the continuous process of adjustment “which
constitutes life.” The physiological needs and states of an association
have as real existence in individual animals as have similar needs in
the cell or cells which compose the animal body. The mere statement of
the facts of such relations is enough to make valid such a comparison.
For the associational aspect of ecology the German naturalist, Möbius,
proposed in 1877 the term “biocœnosis.” The meaning of this he
expressed very clearly and concisely, and on account of its relatively
obscure publication, in a paper devoted to oyster culture, it has not
gained the circulation among zoölogists which its importance merits.
His statement (Möbius, ’83, p. 723) is as follows:
“Every oyster-bed is thus, to a certain degree, a community of living
beings, a collection of species, and a massing of individuals, which
find here everything necessary for their growth and continuance, such
as suitable soil, sufficient food, the requisite percentage of salt,
and a temperature favorable to their development. Each species which
lives here is represented by the greatest number of individuals which
can grow to maturity subject to the conditions which surround them, for
among all species the number of individuals which arrive at maturity
at each breeding period is much smaller than the number of germs
produced at that time. The total number of mature individuals of all
the species living together in any region is the sum of the survivors
of all the germs which have been produced at all past breeding or brood
periods; and this sum of matured germs represents a certain quantum of
life which enters into a certain number of individuals, and which,
as does all life, gains permanence by means of transmission. Science
possesses, as yet, no word by which such a community of living beings
may be designated; no word for a community where the sum of species and
individuals, beings mutually limited and selected under the average
external conditions of life, have, by means of transmission, continued
in possession of a certain definite territory. I propose the word
_Biocænosis_[2] for such a community. Any change in any of the relative
factors of a biocönose produces changes in other factors of the same.
If, at any time, one of the external conditions of life should deviate
for a long time from its ordinary mean, the entire biocönose, or
community, would be transformed. It would also be transformed, if the
number of individuals of a particular species increased or diminished
through the instrumentality of man, or if one species entirely
disappeared from, or a new species entered into, the community.” (See
Figure 1).
[2] From βίος, life, and κοινόειν, to have something in common.
[Illustration:
FIG. 2.--Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Showing the overcrowded
condition of a colony of Soft Clams (_Mya arenaria_) on Rowley Reef,
Massachusetts. The pits mark the position of the living clams. Photo.
by Belding, loaned by Mass. Comms. Fisheries and Game. ]
The three methods of approach to ecological study are not so distinct
as they appear at first thought. With perfecting knowledge the network
of interrelations increases and the paths converge. Then also the study
of the individual behavior of “social” animals, as ants, white ants,
bees, or birds which live and breed in colonies, shows transitional
stages from the individual unit to that of the family, the colony, and
on to the association. Yet the advantage of each point of view should
be recognized as an aid in the analysis and synthesis of any problem.
Some students feel that the study of individual ecology should precede
that of the associational. Within certain limits this is true, but
if our general knowledge of biology had waited for the perfection of
our knowledge of the individual cells of animals, the results would
have been disastrous to all concerned. Even now our knowledge of these
subjects is very incomplete. For similar reasons there should be no
delay in studying animal aggregates and associations.
A combination of ecological and taxonomic study generally appeals most
strongly to those students who have made a specialty of some group of
animals. They are familiar with certain forms, have some confidence
in taxonomic methods, and frequently have given some attention to
habits, life histories, and to collecting. To those who like the
descriptive aspect of taxonomy, ecological studies also offer a new
field for further description and classification. At present perhaps
the majority of ecological students have entered the subject through
taxonomy. It is the almost universal verdict of such students that it
has required much effort on their part to make the change in the point
of view. Such a change cannot be made by a simple resolve, but requires
a modification of the habits of the mind, which will be attended by a
distinct consciousness of effort. As in other habits, reversion to the
older attitude of mind is very easy. This change in point of view is
a problem in habit formation, a study of the mental behavior of the
ecologist, which is in reality the main topic thus far discussed.
One may attempt to make such a change and find that he does not have
sufficient modifiability to make it permanent, so that it is only for
the moment, during actual collision with some stubborn fact, that he is
able to realize ecological relations and an ecological point of view.
[Illustration:
FIG. 3.--Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Showing the destruction
of a colony of Soft Clams by Horse-shoe Crabs (_Limulus_) and Cockles
(_Lunatia_), Rowley Reef, Massachusetts. Photo. by Belding, loaned by
Mass. Comms. Fisheries and Game. ]
To the physiologist, however, individual ecology tends to appeal
most strongly, and he, perhaps on account of the preponderance of
analytical methods in his work, feels that this is the safest and most
important aspect. This statement is perhaps also true of most students
of animal behavior. This is largely due to the great present need of
analytical methods in these lines, and perhaps indicates a stage in
the development of their science rather than a permanent condition.
Later a synthetic development will probably become more prominent, and
with it will come a change in estimating relative values. Generally
physiologists allow for a greater influence of the environment than
do many other students. They are impressed with the dependence of
organisms upon their environment, and the study of their reactions only
reinforces this conception.
The ecologist who studies the responses of animals cannot help being
impressed with the processes of adjustment, and with adaptation as a
_process_. It is adaptation as a process, rather than as a product,
which perhaps interests him most, and emphasis needs to be placed
upon this distinction. The problem of adaptation as a process may be
a different and separate one from that of evolution, but individual
animals must have shown adjustive adaptation, or there could have been
no perpetuation to continue the struggle of adjustment. Ecological
problems are likely to raise a question as to the relative importance
of adaptation and evolution--if they are separate problems. The present
generation has perhaps been more deeply impressed by evolution as a
process, than by adaptation as a process.
The ecology of living animals is only the latest chapter in the volume
on this subject; the preceding chapters will contain a history of the
indefinitely long series of ecological responses which have taken place
in the geologic past. Here is where the ecologist and paleontologist
and geologist find common ground. The ecology of living animals must
furnish us with whatever firm basis we have for the interpretation of
the conditions of life in the past, upon which the paleontologist,
stratigrapher, or paleogeographer must depend, at least in part, for
his interpretations.
With still another training and interest, as in the case of those
especially interested in human affairs, such as the sociologist,
the physician, the sanitary expert, and the agriculturist, we may
ultimately expect a greater appreciation for the associational aspect
because of the social or associational character of human society.
The associational is the phase of animal activity which may be
considered as the form of animal behavior which has developed into the
human social relations. It is a response to the complete organic and
inorganic environment.
It is rather natural that in a relatively newly recognized subject
like ecology this human aspect has not been very fully discussed.
For practical reasons the ecology of man has been developed largely
independent of that of animals; just as human physiology and psychology
have been developed relatively independent of comparative or general
physiological psychology. To the mutual advantage of these subjects
they are now rapidly converging, and we may anticipate a similar
relation between general animal ecology and the ecology of man. In
a general treatise on animal ecology the human phase should not
receive undue emphasis any more than it should in a general physiology
of animals or in a comparative psychology. But, nevertheless, the
relationships of man and his animal associates (slaves, domestic
animals, rats, mice, parasites, etc.) form as truly an animal
association as do those of the animals which live associated in some
forest glade; and in all probability, before any approximately complete
understanding can be had of the human associations, their roots and
principles of activity must be known and understood in the less
aristocratic portion of his animal relatives.
The recognition of the associational aspect of ecology, as well as that
human ecology is a part of general animal ecology, is of recent origin.
This is very well shown in the following quotation from Huxley (1854.
On the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences):
“Biology deals only with living beings as isolated things--treats
only of the life of the individual: but there is a higher division
of science still, which considers living beings as aggregates--which
deals with the relation of living beings one to another--the science
which _observes_ men--whose _experiments_ are made by nations one upon
another, in battlefields--whose _general propositions_ are embodied
in history, morality, and religion--whose _deductions_ lead to our
happiness or our misery--and whose _verifications_ so often come too
late, and serve only
‘To point a moral, or adorn a tale’--
I mean the science of Society or _Sociology_.”
At a later date (1876. On the Study of Biology) Huxley says: “For
whatever view we may entertain about the nature of man, one thing
is perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if our
definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must include man and
all his ways and works under the head of Biology; in which case, we
should find that psychology, politics, and political economy would
be absorbed into the province of Biology. In strict logic no one can
object to this course.... The real fact is that we biologists are a
self-sacrificing people ... [so that] we feel that we have more than
sufficient territory.... But I should like you to recollect that that
is a sacrifice, and that you should not be surprised if it occasionally
happens that you see a biologist apparently trespassing in the region
of philosophy or politics; or meddling with human education; because,
after all, that is a part of his kingdom which he has only voluntarily
forsaken.”
Whether sociology is regarded as a response of man to his fellows or
to the whole of his environment is inconsequential in its bearing upon
whether or not it is ecological. The response of man, as an animal,
to a part or the whole of his environment is strictly ecological.
Huxley recognized one relation very clearly, and that is that the
ecological relations of _individuals_ do not currently include the
higher synthesis which deals with them as associations, or “aggregates”
as he terms them. So far as known to the writer, human activities in
general have never been fully and comprehensively oriented from the
ecological standpoint, even by the humanitarians themselves, although
some important preliminary steps have been taken. It looks as if such a
viewpoint might give a new unity to all studies of human relations.
There is still another class of persons, particularly teachers and
isolated students, who desire first of all to understand and interpret
their own vicinity, and who will inquire which of the three plans their
work best fits. If such a one begins with the detailed study of each
species, the general survey will not be completed during his lifetime.
If he uses the larger taxonomic units, he may survey the field by going
over the same ground again and again, with each of the different groups
successively in mind, until the entire field has been surveyed. Or,
lastly, he may divide the area into associations and study the animals
which are found living together, and by studying one association
after another he may cover the entire field. A teacher will find
certain important advantages in this plan, and certain disadvantages.
One of the most important considerations in its favor is that such a
study results in a familiarity with the kinds of animals one actually
finds in natural groups, as when his class is on an excursion. The
natural history which a farmer, a fisherman, a summer vacationist,
or a sportsman acquires is grouped in this same manner. Thus to a
large number of people this is the natural method of approach, and is
generally of most permanent value, except possibly to some professional
teachers or zoölogists. One of its greatest disadvantages is that in
most of the literature which one must use, the animals are not grouped
in this way, but taxinomically.
The individual, aggregate, and associational methods of study are in
themselves subject to diverse angles of approach, and each has its
particular advantages and disadvantages. Of the methods of approach
mention will be made of three only, the descriptive, the comparative,
and the genetic or method of processes. The descriptive method must
develop to some degree before the genetic problems can be adequately
stated, and the mature development of the genetic may, and generally
does, lag far behind that of the descriptive. The reason for this
is simple, for it is evident that it is much easier to describe
what we see than it is to explain how it originated or its process
of development. At present biology as a science is mainly in the
descriptive stage, though it is slowly but surely becoming explanatory
and genetic. The developmental or explanatory method is so difficult
that every possible expedient--observation, comparison, reflection,
experiment, etc.--must be used to secure the proper development of the
main phases of ecology. There is a marked tendency in the naturalist
to master one system of work, as observation or experiment, and to use
it as a tool almost exclusively, turning from one phase of the subject
to another, and continuing the use of the same method. This way of
working is favorable to a good technique, but its weakness is that it
often tends to give its user a feeling of the great superiority and
reliability of the result reached by his method, and a correspondingly
less appreciative recognition of results secured by other methods.
To observe, to experiment, to reflect, to dissect, to stain, and to
collect are only partial methods of investigation, and this fact should
be realized and be kept in mind when estimating values and planning
work.
The aim of the ecologist is professedly genetic or explanatory because
it is the study of _responses_ to all conditions of the complete
environment. But these responses must be described, and the conditions
influencing them as well, so that a descriptive aspect is an essential
part in all phases of ecology. In the study of the responses of an
individual, an order, or an association, pure description of the
responses is necessary; but a description which will at once describe
and show the working of the processes by which the results were
produced, is of quite a different order. This phase of explanation
has been most concisely expressed and applied by the students of the
physical sciences, and biologists may profit much from a study of their
methods.
When, however, we turn to the viewpoint of the development of the
science of ecology as a whole, a symmetrical development of the subject
is most desirable. The preponderating influence of any special point
of view tends, like dominance in general, to smother or suppress other
germinating and competing ideas. The different special interests each
have their advantages and disadvantages, as does a general interest.
Diversity in students leads to diversity in the development of the
subject, and a variety of emotional appeals to the student has its
advantages. And just as the special student should devote some
attention to the general bearing of his work, so also should the
student of the general aspects cultivate some special field of interest.
The preceding discussion of the aims and methods in ecological study
has been intended to indicate some of its general bearings, and to give
the student some idea of the tests or criteria which may be used to aid
in steering his course through the maze of observations which he may
make and the opinions which he encounters. It is of equal importance
for the student to be able to perceive ecological relations as recorded
by others, because one person’s experience is so limited compared
with the general body of recorded fact and inference. Furthermore,
there are also so many degrees and kinds of work that go by the name
ecological, which may or may not be, and so many also which are truly
ecological but which do not pass under that name, that it is necessary
that the student shall be able to see through its diverse guises and
recognize its essential character. Whenever the question arises as
to the ecological character of a fact, inference, or conclusion, its
ecological validity may be tested in the following way:
Do the facts, inferences, or conclusions show a _response_ to the
inorganic or organic environment:
1. As an individual of a species or kind of animal?
2. As a group of taxonomically related animals?
3. As an association of interacting animals?
REFERENCES ON THE ECOLOGICAL STANDPOINT
In this I have listed only those papers which have seemed to me
particularly significant because of their point of view, regardless of
whether or not they are primarily zoölogical or specifically mention
ecology.
BROOKS, W. K.
1899. The Foundations of Zoölogy. pp. 339. New York.
Introductory, pp. 1-29; Huxley, and the Problem of the Naturalist, pp.
33-46; Nature and Nurture, pp. 49-79.
1906. Heredity and Variation; Logical and Biological. Proc. Amer. Phil.
Soc., Vol. XLV, pp. 70-76.
An extremely suggestive paper which should be read by every ecological
student.
GANONG, W. F.
1907. The Organization of the Ecological Investigation of the
Physiological Life-Histories of Plants. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLIII, pp.
341-344.
1904. The Cardinal Principles of Ecology. Science, N. S., Vol. XIX, pp.
493-498.
BURDON-SANDERSON, J. S.
1894. Biology in Relation to Other Natural Sciences. Smithsonian Report
for 1893, pp. 435-463.
MÖBIUS, K.
1877. Die Auster und die Austernwirthschaft. pp. 126. Berlin.
On page 72 he proposes the term “biocœnose” for the group of animals
which live together in the same habitat. Not seen by writer.
1883. The Oyster and Oyster-Culture. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm., 1880, Part
VIII, pp. 683-751.
Translation of preceding paper. On pp. 721-729 he discusses “An
Oyster-Bank as a Biocönose, or a Social Community”; on page 723 he
proposes the word “biocœnosis.” An illuminating paper.
DAHL, F.
1902. Die Ziele der vergleichenden “Ethologie” (d. i. Biologie im
älteren engeren Sinne). Verh. V. Inter. Zoöl.-Cong. 1901, pp. 296-300.
1908. Grundsätze und Grundbegriffe der biocönotischen Forschung. Zool.
Anz., Bd. XXXIII, pp. 349-353.
1898. Experimentell-statistische Ethologie. Verh. der Deutsch. Zool.
Gesell. Bd., 1898, pp. 121-131.
1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie? Biol.
Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.
WASMANN, E.
1901. Biologie oder Ethologie? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 391-400.
WHEELER, W. M.
1902. ‘Natural History,’ ‘Œcology’ or ‘Ethology’? Science, N. S., Vol.
XV, pp. 971-976.
Advocates the use of the term ethology.
ST. HILAIRE, I. GEOFFRAY.
1859. Histoire Générale des Règnes Organiques, Vol. II.
Not seen by writer. Dr. W. M. Wheeler, of Harvard University, has
kindly sent me the following note from p. 285. “‘It is to ethology
therefore that the fourth part of this work is devoted, to which
belongs the study of the relations of organisms within the family and
the society in the aggregate and in the community.’ In a volume of
the same work, page xx, St. Hilaire gives his program and speaks of
the general facts belonging to ethological laws. These are defined as
‘relating to the instincts, habits and more generally to the external
vital manifestations of organisms.’” About the preceding Dr. Wheeler
remarks: “You see this covers precisely the field which was a few years
later called ‘ecology’ by Haeckel. Apparently the part of the work in
which St. Hilaire wished to give a detailed account of the ethological
phenomena of animals was not published. Only three volumes of the work
exist. He died November 10, 1861, without having completed the work.”
Thus ethology has priority over ecology, but to my mind this fact
carries no special weight, particularly since the word has become
current in botany. To use a different name for the same subject or
process in botany and zoölogy is as undesirable as to use a different
term for heredity in plants and in animals.
LANKESTER, E. R.
1889. Article “Zoölogy.” Ency. Britannica, 9th ed. Amer. Reprint. Vol.
XXIV, pp. 842, 856.
Lankester defines “Bionomics.--The lore of the farmer, gardener,
sportsman, fancier, and field naturalist, including thremmatology,
or the science of breeding, and the allied teleology, or science of
organic adaptations: exemplified by the patriarch Jacob, the poet
Vergil, Sprengel, Kirby and Spence, Wallace, and Darwin.... Buffon
(1707-1788) alone among the greater writers of the three past centuries
emphasized that view of living things which we call ‘bionomics.’
Buffon deliberately opposed himself to the mere exposition of the
structural resemblances and differences of animals, and, disregarding
classification, devoted his treatise on natural history to a
consideration of the habits of animals and their adaptations to their
surroundings, whilst a special volume was devoted by him to the subject
of reproduction.... Buffon is the only prominent writer who can be
accorded historic rank in this study.”
As I have access to but few of Buffon’s writings, I quote the above.
Bionomics is seen not to be synonymous with ecology, as defined by most
students, although it includes much that is ecological. The chaotic and
unorganized “lore of the farmer” has no unifying or guiding principles,
and although it contains many facts, from which a science may be built,
to call it science seems undesirable.
It is of course advantageous in some ways to have agreement as to
the limitations of ecology, or any science, but even the more exact
sciences seem to fare little better, as is shown by the following
statement: “It is not long since I heard a university professor begin
a lecture on physics somewhat in this way: ‘Physics is the science
of matter and energy. This field is so large that it is customary at
present to break off the physics of the molecule and its reactions and
call it chemistry. Also to put to one side the physics of the heavenly
bodies and call this a part of astronomy,’ etc.” (Strong, Science, N.
S., Vol. XXXIV, p. 409, 1911.)
FORBES, S. A.
1895. On Contagious Disease in the Chinch-Bug (_Blissus leucopterus_
Say). 19th Rep. State Ent. Ill. (8th Rep. of S. A. Forbes), pp. 16-176.
In this paper Forbes defines (pp. 16-18) ecology and points out, I
believe for the first time, that economic entomology is simply applied
ecology. He says, “The study of œcology is thus to the economic
entomologist what the study of physiology is to the physician.”
1909. Aspects of Progress in Economic Entomology. Journ. Econ. Ent.,
Vol. II, pp. 25-35.
Especially pp. 28-32 on the relation of ecology to economic entomology.
HERDMANN, W. A.
1896. Oceanography, Bionomics, and Aquiculture. Smithsonian Report for
1895, pp. 433-454.
EMERY, C.
1905. Éthologie, Phylogénie et Classification. C. R. 6me Cong. inter.
de Zool. Berne, 1904, pp. 160-174.
CLEMENTS, F. E.
1905. The Foundations of Ecology, pp. 1-17.
Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln, Nebraska.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1906. Introductory Note. An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan.
Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905, pp. 11-12.
1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv.
for 1908, pp. 121-154.
SHELFORD, V. E.
1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological
Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.
The standpoint of this paper is very much in harmony with that advanced
in this book.
CASE, E. C.
1905. Œcological Features of Evolution. Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc.,
Vol. III, pp. 169-180.
WHEELER, W. M.
1905. Ethology and the Mutation Theory. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp.
535-540.
FLAHAULT, C., and SCHRÖTER, C.
1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Propositions. IIIᵉ
Cong. Inter. de Botanique. Bruxelles, 1910. pp. 28 + x. Zurich.
WHITE, C. A.
1893. The Relation of Biology to Geological Investigation. Ann. Rep. U.
S. Nat. Mus. for 1892, pp. 245-368.
This paper and the two following references illustrate the intimate
relation of ecology to phases of geology.
GRABAU, A. W.
1899. The Relation of Marine Bionomy to Stratigraphy. Bull. Buffalo
Soc. Nat. Sci., Vol. VI, pp. 319-367.
WALTHER, J.
1893-94. Einleitung in die Geologie als historische Wissenschaft.
I. Bionomie des Meeres. II. Die Lebensweise der Meeresthiere. III.
Lithogenesis der Gegenwart. Jena.
Shows the close relation between ecology and geology. The process
standpoint is emphasized and the past is interpreted in terms of
processes now in operation.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1908. Some of the Advantages of an Ecological Organization of a Natural
History Museum. Proc. Amer. Associa. Museums, Vol. I, pp. 170-178.
II. THE VALUE AND METHOD OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS
“I cannot too strongly emphasize the fact ... that a comprehensive
survey of our entire natural history is absolutely essential to a good
_working knowledge_ of those parts of it which chiefly attract popular
attention,--that is, its edible fishes, its injurious and beneficial
insects, and its parasitic plants. Such a survey, however, should not
stop with a study of the dead forms of nature, ending in mere lists and
descriptions. To have an _applicable_ value, it must treat the life of
the region as an organic unit, must study it _in action_, and direct
principal attention to the laws of its activity.”--S. A. FORBES. 1883.
Natural history surveys have come down to us from the early days of
zoölogy. These surveys have been of many kinds and have ranged from
the adventurous accounts of early and daring explorers to those of
such naturalists as Belt, Bates, Wallace, and Darwin, onward to the
voluminous accounts of the “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” and in the
_Challenger_ reports. These surveys have contributed greatly to our
knowledge of the fundamental facts of zoölogy and to the training of
naturalists.
The most frequent form of survey is that carried on along the lines
which most nearly approach individual and aggregate ecology. Most of
such surveys give only slight attention to the _responsive relation_,
or only to its most general aspects. Surveys of the usual character
are of great importance, and with students of taxonomic training and
interests only, this form of survey occurs very naturally. Most of the
governmental and state surveys and museum expeditions are developed
along these lines. The frequency with which such methods are used in
surveys, which are expected to produce economic results, indicates
that these methods are generally considered the most satisfactory. The
exceptions to this rule are mainly surveys of fresh and salt waters,
and are related in some way to aquatic resources. Except when detailed
individual studies of certain species or some special subject has been
made, the usual form of the reports of such surveys is the annotated
list. It is rarely that even brief chapters discuss the groupings of
the animals as they are found associated in nature. These statements
show that, judging from the past, the methods currently used cannot
be depended upon for a rapid and symmetrical development of ecology,
or for the best development of ecological surveys. These must be
developed in a more direct and deliberate manner, by carefully planned
and executed ecological investigations. It is desirable also that
ecological surveys should be conducted along some one of the three main
avenues of approach, individual, aggregate, and associational, in order
that the science may develop symmetrically. The following are some of
the reasons which may be mentioned in favor of such surveys:
As a record of the associations, their interrelations and responses
to their environment--before they have become too much changed or
exterminated. This is a duty to future naturalists and to future
science. The animal remains in themselves are only a very incomplete
record; their activities and environments are an essential part of the
animals and should also be preserved.
The study of original conditions is a simpler problem than after
interference by man, but excessive modifications result in the
simplicity due to annihilation and a corresponding imperfection of
knowledge. The value of a knowledge of original conditions tends to
increase with time, and will aid much in future interpretations when
there is still more disturbance. Thus an important perspective may be
developed which will aid in estimating relative values. At the present
time the loss of records of original conditions is only beginning to
be felt. The possibility of making certain records will vanish with
each generation. It is not even desirable to _preserve all_, but it is
evident that many ecological records should be preserved.
As the importance of ecological studies, in natural environments,
comes to be more generally recognized the serious encroachments of
civilization upon habitats and associations is enforced upon us. Not
only are the descriptions of these associations very few in number, but
the interrelations of the animals in them are even less known, and the
chances of preserving adequate records before their complete extinction
are becoming fewer every year. Without the least disparagement of
other lines of work, one can but wonder if the naturalists of the
future will commend our foresight in studying with such great diligence
certain aspects of biology which might be very well delayed, while
ephemeral and vanishing records are allowed to be obliterated without
the least concern. These changes are generally greatest where civilized
man is most dominant, and in progressive attenuations, zones, or
strips, the degree of change produced by him radiates. Ecology has
developed only at a late stage in civilization, after much of the
environment has undergone great changes, so that in order to study
the original conditions, which are of such great historic and genetic
significance, he must make long journeys, or invade the swamps or
sterile uplands which man has not yet been able to reduce to the
average conditions best suited to his needs. This state of affairs
is one which, at times, makes him thankful that there are conditions
which, for the present at least, man cannot cultivate and utterly
change and mutilate. Some appear to think that an interest in such
original conditions is of no particular scientific value, or is largely
one of sentiment; still others, that such studies have no practical
value. But if we come to consider that the original primeval conditions
give us our best conception of the _normal processes of nature_ and are
comparable to the normal health of an organism, it puts the subject
in another light. A pathological condition is, of course, a state in
a natural process, as is also any disturbance of the normal order
of nature by man, and each should be studied scientifically. But the
science of pathology has developed best as a study of the disturbances
of normal processes and is interpreted primarily in terms of the
normal; and the artificial should be similarly interpreted--the natural
being the basis to which all standards must be referred. A comparison
may also profitably be made between natural conditions and the
physiological and vital optima of organisms and to the responses which
are made with departures from such conditions. Similar comparisons
should be made in the study of the responses of aggregations and
associations in natural environments and departures from them. No
matter how much we learn, the normal must remain as the ideal, and all
departures from and disturbances of such conditions must be interpreted
in terms of this fundamental unit.
To study disturbed, artificial, and “pathological” conditions, without
an adequate knowledge of the normal and original conditions of both
the organisms and the environment, is an attempt to interpret the
abnormal and artificial in terms of itself, rather than in terms of
the normal. If, however, the normal is no longer preserved, then its
nearest approach should be studied, but with all the more care and
caution. With a proper understanding of the normal, the disturbances
made by man will be capable of _interpretation in an orderly sequence
strictly comparable to that found in the original and natural
conditions_. The cutting down and washing of the lands, the draining
and filling of depressions, the flooding of the lands, the destruction
(or succession) of plant and animal associations (including crop
rotation), are processes brought about or practiced by other organisms
or animal agencies. An ecological standpoint gives us a consistent,
comprehensive orientation of all these natural and “artificial”
activities and processes, and shows the unity in all organic responses
to the environment. Man’s influence in the main consists of hastening
or retarding “natural processes.”
Naturalists have for a long time spoken of the “balance of nature”
and of the all-pervading influence of any serious disturbance of
it. This balance is, of course, only a relative condition, and not
absolutely fixed. It swings from one side, then back, sometimes
showing considerable amplitude in its swing, then again its moves are
very slight, mere tremblings, as it were. But now and then some local
catastrophic event occurs which overturns everything, as when a volcano
becomes active, or some dominant association takes possession of the
field,--as in the case of man,--and a new order is initiated and a new
balance is developed. The mongoose in Jamaica, our English sparrow, and
rabbits in Australia are the classic examples of the overturning of the
local order of nature by the agency of other organisms. Obviously this
balance is not a condition limited to any particular locality or group
of organisms. Balance is very generally conceded to be of fundamental
importance in the study of any species or group of organisms, if its
place in the economy of nature is understood. A vast number of the
problems of the economic zoölogist are thus problems, not so much of
individual or aggregate ecology, but ones in which the balance of the
whole local biotic _association_ is concerned.
This was the fact pointed out by Möbius when he studied the oyster and
came to see that it must be studied not in isolation but as a member
of a community, association of animals, or a biocœnosis, as he called
these interrelated organisms. These facts are mentioned, as examples
from a vast number that are recorded, to show that our applied or
economic zoölogy and entomology are _fundamentally more closely related
to associational ecology_ than to any other phase of zoölogy, and to
suggest that it would be to the great advantage of the students of such
problems if they clearly understood this relation. This is also an
argument for the ecological organization of a vast number of natural
history surveys, because the associational grouping of observations and
responses gives the most intimate knowledge of the life of animals in
the network of their environmental relations.
In addition to the balance of nature which is found within the
small associational units there are the larger ones of considerable
geographic extent, which the students of faunal or floral problems
frequently call zones or distinct regions. Some of these are distinct
ecological units, whose _dynamic status_ should be determined, so that
we may know and understand whether it is in a condition of stress,
a process of adjustment, or one of relative equilibrium or balance.
Under present conditions in what direction does it tend to move? At
what rate? The non-ecological surveys have not put these questions
or worked deliberately toward a goal which will answer them. For any
comprehensive study of this character we need to have determined what
may be considered as a _biotic base_, optimum, or balance, toward which
relations under given conditions tend, and at which an equilibrium
will become established (The Auk, 1908, Vol. XXV, p. 125). Such facts
underlie all of the problems involved in the interpretation of climax
biotic associations, and their application by man. Cook (1909, Bull.
145, Bur. Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 7, 8) has
expressed similar relations as follows: “Unless we can form a definite
idea of the original conditions we cannot expect to judge of their
influence on primitive man, nor can we determine what effects man has
had upon the vegetation and other natural conditions. We need what
might be called a bionomic base line, an idea of the conditions which
existed before man came upon the scene, the conditions which would
again supervene if the human inhabitants were withdrawn.”
It is perhaps significant that the genetic or successional relations
of habitats and associations, as contrasted with their descriptive
classification, both in plants and animals, have in the past been
developed, not by the ecological students who live and work among
conditions greatly modified by man, as in parts of Europe, but in the
newer, less modified America. In this respect a parallel exists to the
development of our knowledge and the process and genetic interpretation
of topography, which has also developed more rapidly in America than
elsewhere. The process and genetic method which has developed in
this physical science has now spread to the biological sciences and
has found a fertile soil there for development on account of the
_relatively_ undisturbed biotic conditions which still persist in
certain areas.
In this connection it may be worth while to indicate some of the
ecological disadvantages under which the non-ecological surveys are
carried on. As a rule, such surveys feel no strong obligation to
record fully the conditions of the environment, or its developmental
processes. The environment is considered as static, and not as a
changing medium; it has no past or future, it has merely horizontal
extension. The problem as to its _dynamic status_, whether in a
condition of stress, in the process of adjustment, or in relative
equilibrium, is not raised, or if it should be, it could not be
handled. The student eager for new and little-known species is not the
one to study such relations, at least, as a rule, this has not been his
practice. So long as the success of a day’s work is measured by the
length of the list of novelties secured, rather than by the quality and
quantity of ecological relations discovered, such students and surveys
will not contribute greatly to our knowledge of the economy of nature
in the regions surveyed.
At the present time it is very difficult to secure trained men to do
ecological surveying. Even a superficial examination of this paper
should show that familiarity with ecologic methods and results is not
one to be acquired offhand, but a knowledge which requires considerable
special training; not only as much as is usually required for other
kinds of zoölogical work, but generally more, because of its synthetic
relational tendency which requires a broad knowledge as well as some
special knowledge in several lines of biology and the allied sciences.
Conventionally considered, a properly equipped physiologist must have
a working knowledge of certain phases of modern physics and chemistry
in addition to his grounding in biology. A properly trained anatomist
should have a knowledge of physiological and developmental processes,
or his anatomy is purely descriptive and static. A student of general
zoölogy should be grounded not only in physiological and developmental
processes, but also in the relations of the organisms to their
complete environment. The ecologist requires also the grounding in
physiological, developmental, and ecological processes of adjustment,
but as well he must understand the processes by which the vegetation
and the physical environment have been and are being developed and
their method of mutual interrelations and adjustment. It is difficult
for some students to develop the ecological phases in the field. There
are many disadvantages to be overcome. The difficulties are similar,
in some respects, to those of the ethnologist who is sent on some
museum expedition. The wealthy donor of the funds may wish to see a
room filled with specimens on the return of the ethnologist, so that
materials which have bulk and make a showing take precedence over
detailed studies of the habits, traditions, languages, and descriptions
of the people, because such studies require appreciation rather than
inspection for evaluation. The zoölogical student may meet with just
the same kind of difficulty. His institutional authorities often judge
values by the cubic foot and pound, rather than by the quality of
relations discovered. The student himself who has had an extensive
collecting experience, in which quantity and variety have been the
ideal, finds it difficult to return from a day’s work with only a few
pages of notes on the responses of the animals, and with perhaps only a
few specimens.
With such an understanding of the general rules of the game we may
turn to the application or art of ecology, to indicate its relation
to general problems. With a grounding in the general principles of
organic response to the total environment, one is able to see that
the disturbances due to man are a problem in the adjustment of the
highest type of animal, as a member of an animal association, to its
complete environment. The “control of nature” for which men strive is
the process of making the environments and associations _to order_. The
disturbances in the natural order may be looked upon as so many huge
experiments or trial activities in this process of adjustment.
If natural preserves are not made, how will the next generation be best
grounded in the general principles of the science? Are these complex
modified conditions the natural place to start the student, or should
such problems be reserved for the maturely trained one? These disturbed
fragmentary conditions may be likened to fragmentary fossils whose
interpretation is attempted. A paleontologist whose only knowledge
of animals was derived from such fragments, and who had never known
a perfect living animal, would certainly be at a great disadvantage
in such an investigation. The natural starting point therefore seems
to be in as nearly natural normal environments and associations as is
possible, and with such experience one is prepared for the more complex
problems resulting from man’s activity.
By way of conclusion, some of the main advantages of ecological surveys
are:
1. The _record_ of natural environments and their associations for
future generations.
2. The study of natural biotic conditions giving a _perspective_ not
derived in any other way.
3. The clearer conception of the _dynamic relations_ of the balance of
nature, biotic base, and climax associations.
4. Emphasis of the _process and interpretative_ phase of scientific
investigation over that of purely descriptive study.
5. Facilitating the invention of multiple working hypotheses which bear
upon animal responses in nature.
6. Furnishing important conceptions to the study of the _processes_ of
adaptation and the struggle for existence.
7. Furnishing important general principles of great value in applied
ecology.
8. Furnishing one of the best methods of learning how to get acquainted
with the _living aspect_ of the animals of any region.
III. FIELD STUDY
“Is not the biological laboratory which leaves out the ocean and the
mountains and meadows a monstrous absurdity? Was not the greatest
scientific generalization of your times reached independently by two
men who were eminent in their familiarity with living things in their
homes?”--BROOKS, 1899, p. 41.
In taking up field work, or any other kind of complex study, a definite
working plan is of much value. For this reason this subject deserves
more than a mere mention. Such a plan greatly aids in keeping in mind
the general aim of the study, and particularly the lesser aims which
develop with the analysis of the subject. It further aids in the proper
orientation and subordination of allied subjects which crowd in from
all directions.
For many students it is a good plan to make out a general outline of
any proposed study as soon as possible after the work has been started.
In the beginning it is difficult to realize the radiating relations
of a subject, and the attempt at such plans aids in the perception of
these relationships and becomes an important guide. Such an outline
will need several revisions, but these changes will come with a
broadening and deepening grasp of the subject. Perhaps the greatest
value of such a plan is that it facilitates the conscious effort to
seek a definite goal by maintaining a standard of measurement.
In addition to a comprehensive analytical plan others are useful.
Particularly is this true when several lines of work are being done
simultaneously or when the work must be interrupted frequently.
Under such circumstances even a daily program may aid in utilizing
many of the fragments of time which are so easily lost. In this way
incomplete observations, verifications, and similar small items which
are time-consuming may be made. These plans apply with particular force
to field study when several lines of observation are being driven
abreast. I have found it profitable to keep memoranda on note slips
which will recall items needing further attention, at certain places
in the field or on certain subjects. Thus, for example, if plans are
suddenly changed and another locality is visited, the proper note slips
indicating the points for special study at such a place are quickly
secured, and one can hasten to the field prepared for the work of the
day. Of course, similar plans are applicable to many kinds of work.
To learn how to study in the field, and not simply to collect, is one
of the most important habits which a field naturalist and the ecologist
has to acquire. This is one which he must, to a large degree, master
alone, without the ready access to assistance, as is usually the
case in the laboratory study. It is also a subject about which it is
difficult to give useful suggestions, other than those of the most
general nature. Directions for collecting are, on the other hand,
simpler and more accessible in the form of numerous manuals filled with
practical suggestions.
Field study is not confined to observations alone, but to the securing
of all kinds of evidence from the field which will aid in the
interpretation of the field relations of animals. Thorough intimacy
with the animals can only be acquired through repeated and prolonged
excursions in the field. This may mean excursions at any hour of the
day or night. Part of this familiarity is best acquired by an intensive
study of some limited area or association, and by thus establishing a
unit for comparison so that the differences in other places are more
readily perceived and described.
Before selecting a limited area for study one should make a general
examination of a much larger tract, so that one may be sure that the
area selected is a fair sample and worthy of the special study. There
are also many advantages in selecting areas little modified by man.
Such modified areas may, to better advantage, be considered later;
just as pathology should be studied after one is grounded in normal
histology. Undoubtedly the normal, or its approximation, is the best
foundation upon which to build, and here we have the educational
argument for natural preserves for animals and their superiority over
highly modified “parks” for the same purpose.
Having selected a locality, repeated and prolonged visits, careful
observation, and description of the place and animals will enable one
to acquire the desired familiarity. For the study of the behavior of
the animals concerned many observations can be made by remaining quiet,
carefully concealed, and recording all observations. This method is
particularly applicable to animals which live in exposed places, such
as many insects, birds, and mammals. For other kinds, only indirect
methods of observation are possible, or only when under controlled
conditions. For the indirect methods of observation many forms of
traps have been devised, traps not intended merely to receive the
dead animal, but those also which will secure the animal and reveal
something of its behavior. For the study of the habits and behavior of
such animals as live in the soil or under bark, etc., both extensive
collecting and examination of the animals in vivaria will also be
necessary.
Fortunately for the student of mammals, birds, and fishes we have
excellent guides for the technique of study and photographing of
individual and associated kinds in the works of Kearton (1907), Chapman
(1900), Herrick (1905), and Reighard (1908). It is very desirable that
these methods be applied to the interrelations among the animals of an
association. The student of behavior in nature has much to learn from
many excellent studies of animal behavior which have been carried on in
recent years by laboratory students. Fortunately the line between these
two methods of study is breaking down to the mutual advantage of each.
The border line between these two methods will give excellent returns
to any student well prepared in each line of work.
Another essential for good field work is a clear understanding of what
ecological studies attempt to do. This implies some general conception
of what is worth while ecologically; it assumes a point of view or
other criterion which may be applied to test the trueness of one’s
aim. The ecologist will meet with much more than ecological facts, but
it is to these that he should give primary attention. These accessory
facts, no matter how interesting in themselves, should not divert
him from the main course. The ecologist must select from this mass
of experience those facts, inferences, and conclusions which help in
the _interpretation_ of the responses of animals to their complete
environment. It is thus evident why the ecologist must have a clearly
defined aim, with criteria for estimating values, or he will be at
the risk of dissipating his energies. This phase of our problem as
applied to the studies of a geologist, but applying with equal force
to the ecologist, has been concisely expressed by Van Hise (1904, pp.
611-612) as follows: “I have heard a man say: ‘I observe the facts
as I find them, unprejudiced by any theory.’ I regard this statement
as not only condemning the work of the man, but the position is an
impossible one. No man has ever stated more than a small part of the
facts with reference to any area. The geologist must select the facts
which he regards of sufficient note to record and describe. But such
selection implies theories of their importance and significance. In a
given case the problem is therefore reduced to selecting the facts for
record, with a broad and deep comprehension of the principles involved,
a definite understanding of the rules of the game, an appreciation of
what is probable and what is not probable; or else making mere random
observations. All agree that the latter alternative is worse than
useless, and therefore the only training which can make a geologist
safe, even in his observations, is to equip him with such a knowledge
of the principles concerned as will make his observations of value.”
Early in field work one should learn that the collection of specimens
is not the primary aim of excursions, that specimens are only
_one_ kind of facts, but that field study should be devoted to
the accumulation of specimens, and to observations on the habits,
activities, interrelations, and responses of animals, as well as to all
facts, inferences, and suggestions which are likely to be of use in the
interpretation of the problems studied.
We sometimes hear that reflections upon the work should be reserved
for the return to the laboratory or study. This advice seems to be
based upon the assumption that study in the field is not particularly
stimulating and suggestive. On the other hand deliberating
interpretatively in the midst of the problems under consideration is
one of the most favorable conditions possible for the improvement of
the quality and quantity of one’s work. It should be recalled in this
connection that Darwin and Wallace’s evolutionary theory did not
_originate_ in the laboratory, but while in the field in the midst of
their studies, while working reflectively upon their observations and
collections, as Brooks indicates in the quotation at the beginning of
this chapter. The classic case of Bates discovering mimicry in his
London study instead of in the forests of Brazil is to some minds not
an argument for laboratory study, but one for field study. There are
but few subjects which have suffered more from the preponderating
influence of the laboratory.
To be sure, it may require more time to study in the field than if one
collects specimens only, but it is economical in the long run. There
are, of course, certain phases of more indirect observation which can
be done best in the study or laboratory, but at present, field study,
as contrasted with collecting, is a phase of effort urgently needing
emphasis.
The processes of observation and field study and note taking are so
intimately related that taking notes becomes one of the essential parts
of careful observation. This is also one of the most difficult habits
to acquire. The beginner is inclined to write them up, especially field
notes, in the evening after his return from the field. Such notes
are generally brief, lack details, and are usually of little value.
Therefore the safest course to pursue is to describe fully whatever
seems of value, then to go over these facts again and by further
observations increase the number of items noted several times. These
observations should be recorded _as soon as made_, for generally the
lack of notes means a lack of detailed observation. Some observations
can be made only at long intervals, even of many years, others only
with the return of another cycle of behavior, or of another season, and
still others cannot be repeated. It is such considerations as these
which emphasize the need of pursuing the safest course and recording
_instantly_ and fully all observations when made. An excess of notes
is of very rare occurrence. In the effort to write carefully worded
notes one has a very important check upon the tendency toward hasty
observation, because such a description requires one to think over
the observation before it can be expressed. This deliberation is thus
made at the time when reobservation can be made to the best advantage,
and calls attention to the weak points to which special consideration
may perhaps be given a moment later, and thus affords a chance to
complete the observation. Comstock (Insect Life, 1897, p. 323) has well
summed up the taking of notes as follows: “Fill your notebook with
descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out for publication
only those that exhaustive study and repeated observation prove to be
valuable. In making observations _be sure_ you are right and then look
again.” And again as Van Hise (Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, p. 326) has
said, “The difference between _bad_ observation and _good_ observation
is that the former is _erroneous_; the latter is _incomplete_.”
Notes are generally taken in one of two forms, in a book or on loose
slips of paper or cards (Hopkins, 1893; Sanderson, 1904). It seems to
be very generally agreed that if a book is used it should be of small
size, of about 4 × 6 inches, so that it may be conveniently carried in
the pocket. For a permanent record such books are a great convenience
when once indexed. But when using such notes, while preparing a report,
they are not so convenient as the note slips, unless one limits such a
report to the form of a narrative. About ten years ago the writer began
using a form of notebook in which an aluminum cover held the loose note
slips. Thus while in the field one has the advantage of a book with a
firm writing surface, and also that of the loose-leaf plan. This form
of cover is now used by a number of field naturalists. The disadvantage
of the slips not being bound might be remedied in part by using some
form of punched slips which are convenient for binding.
Each one must decide for himself which form of recording notes answers
his needs most satisfactorily. There are advantages in uniformity, but
with the variable nature of work, it is sometimes very convenient to
use both methods of recording.
Some students have no method of recording their observations or
reflections upon their lines of interest. This seems to be unwise and
suggests a method of business without bookkeeping. The efficiency of
some students is greater than that of others, not so much because they
possess superior mental ability, but because they have superior methods
of preserving whatever useful ideas occur to them, while the others,
from their lack of records, have no cumulative store upon which to
draw. This is an important form of capital. Note keeping is readily
seen to consist not only of observations, but also of suggestions,
inferences, conclusions, and reflections of any kind which will
facilitate methods of work and the interpretation of the facts.
In describing environments, it is desirable to use the same general
method for different localities so that the descriptions may be
comparable and show some degree of standardization. This method has
been found very useful in taxonomic studies and has similar advantages
here. A brief general statement of the most conspicuous features may
precede, and be followed by detailed descriptions. The order may
well vary with individual workers, but a uniform method is desirable
throughout any single piece of work and has obvious advantages. Thus
one practical plan applied to a forest habitat is, to describe the
substratum, the soil, rock, etc., then the forest litter of organic
débris, then the boles of the trees and the forest crown and its
character, and finally the operation of those agencies which are
causing changes in the forest and which will perpetuate or change it in
the future. No practical forester would be content to shut his eyes to
the future crop of wood, and in the study of animal habitats we must
not be content to rest below such a commercial standard. To some this
seems very theoretical, and yet a farmer who counts upon a crop in five
months, or a forester, in fifty years, is not so branded, and the
ecologist need have no fear in using such practical methods. In other
words, we should consider the future stages of the developing habitat
and learn to perceive the evidences which show in which direction
development or change is taking place; or to determine the “orderly
sequence of external nature.” Not only should the future be considered,
but we should strive also to read the record backward and interpret the
past in terms of processes now in operation. In this respect the point
of view of the geologist who interprets the past in terms of present
processes may well merit our attention. To understand our habitats
they must be studied not only in their length and breadth, but also in
depth--past and future--as they have all three dimensions.
The preceding remarks bear equally well upon observations of
the activities of animals in nature, on account of the absence
of controlled conditions, for these methods have almost as much
significance as the study of the environments themselves; and equally
careful observations and descriptions are essential, if the detailed
processes of animal activities and their transformations are to be
recorded.
An experienced naturalist finds that from year to year the amount of
notes which he takes increases rapidly, and in a very direct ratio to
the progress which he makes in his study. Good note taking is not a
passive process, but one which calls for an alert mind. The prolonged
interest which is necessary to secure detailed observations implies
such a frame of mind. Every one soon tires of any subject unless new
features are constantly being discovered.
In the description of the associations in any given habitat, the
problem is much simplified if one has a clear idea of dominance, knows
how to recognize it, and understands some of its main implications.
The dominant forms are the most common and powerful individuals in
the association. They may or may not be the most conspicuous, from a
superficial view. Conspicuousness may depend upon size, but dominance
refers to large absolute numbers and to influence exerted. We may
profitably compare an association of animals in a given habitat to
a play upon the stage. The environment corresponds to the stage.
The dominant members of the association correspond to the leading
characters, the secondary species, always present, to the essential but
subordinate characters. The individual animals adjust themselves to
one another, especially to the dominant forms, and to the environment,
as the personalities in the play adjust themselves to the dominant
characters, to one another, and to the environment. In both groups some
individuals are dominant, some used and useful, some are tolerated,
others pick up the crumbs, still others are predatory or parasitic, and
all must be mutually adjusted to one another and to the environment.
The number of dominant species within an association is relatively
limited, a fact which holds for both plants and animals. A knowledge
of perhaps 200 or 300 species of animals (and 150 plants) will enable
one to work advantageously in many localities (as in the state of
Illinois). Of this number perhaps not more than about one half or one
third can be considered dominant. Every one who has tried to make
extensive local lists of species knows that it requires many years of
collecting to secure a large number of species. These rare species are
generally of quite minor importance ecologically. Considerations of
this character should be encouraging to those who may be intimidated
by the idea of large numbers of species. Then, of course, it should be
remembered that there are many aspects of ecological work which do not
meet with this variety of animals.
IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS
Ecological study does not end with collecting specimens, and it may not
begin there. The importance of collecting and preserving specimens will
vary with the phase of ecological study considered. In the field study
of behavior of a single species there may be almost no collecting of
animals but much collecting of notes; but if one is devoted primarily
to the recognition and study of the composition of associations and
their interrelations, much collecting will have to be done. Also,
when studying the ecological relations of some taxonomic unit, as
in aggregate ecology, the number of associates is so large that one
must do rather extensive collecting. But even the exhaustive study
of the behavior of any single species will necessitate considerable
collecting. The necessity for this has been shown by Forbes (1880, The
Food of Fishes, p. 20) as follows: “If one wishes to become acquainted
with the black bass, for example, he will learn but little if he limits
himself to that species. He must evidently study also the species
upon which it depends for its existence, and the various conditions
upon which _these_ depend. He must likewise study the species with
which it comes in competition, and the entire system of conditions
affecting their prosperity. Leaving out any of these, he is like one
who undertakes to make out the construction of a watch, but overlooks
one wheel; and by the time he has studied all these sufficiently, he
will find that he has run through the whole complicated mechanism of
the aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which
his species forms but a single element.”
Collecting is an important means of ecological study. This is
particularly true in the early stages of such study, but as the student
becomes familiar with species and comes to know many of them at
sight, less collecting will be necessary, except in the case of very
small species and in those studies which depend upon the total catch
as a means of securing data, as, for example, the case of plankton
organisms. On account of the large number of species, very few students
will be able to determine them at sight, but this does not disqualify
a student for beginning ecological study. The greatest aid in handling
such a varied population is a numbering of the individuals, or lots
of specimens, consecutively and recording the full data for them in
the notebook. The question arises at once as to how many specimens are
to be assigned to _one_ number. No rigid rule can be followed, but in
general it is safe to assign a single number to all specimens which
agree in _all the fundamental data_, as date, place of capture, and
exact habitat. And for my own part I number all individuals taken,
upon which any special observations are made, as when a Phymatid is
taken with a dying or dead honeybee, or a dragon fly is taken from the
web of an _Argiope_. In this way the confusion which is particularly
liable to creep into one’s work, where he deals with a large number of
species, and before familiarity with them is acquired, may be reduced
to the minimum. For small animals I have found useful a very liberal
use of vials, into which field numbers, corresponding to numbers in the
field notes, are placed _immediately upon capture_ of the specimens,
and not minutes or hours later when the vials have become mixed, and
recollection is less sharp. Specimens which have been thoroughly
numbered may thus be sent to specialists for determination. This method
uses up many numbers, but, fortunately, the supply is unlimited, and
it gives greater precision to one’s notes, and encourages detailed
observations on individual animals.
In the eyes of many the determination of specimens is such a formidable
task that they are at once repelled from any subject which involves
numerous species. But as we have previously remarked, there are phases
of ecological study which involve only a minimum amount of such work.
On the other hand, one may readily have an undue fear of numerous
species, but no one can doubt that the smaller number of species
found upon mountains or in the far north gives to a beginner certain
advantages for study. But if one’s studies are confined to the more
restricted habitats, the number of species involved is comparable to
the more favored localities mentioned.
An accurately determined series of specimens, conveniently arranged,
will be an important aid in one’s studies. Two forms of arrangement
of such determined series are very helpful; one being synoptic or
systematically arranged, and the other ecologically, by associations
or by a topical arrangement in harmony with the subjects being
investigated. With the use of such series and proper caution, aided by
the best keys in the literature, one may hope to make many of his own
determinations and thus economize his time.
There are many ways to secure the initial series of determined
specimens, and some of these are the following: Our governmental
departments, both national and state, and many of our large museums,
universities, and academies, have numerous experts who are quite
willing and even eager to aid earnest students who wish to have
specimens determined. Then, in addition, there are many expert amateurs
who are equally liberal, so that when all the sources of aid are
considered, the list becomes a surprisingly long one. This is the
fact that should be called to mind when considering large numbers of
species. A student therefore does not need to work alone, but may have
the coöperation of a large number of able and willing collaborators.
Naturally we turn for aid to our United States National Museum as one
of the first sources of assistance, to the Smithsonian Institution,
and to the various scientific departments of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, particularly to the Bureaus of Plant Industry, Biological
Survey, and Entomology. These sources alone are able to determine
almost any reasonable series of specimens, particularly if they are
well preserved. Arrangements for such determinations can probably be
made by addressing the proper authorities.
The museums of our larger cities, as the American Museum of Natural
History of New York, the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, the Field
Museum of Chicago, and many smaller state and local museums are able
to give very efficient aid in this line. Other local institutions are
the State Universities and Experiment Stations, and the local natural
history surveys, which often exist under the guise of a geological or
agricultural organization. Frequently they are qualified and willing to
do this work.
In very difficult cases it may be necessary to have recourse to
Cassell’s Naturalist’s Universal Directory (Boston, 1905), in order to
find the address of some specialist in a foreign land, who can help,
but generally Americans are the best informed upon their own fauna.
Supplementary to, and in some cases a necessary substitute for,
a reference series of authentically determined specimens, is one
which the student is able to name for himself, by the study of the
literature. Without some special training this may become dangerous
ground to tread upon, but every now and then some young student begins
in this way and develops such care in determining his own collections,
that the method cannot be wholly condemned. Such work in itself has
fascinations, and one may easily occupy all one’s time with it. From
the ecological standpoint to stop with determinations only would be
like acquiring a certain vocabulary, and stopping before learning how
to use the language. Ecological work aims to use the names of species
as the most concise method of referring to kinds of animals whose
interrelations are to be described and interpreted. Taxonomy is the
tool.
V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE
1. The Scientific Method.
2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing,
Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique.
3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and Proof Reading.
_1. The Scientific Method_
CHAMBERLIN, T. C.
1897. The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses. Jour. Geol., Vol. V,
pp. 837-848.
1906. The Method of the Earth Sciences. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXVI, pp.
66-75. Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp.
477-487.
Very important papers and worthy of careful study.
GILBERT, G. K.
1886. The Inculcation of Scientific Method by Example, with an
Illustration drawn from the Quaternary Geology of Utah. Amer. Jour.
Sci., (3), Vol. XXXI, pp. 284-299.
1887. Special Processes of Research. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol.
XXXIII, pp. 452-473.
MELDOLA, R.
1895. The Speculative Method in Entomology. Trans. Ent. Soc., London,
1895, pp. XLVIII-LXXIII.
VAN HISE, C. R.
1902. The Training and Work of a Geologist. Science, N. S., Vol. XVI,
pp. 321-334.
KEYES, C. R.
1898. The Genetic Classification of Geological Phenomena. Jour. Geol.,
Vol. VI, pp. 809-815.
Valuable for its discussion of the criteria used in genetic studies.
VAN HISE, C. R.
1904. The Problems of Geology. Jour. Geol., Vol. XII, pp. 589-616;
Inter. Cong. Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 525-548. 1906.
An excellent discussion of the energy, agent, and process method of
investigation. I have seen no similar discussion applied to biological
or zoölogical subjects.
BOAS, F.
1896. The Limitations of the Comparative Method of Anthropology.
Science, N. S., Vol. IV, pp. 901-908.
A suggestive paper for the student of ecology who uses the comparative
method in his own work.
1904. The History of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. XX, pp. 513-524.
Application of the genetic and historical method to the study of man.
MILL, J. S.
1881. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Being a Connected
View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific
Investigation. Eighth Edition, pp. 659. New York.
PEARSON, K.
1900. The Grammar of Science. Second Edition, pp. 548. London.
JEVONS, S.
1879. Principles of Science. Third Edition, pp. 786. London.
Certain chapters are of special interest.
CRAMER, F.
1896. The Method of Darwin. A Study in Scientific Method, pp. 232.
Chicago.
MACDOUGAL, ROBT.
1905. On the Discrimination of Critical and Creative Attitudes. Jour.
Philos. Psy. and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 287-293.
LEBON, G.
1898. The Life History of Scientific Ideas. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LII,
pp. 251-254.
_2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing,
Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique_
There is such an abundance of literature on the technique of collecting
and preserving specimens, and so much of it can easily be secured
by any earnest student, that space will not be taken to discuss
these subjects in detail. Reference will simply be made to the main
convenient sources of information. It should perhaps be mentioned
that very few of these papers have been especially prepared from the
standpoint of the animal ecologist. The student must select and devise
his methods from all available sources.
I have included in this list a few references on the subject of
camping, photography, and the use of instruments needed in the
determination of the physical features of the environment. A few
miscellaneous papers which are suggestive on methods of technique are
also added.
MANY AUTHORS.
1891-1899. Bulletin 39, U. S. National Museum. Parts _A_ to _O_.
Contain directions for collecting and preserving a great variety
of animals, including marine animals, mollusks, insects, spiders,
myriapods, reptiles, amphibians, birds, birds’ eggs and nests, mammals,
etc.
ANONYMOUS.
1896. Manual for Army Cooks, pp. 306. Washington.
The Manual used by the cooks in the U. S. Army. It includes chapters
on camp cooking, a subject of much importance in certain ecological
surveys.
1905. Terms used in Forestry and Logging. Bull. 61, Bureau of Forestry,
U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 53.
Useful in the descriptions of forest conditions.
1904. Instructions to Field Parties and Descriptions of Soil Types.
Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 198.
Useful in the description of soils in the study of subterranean animals.
BANKS, N.
1907. A “Census of Four Square Feet.” Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, p. 637.
A criticism of McAtee (1907).
1909. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Bull. 67, U. S.
Nat. Mus. pp. 135.
An excellent manual. Should be in the hands of every student of insects.
BRETSCHER, K.
1902. Beobachtung über die Oligochaeten der Schweiz, VI. Folge. Rev.
Suisse de Zoöl., Ann. Soc. Zoöl. Suisse et du Mus. d’His. Nat. de
Geneve, Tome 10, pp. (1-29).
1904. Die xerophilen Enchytraeiden der Schweiz. Biol, Centralbl., Bd.
XXIV, pp. 501-513.
Quantitative studies of earthworms in the soil.
BRUNNER, J.
1912. Tracks and Tracking, pp. 219. New York. Outing Publishing Co.
An illustrated guide for the identification of mammal and bird tracks
or foot prints. Devoted mainly to game and fur-bearing animals. Very
valuable to the student of live animals in nature. Many of our smaller
species are worthy of similar treatment.
BURNS, F. L.
1901. A Sectional Bird Census. Wilson Bulletin, N. S., Vol. VIII, pp.
84-103.
A quantitative study of the birds found breeding on an area of one
square mile. Other similar studies should be made.
CHAPMAN, F. M.
1900. Bird Studies with a Camera. With Introductory Chapters on the
Outfit and Methods of the Bird Photographer, pp. 218. New York.
The title clearly indicates the character of this book.
COMSTOCK, J. H.
1897. Insect Life. pp. 349. New York.
Directions for the study of insects.
CLEMENTS, F. E.
1905. Research Methods in Ecology. pp. 334. Lincoln, Nebraska.
Important for methods of study in plant ecology, partly also applicable
to animals; photography, and instruments for the study of environments.
DAHL, F.
1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie? Biol.
Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.
1903. Winke für ein wissenschaftlicher Sammeln von Thieren.
Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu Berlin. Jahrg. 1903, pp.
444-475.
This contains, in addition to its suggestions on collecting, an
interesting outline or classification of animal habitats (Cf. also
Enderlein, 1908, pp. 72-77). This is not a genetic classification.
Dahl’s list of habitats will prove very suggestive to the student who
wishes to develop the genetic system of classification. Ultimately we
must, of course, develop the latter system.
1904. Kurze Anleitung zum wissenschaftlichen Sammeln und zum
Conservieren von Thieren. pp. 59. Jena.
An enlarged edition of the preceding paper.
DAVENPORT, C. B.
1904. Statistical Variation with Special Reference to Biological
Variation. Second, Revised Edition. pp. 223. New York.
FORBES, S. A.
1907. An Ornithological Cross-Section of Illinois in Autumn. Bull. Ill.
State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. VII, pp. 305-335.
1908. The Mid-Summer Bird Life of Illinois: A Statistical Study. Amer.
Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 505-519.
FLAHAULT, C., and SCHRÖTER, C.
1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Propositions, IIIᵉ
Cong. Inter. de Bot. 1910. Bruxelles. pp. 28. Zurich.
A very valuable discussion of ecological nomenclature for plants.
Defines the use of such terms as biology, ecology, habitat,
association, formation, etc. It is very desirable that the plant and
animal ecologists coöperate as much as possible in this subject.
GIBSON, W. H.
1905. Camp Life in the Woods and the Tricks of Trapping and Trap
Making. pp. 300. New York.
A book for boys, but not without value to the older student of live
animals.
HENSEN, V.
1887. Ueber die Bestimmung des Plankton’s oder des in Meere treibenden
Materials an Pflanzen und Thieren; nebst Anhang. Fünfter Ber. der Komm.
zur wissensch. Untersuch. d. deutschen Meere in Kiel für die Jahre
1882 bis 1886, pp. 1-107, III-XVIII, Berlin.
This appears to be the original account of quantitative studies as
applied to plants and animals of an association. These methods have
been extended to the sea bottom by Petersen, to fresh water by many
students, to land animals mainly by Dahl, and in recent years to plants
by Clements and others.
HERRICK, C. L.
1905. Home Life of Wild Birds. Revised Edition, pp. 255. New York.
Very valuable for suggestions on the study of live birds and how to
photograph them.
HOPKINS, A. D.
1893. Note and Record Keeping for the Economic Entomologist. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 103-108.
JOB, H. K.
1910. How to Study Birds. A Practical Guide for Amateur Bird-Lovers and
Camera-Hunters, pp. 272. New York. Outing Publishing Co.
Intended primarily for beginners in bird study, but contains valuable
practical advice on methods of studying and photographing live birds
which will aid the ecologist. Consult also Kearton (1907), Chapman
(1900), and Herrick (1905).
KEARTON, R.
1907. Wild Life at Home: How to Study and Photograph It. New and
Revised Edition, pp. 204. London.
KEPHART, H.
1912. The Book of Camping and Woodcraft. pp. 331. Fifth Edition. Outing
Publishing Co.
This is the best all-round book on the technique of camping and
living in the wilderness which I have seen. It includes direction for
selecting outfits, making camps, cookery, pests in the woods, blazes
and survey lines, rations, emergency foods, getting lost, accidents,
etc.
KNAUTHE, K.
1907. Das Süsswasser, chemische, biologische, und bakteriologische
Untersuchungsmethoden unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Biologie
und der fischereiwirtschaftlichen Praxis. pp. 663. Neudamm.
A very important work on the technique of fresh water biology.
LEE, A. B.
1900. The Microscopist’s Vade Mecum. A Handbook on the Methods of
Microscopic Anatomy. Fifth Edition, pp. 532. Phila.
Very useful for methods of preserving delicate animals, and those in
which the detailed structure of the animal must be studied.
LIVINGSTON, B. E.
1906. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to
Evaporation. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 50. pp. 78.
Methods of determination of moisture content of the soil and the air.
MCATEE, W. L.
1907. Census of Four Square Feet. Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, pp.
447-449.
A quantitative study of the species of invertebrates and seeds found on
the forest floor and on a meadow.
1912. Methods of Estimating the Contents of Bird Stomachs. The Auk,
Vol. XXIX, pp. 449-464.
1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency of Warning and
Cryptic Coloration in Protecting Animals from their Enemies. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.
An important critical study of the value of feeding experiments,
conducted in captivity, as a method of determining normal food habits.
The method is strongly condemned. Valuable series of references.
NEUMAYER, G. VON.
1906. Anleitung zu Wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Reisen. Dritte
Auflage, Bd. 1, pp. 842; Bd. 2, pp. 880. Hanover.
A very important work, particularly for the traveling naturalist.
Chapters by specialists, valuable references on collecting natural
history specimens, and other phases of scientific exploration.
PEARL, R.
1911. Biometric Ideas and Methods in Biology; their Significance and
Limitations. Scientia, Vol. X, pp. 101-119.
PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.
1911. Valuation of the Sea. 1. Animal Life of the Sea-Bottom, its
Food and Quantity. Rep. of the Danish Biol. Sta. to the Board of
Agriculture, Vol. XX. pp. 76. Translated from Fiskeri-Beretning for
1910. Copenhagen.
Methods and results of a quantitative study of animals on the
sea-bottom. A very important paper. Descriptions and figures of the
apparatus used.
REIGHARD, J.
1908. Methods of Studying the Habits of Fishes, with an Account of the
Breeding Habits of the Horned Dace. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries Bull., Vol.
XXVIII, pp. 1111-1136.
1908. The Photography of Aquatic Animals in their Natural Environment.
Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 41-68.
These papers also contain references to others on the habits of fishes.
KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.
1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the Shore. Proc.
Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 225-253.
SANDERSON, E. D.
1904. A Card-Index System for Entomological Records. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Bull. 46, pp. 26-34.
Contains references to other methods of recording notes.
SIMPSON, C. B.
1903. Photographing Nets of Hydropsyche. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. V,
pp. 93-95.
SUMNER, F. B.
1910. An Intensive Study of the Fauna and Flora of a Restricted Area
of the Sea Bottom. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp.
1225-1263.
A study on our coast along lines similar to those of C. G. J.
Petersen’s “Det Videnskabelige Udbytte af Kanonbaaden ‘Hauchs’ Togter
I de Danske Have Indenfor Skagen I Aarene” 1883-1886. 1893. pp. 464.
Atlas. Copenhagen.
TRANSEAU, E. N.
1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol.
XLV, pp. 217-231.
Methods of studying the relative humidity of the air in various plant
associations, also applicable to certain studies of animals.
WAINWRIGHT, D. B.
1905. A Plane Table Manual. Department of Commerce and Labor, Report U.
S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1905. Appendix No. 7, pp. 295-341.
In making local studies the plane table may be very helpful.
WRIGHT, A. H.
1907. A Graphic Method of Correlating Fish Environment and
Distribution. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLI, pp. 351-354.
WILSON, H. M.
1905. Topographical Surveying. Second Edition. New York.
Directions for camping, emergency surgery, photography, etc., pp.
811-884.
In concluding this list of references I would suggest to the student
the desirability of securing the following catalogues or lists of
publications. A glance at the lists in this volume will show that a
surprisingly large number of the papers or works are governmental
publications, many of which have long been out of print, but many
may still be secured from the different departments or from the
Superintendent of Documents at Washington, D.C.
1. U. S. Geological Survey. List of Publications, including maps.
Washington, D.C.
2. Superintendent of Documents. Lists of publications of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.
3. Smithsonian Institution. List of publications. Washington, D.C.
4. U. S. National Museum. List of publications. Washington, D.C.
5. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (formerly U. S. Fish Commission). List of
publications. Washington, D.C.
6. For list of dealers in second-hand books see Banks’ Bull. 81, U.
S. National Museum, pp. 117-118. This is one of the best methods of
securing many publications which are out of print.
_3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading_
The preparation of papers for publication is a practical phase of study
and an art, or form of technique, about which the zoölogical student is
liable to hear but little. There may be a great economy of effort, and
much time saved, if early in his work the student realizes the need of
cultivating the _habit_ of preparing all manuscripts in a form suitable
for publication. While there is much variation in details, yet within
certain limits there is a certain amount of standardization which
should become _habitual_. Departures from such a standard necessitate
much loss of time which must be devoted to revisions and corrections.
One may work for years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts
to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements of the editors of
scientific publications. The following references are intended to cover
the main aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the reading of
proof.
LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (Edited by F. N. Scott).
1891. The Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 163. Boston. Allyn
and Bacon.
A very sane little book on writing, a subject on which it is difficult
to receive and apply advice.
WENDELL, B.
1899. English Composition. pp. 316. New York.
FERNALD, J. C.
1896. English Synonyms and Antonyms with Notes on the Correct Use of
Prepositions. Tenth Edition. pp. 564. New York.
1904. Connectives of English Speech. The Correct Usage of Prepositions,
Conjunctions, Relative Pronouns and Adverbs Explained and Illustrated.
pp. 324. New York.
ALLBUTT, T. C.
1905. Notes on the Composition of Scientific Papers. pp. 164. London.
Macmillan Company.
This book is by an experienced medical editor and contains many
practical suggestions.
RICKARD, T. A.
1910. A Guide to Technical Writing. Second Edition. pp. 172. San
Francisco. Mining and Scientific Press.
Intended primarily for writers on mining, and yet it contains much that
is useful and suggestive to zoologists particularly the chapters on
the need of simplicity in the language of science, and on the value of
standardization.
WARMAN, P. C.
1903. A Plea for Better English in Science. Science, N. S., Vol. XVIII,
pp. 563-568. Reprinted with revision, 1910. Washington.
DAVIS, W. M.
1911. The Disciplinary Value of Geography. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVIII,
pp. 105-119, 223-240.
An illuminating paper on the “art of presentation” of scientific
results in oral and written form.
1909. The Systematic Description of Land Forms. Geogr. Jour., Vol.
XXXIV, pp. 300-318.
1909. Glacial Erosion in North Wales. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol.
LXV, pp. 281-350.
1910. Experiments in Geographical Description. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc.,
Vol. XLII, pp. 401-435.
1911. The Colorado Front Range. A Study in Physiographic Presentation.
Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 21-83.
The four preceding papers are in many respects models of presentation.
They exemplify the process method applied to _regions_, a phase of
much importance in certain ecologic studies, particularly ecological
surveys. The last two papers are rather detailed applications of the
same ideas. A very profitable study may be made of the method of
presentation in these papers.
DEVINNE, T. L.
1902. The Practice of Typography. Correct Composition. A Treatise on
Spelling, Abbreviations, the Compounding and Division of Words, the
Proper Use of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters, Notes,
etc., with Observations on Punctuation and Proof-reading. Second
Edition, pp. 476. New York.
Perhaps the highest American authority on all the subjects discussed.
WOOD, G. M.
1909. Suggestions to Authors of Papers Submitted for Publication by the
United States Geological Survey with Directions to Typewriters. U. S.
Geol. Survey, pp. 50. Washington.
Can be secured gratis from the Survey.
ANONYMOUS.
1903. Government Printing Office Manual of Style for Use in Composition
and Proof Reading, pp. 191. Washington, D.C.
VAUX, C. B.
1910. How to Prepare a Paper for Publication. Bull. No. 4. Wistar Inst.
Anat. and Biology, pp. 20. Phila.
1910. Style Brief. A Guide for Authors in Preparing Copy and Correcting
Proof of Professional Papers and for the Use of Editors and Printer,
adopted as the Standard of the Journals Published by the Wistar
Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. pp. 32. First Edition.
Baltimore.
The Wistar Institute publishes the “Journal of Experimental Zoölogy,”
which is devoted to “original researches of an experimental or
analytical nature” on many branches of zoölogy, including _ecology_
and general physiology. The “Style Brief” can be secured from the
Institute.
ORCUTT, W. D.
1912. The Writer’s Desk Book. pp. 184. New York. F. A. Stokes Co.
A useful handbook on punctuation, capitalization, spelling,
abbreviations, numerals, etc., and with an appendix on weights and
measures.
WOOLLEY, E. C.
1907. Handbook of Composition. A Compendium of Rules Regarding Good
English, Grammar, Sentence Structure, Paragraphing, Manuscript
Arrangement, Punctuation, Spelling, Essay Writing and Letter Writing.
pp. 239. Boston.
VI. IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES OF INSECTS
AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES
Insects are to-day one of the dominant forms of life and are present
in almost every large animal association or habitat. They therefore
form an important element in a large number of ecological studies. And
although facts of ecological significance have been accumulating for
many years they are so widely scattered that to find them when needed
is quite a serious problem. To aid in such a search the following
references are given. It should be remembered that spiders, mites,
and myriapods are commonly included in entomological literature and
are therefore included in this list. The list is not intended as a
substitute for the more elaborate sources such as the Zoölogical Record
and similar standard works to be found in large libraries, but it
includes publications that are more likely to be within the grasp of
teachers and students not located at library centers. Many of these are
public documents, and even if out of print, can easily be secured from
second-hand dealers.
A student who has access to large libraries will find the following
paper very valuable in suggestions as to the methods of finding the
literature on many general zoölogical subjects.
MINOT, C. S.
1896. Bibliography. A Study of Resources, pp. 149-168. Biol. Lectures,
Wood’s Holl, 1895. Boston.
(Alphabetically arranged.)
ALDRICH, J. M.
1905. A Catalogue of North American Diptera. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. XLVI, No. 1444. pp. 680.
Contains an extensive bibliography on flies.
ANONYMOUS.
1906. Catalogue of Publications Relating to Entomology in the Library
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Library Bulletin 55. pp. 562.
Washington.
BANKS, N.
1892. A Synopsis, Catalogue, and Bibliography of the Neuropteroid
Insects of Temperate North America. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. XIX,
pp. 327-373.
1898-1905. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American
Economic Entomology, Parts VI, VII, and VIII. U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology.
A continuation of the work begun by Henshaw (1889-1896).
1900. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Bull. No. 24 (N. S.). pp. 95.
1902. An Index to Bulletins Nos. I-30 (N. S.), (1896-1901), of the
Division of Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 36 (N.S.). pp.
64.
1910. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Bull. 81. pp. 120.
This and the preceding edition (1900) form a very useful index to the
systematic literature of insects, spiders, myriapods, etc.
1910. Catalogue of the Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Amer. Ent. Soc.
pp. 103. Philadelphia.
1910. Catalogue of Nearctic Spiders. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 72. pp. 80.
In the absence of special bibliographies these catalogues are the most
convenient avenue to the literature.
BETHUNE, C. J. S.
1900. General Index to the Thirty Annual Reports of the Entomological
Society of Ontario, 1870-1899. pp. 76. Ontario Dept. Agr.
BEUTENMÜLLER, W.
1891. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of
North American Coleoptera. Jour. N. Y. Micros. Soc., Vol. VII, pp. 1-52.
1890. Preliminary Catalogue of the Described Transformations of the
Odonata of the World, pp. 165-179. In Lamborn, R. H., Dragonflies vs.
Mosquitoes. New York.
1893. On the Food Habits of the North American Rhynchophora. Jour. N.
Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. I, pp. 36-43, 80-88.
1896. Food-Habits of North American Cerambycidæ. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc.,
Vol. IV, pp. 73-81.
CHITTENDEN, F. H.
1893. Note on the Food Habits of Some Species of Chrysomelidæ. Proc.
Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II, pp. 261-267.
1897. General Index to the Seven Volumes of Insect Life, 1888-1895. U.
S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.
COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.
1876. The General Index of the Agricultural Reports of the Patent
Office for 1837-1861, and of the Department of Agriculture for
1862-1876. Washington.
COMSTOCK, J. H.
1879. Report upon Cotton Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 511. This
report, like those of the U. S. Entomological Commission, gives very
full accounts of the habits and life histories of certain species and
gives particular attention to their predaceous and parasitic enemies.
The predaceous insects are seldom given as detailed study as the
vegetable-feeding kinds.
COQUILLETT, D. W.
1881. Larvæ of Lepidoptera. Tenth Ann. Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp.
145-186.
Descriptions, figures, and keys to many common larvæ.
CRESSON, E. T.
1887. Synopsis of the Hymenoptera of America, North of Mexico. Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc., Supplem. Vol., 1887, Pt. 2. Catalogue of Species and
Bibliography, pp. 155-350. Philadelphia.
CURRIE, R. P., and CAUDELL, A. N.
1911. An Index to Circulars 1 to 100 (Second Series) of the Bureau of
Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Circular No. 100. pp. 49.
The circulars contain a large amount of information on life histories
of insects.
DIMMOCK, G., and KNAB, F.
1904. Early Stages of Carabidæ. Bull. No. 1, Springfield Mus. Nat.
Hist. pp. 55. Springfield, Mass.
DODGE, C. R.
1888. The Life and Entomological Work of the Late Townend Glover. U. S.
Dept. Agric., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 18 (O. S.). pp. 68.
DYAR, H. G.
1894. A Classification of Lepidopterous Larvæ. Ann. N. Y. Acad. of
Sci., Vol. VIII, pp. 194-232.
EDWARDS, H.
1889. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of
North American Lepidoptera. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 35. pp. 147.
FELT, E. P.
1905-06. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Mem. 8, N. Y. State
Mus., Vol. I, pp. 1-332, a435-a459, 1905; Vol. II, pp. 333-877, 1906.
Excellently illustrated, and with numerous references. This report and
Packard’s Forest Insects form an excellent guide to the life histories
and literature of forest insects.
1899. Memorial of Life and Entomologic Work of Joseph Albert Lintner,
Ph. D. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 24, Vol. V, pp. 303-611.
Contains an index to Lintner’s thirteen reports as State Entomologist
of New York. These reports contain rather full references and good
summaries of life histories.
FOLSOM, J. W.
1906. Entomology with Special Reference to its Biological and Economic
Aspects, pp. 485. Philadelphia.
A very useful bibliography is given on pp. 409-466.
FORBES, S. A.
1885. General Indexes to the First Twelve Reports of the State
Entomologists of Illinois. App. to Fourteenth Rep. State Ent. Ill. pp.
120. Springfield.
1909. Contents and Index of the Reports of the State Entomologist of
Illinois, XIII-XXIV. 1884-1908. pp. 157. Office of State Entomologist.
FORBES, W. T. M.
1906. Field Tables of Lepidoptera. pp. 141. Worcester, Mass. Keys for
the determination of larvæ.
1910. A Structural Study of Some Caterpillars. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.,
Vol. III, pp. 94-132.
Contains a very useful bibliography (pp. 125-127).
FORBUSH, E. H., and FERNALD, C. H.
1896. The Gypsy Moth. Mass. Board Agr. pp. 495. Boston.
Also discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the
Gypsy Moth.
HART, C. A.
1895. On the Entomology of the Illinois River and Adjacent Waters.
Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, pp. 149-284.
Keys to immature stages of aquatic insects and many biological
observations.
HENSHAW, S.
1887. The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. U. S.
Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 16. pp. 49.
Biological observations.
1889-96. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American
Economic Entomology, Parts I-V, and index. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div.
Ent.
HUBBARD, H. G.
1885. Insects Affecting the Orange. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent. pp. 227.
JOHANNSEN, O. A.
1903, 1905. Aquatic Nematocerous Diptera. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. No.
68, pp. 328-448; Bull. No. 86, pp. 76-327.
Immature stages of several families are rather fully treated and
valuable references on life histories given.
MACGILLIVRAY, A. D.
1903. Aquatic Chrysomelidæ and a Table of the Families of Coleopterous
Larvæ. Bull. No. 68, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 288-331.
Gives references to the most important papers on the immature stages of
beetles.
NEEDHAM, J. G., and BETTEN, C.
1901. Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. Bull. No. 47, N. Y. State
Mus., pp. 383-612.
Keys to orders to immature aquatic insects; keys to Mayfly and
dragon-fly nymphs.
NEEDHAM, J. G.
1903. Life Histories of Odonata, Suborder Zygoptera. Bull. No. 68, N.
Y. State Mus., pp. 218-276.
Keys to nymphs.
1905. Ephemeridæ. Bull. No. 86, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 17-59.
Keys to genera of adults and to nymphs.
1908. Report on the Entomologic Field Station Conducted at Old Forge,
N. Y., in the Summer of 1905. Bull. No. 124, N. Y. State Mus., pp.
156-248.
Life histories of crane flies, Tipulidæ; table of larval habits, p.
239, and fish food.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, U. S. DEPT. AGRIC.
1889. Experiment Station Record, Vol. I to date.
1903. General Index to Experiment Station Record, Vols. 1-12,
1889-1901, and to Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 2. pp. 671.
Useful for references to current literature on economic species, before
they have appeared in the more slowly published bibliographies.
PACKARD, A. S.
1890. Forest Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr., Fifth Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm. pp.
957.
Almost an encyclopedia on forest insects, insects listed by food
plants. Very useful.
PIERCE, W. D.
1907. On the Biologies of the Rhynchophora of North America. Ann. Rep.
Neb. St. Bd. Agr., 1906-07, pp. 247-319.
This is an annotated list of breeding and food habits of the snout
and bark beetles. References to the literature, index of plants and
beetles. Very useful.
1908. A List of Parasites Known to Attack American Rhynchophora. Jour.
Econ. Ent., Vol. I, pp. 380-396.
RILEY, C. V., PACKARD, A. S., and THOMAS, C.
1878. First Annual Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for
the Year 1877, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, etc. U. S. Geol.
Surv. (Hayden). pp. 477.
Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the locust.
1880. Second Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for the Years
1878 and 1879, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, and the Western
Cricket, etc. U. S. Dept. Interior. pp. 322.
Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the locust.
RLLEY, C. V.
1880. Food Habits of the Longicorn Beetles or Wood Borers. Amer. Ent.,
Vol. III, pp. 237-239, 270-271.
1881. General Index and Supplement to the Nine Reports on the Insects
of Missouri. U. S. Dept. of Interior. U. S. Ent. Comm., Bull. No. 6.
pp. 178.
1885. Fourth Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission, etc. (On the
Cotton and Boll Worm.) U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 399.
SCHWARZ, E. A.
1890. Food-Plants and Food-Habits of Some North American Coleoptera.
Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. Vol. I, pp. 231-233.
SCUDDER, S. H.
1889. Classified List of Food Plants of American Butterflies, drawn
from Scudder’s Butterflies of the Eastern United States. Psyche, Vol.
V, pp. 274-278.
1901. Index to North American Orthoptera. Occasional Papers of the
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI. pp. 436.
This is a complete alphabetical index to the literature of the species
of North American Orthoptera--a unique and very useful work.
THOMAS, C., MIDDLETON, N., and MARTIN, J.
1881. Descriptive Catalogue of Larvæ. Tenth Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp.
60-140.
Description and keys to saw-fly and Lepidopterous larvæ.
TOWNSEND, C. H. T.
1893. A General Summary of the Known Larval Food-habits of the
Acalyptrate Muscidæ. Can. Ent., Vol. XXV, pp. 10-16.
WARD, H. B., WHIPPLE, G. C., and others.
Fresh Water Biology. (In press.) New York.
This work consists of chapters by numerous specialists on the various
groups of fresh-water animals including insects, gives keys for the
determination of specimens, short chapters on their general biological
relations, and references to the literature.
VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF
EXTERNAL NATURE”
THE DYNAMIC AND PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
“Of all the truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to us are
those which relate to the order of succession. On a knowledge of these
is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts, and whatever
power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage.”--JOHN
STUART MILL.
“To study life we must consider three things: first, the orderly
sequence of external nature; second, the living organism and the
changes which take place in it; and, third, the continuous adjustment
between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”--W. K.
BROOKS.
“The truth, indeed, is, that in physical inquiries, the work of theory
and observation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at
the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, for
there the clue of theory is necessary to direct the observer. Though
a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, he cannot continue
long without seeing some general conclusion arise; and to this nascent
theory it is his business to attend, because, by seeking either
to verify or to disprove it, he is led to new experiments, or new
observations. He is led also to the very experiments and observations
that are of the greatest importance, namely to those _instantiæ
crucis_, which are the criteria that naturally present themselves for
the trial of every hypothesis. He is conducted to the places where
the transitions of nature are most perceptible, and where the absence
of former, or the presence of new circumstances, excludes the action
of imaginary causes. By this correction of his first opinion, a new
approximation is made to the truth; and by the repetition of the same
process, certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation
mutually assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which
there are so many and such just complaints, appears, nevertheless, as
the animating principle of inductive investigation. The business of
sound philosophy is not to extinguish this spirit, but to restrain and
direct its efforts.”
--J. PLAYFAIR, “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,”
Edinburgh, 1802, pp. 524-525.
The facts and ideas with which the animal ecologist needs to become
acquainted are so widely scattered that a large amount of selective
reading is necessary. The ecologist must read, select, and become
an organizing center of things ecological. All of the facts and
conceptions which he needs are not even confined to zoölogical or
biological literature. In seeking an understanding of any problem,
conventional groupings of the sciences and their arbitrary boundaries
must not bar one from fertile fields. Many of the conceptions of the
physical sciences, due to their more advanced stage of development,
anticipate the future development of biology. This is particularly
true of their dynamic conceptions. For this reason we should not
hesitate to utilize and deliberately strive to secure development
along similar lines in animal ecology. Elsewhere I have stated (An
Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan, 1906, pp. 11, 12) that:
“It is thus very apparent that as soon as ecological phenomena
are investigated dynamically and expressed in terms of processes,
this science will of necessity become more closely correlated with
those allied sciences which have already availed themselves of such
methods.... It seems a very simple matter to give assent to the idea
of the law of change, yet in its practical application this simplicity
often vanishes at once when it is seen that it involves the relation
of cause and effect.... As this method of thinking is not generally
understood, it is occasionally applied in such a crude and general
sense that its bearing cannot be grasped when applied to special
or concrete problems. There can be no question as to the general
validity of this method, but what is now needed is to know how these
processes are combined and related to produce particular environmental
conditions or situations. That these difficulties are not confined
to the ecologist alone, but are obstacles which arise in any attempt
at scientific interpretation, is worthy of special notice. We are
thus able to see why certain naturalists, apparently not recognizing
or understanding the developmental processes which scientific ideas
undergo, nor being acquainted with the tendencies of interpretation,
dynamically considered, now making such rapid headway in ecological
botany, geography, physiography, geology, and psychology, are inclined
to look upon such attempts in biology as merely a fad or personal
peculiarity of the student, and not of any particular consequence. Such
ideas confuse the incidental with the essential and suggest a complete
failure to grasp the situation or to realize the fundamental importance
of stating explanations in terms of processes. Furthermore, in several
of the allied sciences, the methods of dynamical interpretation have
already made considerable advance. Here, then, is a resource, at
present largely unworked by many biologists, where a wealth of ideas
and explanations lies strewn over the surface and only need to be
picked up in order to be utilized by those acquainted with this method
of interpretation.... If the signs of the times are now read correctly,
the most striking advance in scientific methods of thinking during the
present century will be in the direction of interpretation from the
standpoint of processes--dynamically.”
For these reasons I have begun the list of literature with certain
references which deal with the dynamic relations of the environment.
These publications are particularly valuable not only for this method
of treatment, but also for their content. These papers clearly
emphasize the “orderly sequence of external nature,” a conception which
must be grasped much more than superficially, if one is to interpret
the development or evolution of environments. Although this is an
essential part of our problem, as has been so well expressed by Brooks,
yet this phase is probably one of the least understood by zoölogists.
And as long as zoölogical students lack the proper training this
condition will continue. To neglect this aspect in the training of an
ecologist is like neglect of chemical training in a physiologist or
of a physiological training in a psychologist. For one who is ignorant
of the principles of “orderly sequence,” or successions of changes
occurring in the physical, vegetational, and animal environments, it is
manifestly impossible to realize their development; and the application
of such principles to the interpretation of practical problems is
utterly beyond his grasp. We are thus able to see that although the
phrase “orderly sequence of external nature” is fundamentally a simple
conception, it is not grasped without effort, training, and careful
investigation.
Obviously it is impossible to arrange the series of references with
perfect satisfaction. The arrangement which will serve one purpose
will not another, and for this reason it has been necessary to arrange
the lists in more than one order. Certain general references, or some
intended to facilitate the acquirement of the general _point of view_,
are given first, and others are arranged alphabetically. For example,
the papers listed on the processes of change in the physical and
vegetational environment are approximately in an order in which they
may profitably be studied to make the view as concrete as possible. It
is primarily not the abstract idea of the principle of change, which is
relatively easy to grasp, but to be able to apply it to any condition
or location and to make it a guiding principle is very difficult. And
judging from my own observation upon others and my own experience
this method is very rarely mastered, if at all, unless it is actually
worked out in some concrete case, and later expanded to its logical
consequences.
Only a few references are given on general physiology, metabolism, and
allied subjects, but those given furnish a valuable index to further
literature. Only the most arbitrary line can be drawn between papers
dealing with habits, behavior, and individual ecology, and for this
reason most of the references selected are arranged alphabetically.
Particular attention should be called to the fact that it is not to be
assumed that the various authors strive to make the points to which
attention is here called; they may or may not do so. My aim is to call
attention to the _utility_ of the publications from the _standpoint_
advocated throughout the book.
From this point onward in this book the references form its main
feature. For this reason it is important that one should not get an
exaggerated idea of the value of the literature. It is perhaps true
that a large part of the best ecological work has been done with little
knowledge of other ecological writings. This was of course particularly
true of the early workers, and the best work of to-day does not come
from the largest library centers. A student looking over these lists,
and finding that he has access to relatively few papers, may conclude
that all effort is of no avail. The greatest need is not all or even a
majority of the publications on the _general field_, but the relatively
limited number which bear directly upon the problem at hand and enough
of the general papers to aid him in a general orientation. It may be
of some comfort to the isolated student, with his small shelf of books,
to realize that there are perhaps not a half-dozen libraries in America
which contain _all_ the references given in this book. The nearer one
reaches the boundaries of our knowledge, the smaller the amount, and
often the smaller the value of the literature, and the greater the
value of a proper orientation, which comes only with a grasp of general
principles.
* * * * *
(The laws of physical and vegetational changes and their influence upon
animals. The dynamic or process relation of the environment.)
BANCROFT, W. D.
1911. A Universal Law. Science, N. S., Vol. XXX, pp. 159-179.
The law of adjustment or response to strain. A very important paper
viewed from the dynamic and process standpoint.
HENDERSON, L. J.
1913. The Fitness of the Environment. An Enquiry into the Biological
Significance of the Properties of Matter, pp. 317. New York. The
Macmillan Company.
Valuable ecologically because of its exposition of the orderly sequence
and _regulatory_ character of physico-chemical and physiological
processes, and the application of chemical equilibria and the Phase
Rule to metabolic changes. He says, “Now there can be no doubt that,
when feasible, the ideal method--from the physico-chemical point of
view--to describe a material system is in terms of the phase rule.” p.
260.
CHAMBERLIN, T. C., and SALISBURY, R. D.
1904. Geology. Geologic Processes and their Results, Vol. I. pp. 654.
New York.
To be considered from the standpoint of the _agents_ and _processes_
which change animal habitats and result in their “orderly sequence.”
VAN HISE, C. R.
1904. A Treatise on Metamorphism. U. S. Geol. Survey, Monog., Vol.
XLVII, pp. 1-1286.
A formidable-looking volume on account of its size, but one which will
abundantly repay a careful study of its method, aside from the value
of the content, for problems related to animals of the soils, etc.
Particular attention should be given to the formulation of dynamic
principles, and the application of the process method.
DAVIS, W. M.
1909. Geographical Essays, pp. 777. New York.
Essays on the orderly sequence of changing land forms, or to the
ecologist, the development of inland habitats, in so far as they are
dependent upon the physiographic conditions.
WOODWORTH, J. B.
1894. The Relation between Baseleveling and Organic Evolution. Amer.
Geol., Vol. XIV, pp. 209-235.
The influence of baseleveling factors in the development of the gross
environment and upon evolution.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1901. Baseleveling and its Faunal Significance, with Illustrations from
Southeastern United States. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXV, pp. 839-852.
The influence of baseleveling upon the sequence of changes in
fresh-water and land habitats. (See Figures 4 and 5.)
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A small stream as an animal environment, with
the preponderance of rapidly flowing water. Tumwater Cañon, Near
Wenatchee Washington. Photo. by W. B. McCallum.]
[Illustration:
FIG. 5.--A small river as an animal environment. The rapid water
conditions of a stream in an early stage of topographic development,
such as is shown in Fig. 4, is here replaced by long pools of
relatively quietly flowing water, connected by narrow stretches of more
rapidly flowing water. Wabash River, Bluffton Indiana. Photo. by N.
Miller and E. B. Williamson. ]
BRANDT, K.
1899. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. Wissen. Meeruntersuchungen,
heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen. Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel. N. F.
Abth. Kiel, Bd. IV, pp. 213-230.
1901. Life in the Ocean. Smithsonian Report for 1900, pp. 493-506.
A translation of the preceding paper on the transformation of substance
or “cycle of matter” in the sea. The extensive footnotes are omitted.
1902. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. 2 Abhand. Wiss. Meeresunt.
heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen. Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel, N. F.
Bd. VI, Abth. Kiel, pp. 23-79.
1905. On the Production and Conditions of Production in the Sea.
Rapports et Procés-Verbaux, Inter. Council for the Exploration of the
Sea, Vol. III, Appendix D. Copenhagen.
Not seen by the writer. Johnstone states that it is a summary of the
papers of 1899 and 1902.
JOHNSTONE, J.
1908. Metabolism in the Sea. pp. 206-298. In “Conditions of Life in the
Sea.” Cambridge, England.
BIRGE, E. A.
1907. The Respiration of an Inland Lake. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc.,
Vol. XXXVI, pp. 223-241.
1904. The Thermocline and its Biological Significance. Trans. Amer.
Micros. Soc., Vol. XXV, pp. 5-33. Two studies in the sequential changes
in the lake habitat.
BIRGE, E. A., and JUDAY, C.
1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The Dissolved Gases of the Water
and their Biological Significance. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey,
Bull. No. 22. pp. 259.
PETERS, A. W.
1907. Chemical Studies on the Cell and its Medium. Part II, Some
Chemico-Biological Relations in Liquid Culture Media. Amer. Jour.
Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 321-346.
A study of changes in media and their biotic succession.
COWLES, H. C.
1911. The Causes of Vegetative Cycles. Bot. Gaz., Vol. LI, pp. 161-183.
Also Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 1-20. 1912.
An important statement of the general principles and causes of
vegetational changes. Includes a history of the subject.
1901. The Physiographic Ecology of Chicago and Vicinity; A Study of the
Origin, Development, and Classification of Plant Societies. Bot. Gaz.,
Vol. XXXI, pp. 73-108, 145-182.
A study of changes in the vegetation from the process and genetic
standpoint.
CLEMENTS, F. E.
1904. The Development and Structure of Vegetation. Bot. Surv. Nebraska,
VII. pp. 175. Lincoln.
Deals with vegetative changes from the process standpoint.
1905. Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln, Neb.
CRAMPTON, C. B.
1911. The Vegetation of Caithness Considered in Relation to the
Geology. pp. 132. Comm. for the Survey and Study of British Vegetation.
1912. The Geological Relations of Stable and Migratory Plant
Formations. Scottish Bot. Rev., Vol. I, pp. 1-61.
Good examples of the process standpoint as applied to the vegetation.
WARMING, E. (Trans. by P. GROOM and I. B. BALFOUR.)
1909. Œcology of Plants. pp. 422. Oxford.
A treatise on the general principles of plant ecology, and an index to
the literature.
ZON, RAPHAEL.
1906. Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types. Proc. Soc. Amer.
Foresters, Vol. I, pp. 179-189.
Discusses the sequence of change in the forest.
OSTENFELD, C. H.
1908. On the Ecology and Distribution of the Grass-Wrack (_Zostera
marina_) in Danish Waters. Rep. Danish Biol. Sta. to Board of
Agriculture, Vol. XVI, 1908. Trans. from the Fiskeri-Beretning for
1907, pp. 1-62.
An important paper showing the controlling relation of marine
vegetation upon animal associations and particularly the fish of the
coast. References to related zoölogical papers.
MOORE, J. E. S.
1903. The Tanganyika Problem. pp. 371. London.
On pp. 107-119 Moore describes the invasion and succession of
vegetation upon alluvial flats, recently drained. A graphic account of
forest invasion. Apparently a little known study.
ERNST, A. (Trans. by A. C. SEWARD.)
1908. The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau. pp. 74.
Cambridge.
A study of the invasion of vegetation upon a new land surface formed by
volcanic activity. Such studies as this aid one in breaking away from
the older static view of vegetation and in seeing its more vital aspect.
VAUGHAN, T. W.
1911. The Geological Work of Mangroves in Southern Florida. Smithsonian
Miscell. Coll. (Quart. Issue), Vol. LII, pp. 461-464.
Plants as agents in the formation of animal habitats.
WEISS, F. E.
1909. A Preliminary Account of the Submerged Vegetation of Lake
Windermere as Affecting the Feeding Ground of Fish. Mem. and Pro.
Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester Memoirs, 1908-1909, Vol.
LIII, Mem. 11, pp. 1-9.
TRANSEAU, E. N.
1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol.
XLV, pp. 217-231.
Shows vegetational control upon the relative humidity of the air.
FULLER, G. D.
1911. Evaporation and Plant Succession. Bot. Gaz., Vol. LII, pp.
193-208.
Further studies of the vegetational control of the relative evaporating
power of the air.
SHELFORD, V. E.
1907. Preliminary Note on the Distribution of the Tiger Beetles
(Cicindela) and its Relation to Plant Succession. Biol. Bull., Vol.
XIV, pp. 9-14.
The sequence of vegetational changes which determine the habitats of a
predaceous insect.
1912. Ecological Succession. IV. Vegetation and the Control of Land
Animal Communities. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 59-99.
An important paper correlating the development of the vegetation and
the changing animal associations.
COOK, O. F.
1909. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. No. 145. pp. 30.
Vegetational change in the tropics as affected by man and its relation
to plant succession.
FERNOW, B. E., and HARRINGTON, M. W., and others.
1893. Forest Influences. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forestry Div., Bull. No. 7.
pp. 197. Very valuable discussion of the atmospheric conditions in and
about woodlands; temperature, evaporation, etc., in open and wooded
areas. Not written from the process standpoint, but capable of such an
interpretation. (See Figures 6 and 7.)
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1905. The Postglacial Dispersal of the North American Biota. Biol.
Bull., Vol. IX, pp. 53-71.
Climatic sequences applied to inland habitats and the succession of
their associations.
1909. Isle Royale as a Biotic Environment. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv.
for 1908, pp. 1-56.
An attempt is made to treat the environment and biota from both the
dynamic or process standpoint--so far as the present processes are
concerned--and genetically with regard to the development of the
present conditions.
RUTHVEN, A. G.
1906. An Ecological Survey in the Porcupine Mountains and Isle Royale,
Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905, pp. 17-55.
The environment and biotic associations are treated from the dynamic
and genetic standpoint.
VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT,
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR “THE LIVING ORGANISM AND THE
CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN IT”
THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL
1. General Physiology and Development.
2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers.
3. Animal Behavior as a Process.
4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies.
5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior.
“Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external phenomena
as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also as simply in
relation; the broadest and most complete definition of Life will
be--The continuous adjustment of internal relations to external
relations.”--HERBERT SPENCER.
“It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the behavior
of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic--as processes, rather
than as structures. The animal is something happening.”--H. S. JENNINGS
(1907).
Not only is the environment subject to an orderly sequence of changes,
but this same law applies with equal thoroughness to the living animal
itself. The animal is an agent which transforms, in “an orderly
sequence,” by its processes of metabolism, both energy and substance,
resulting in growth, differentiation, multiplication, and behavior.
These activities take place in an orderly manner and are dependent
upon both energy and substance derived from the environment. For these
reasons the processes or changes in metabolism, growth, development,
and behavior, _in so far as they are responses to the orderly sequence
of environmental changes, are ecological problems_. The changes in
behavior during the life of the animal or the development of its
behavior give one of the main clues to the physiological conditions
which determine some of the most characteristic forms of responses, and
finally as a result of all these activities and processes of adjustment
to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and adjusted condition
of the struggle for existence in animals and associations may be
reached, the culmination of animal harmonies. For this reason studies
in modifications of behavior are of fundamental ecological importance,
because they consider behavior not only as ready-made, but also in
the process of making. Such considerations as these make it desirable
to include some of the most valuable and suggestive books and papers
which deal with those general physiological processes influencing
growth, development, multiplication, and behavior, and _particularly
those which aid one in realizing their order or successive changes, or
“orderly sequence.”_
In studying the activities of the individual animal, the normal
environment to which it is _attuned_ forms the natural unit or basis
for study. All processes which modify or change such an optimum will
stimulate the animal, cause responses and adjustments. There are many
degrees or stages in the development of these optima which change
with the functional rhythms and with the development of the animal.
There are those conditions which influence the activity of certain
functions or organs; those which influence the general vital processes
in general, the vital optimum; those which appear to condition the
best development of certain families, genera, etc.; and finally those
of animal associations. Of course these grade imperceptibly into one
another, and a single animal may in its development, traverse all of
these stages in the development of its associational optimum. Optima
thus have histories, and their development and laws of transformation
are of the most fundamental ecological importance (Adams, 1904, 1909;
Blackman, 1905, 1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).
In the selection of these papers I have been guided by several
considerations. Studies of common animals are given preference, also
those papers which by their method of treatment and point of view
are especially suggestive and may act as models for further study,
and particularly those papers which treat of the activities from the
standpoint of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and development.
It is to such papers that we must look for suggestions regarding
the methods or processes of adjustment between the animal and the
environment. All of these papers are not equally ecological, but all
will be of much utility in ecological work.
(General works are listed first, followed by special papers arranged
alphabetically.)
_1. General Physiology and Development_
VERWORN, M.
1899. General Physiology. pp. 615. New York.
A very good general summary, but somewhat out of date. There is a
German edition of 1909 (fifth).
ROSENTHAL, J.
1901. Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Physiologie. pp. 616. Leipzig.
FÜRTH, O. VON.
1903. Vergleichende chemische Physiologic der niederen Tiere. pp. 670.
Jena.
An excellent general work. Indispensable. Full references.
PÜTTER, A.
1911. Vergleichende Physiologie. pp. 721. Jena.
WINTERSTEIN, H. (Editor).
1910. Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie. (To be completed in four
volumes.) Jena.
HAMMARSTEN, O. (Trans. by J. A. MANDEL.)
1911. A Text-Book of Physiological Chemistry. Sixth Edition, pp. 964.
New York.
DAVENPORT, C. B.
1908. Experimental Morphology, pp. 509. New York.
Excellent summaries and full references to the influence of various
stimuli upon growth and upon protoplasm.
LOEB, J.
1906. The Dynamics of Living Matter. pp. 233. New York.
PRZIBRAM, H.
1910. Experimental-Zoologie. 3. Phylogenese. pp. 315. Leipzig and
Vienna.
JENNINGS, H. S.
1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.
The general chapters are particularly helpful.
MORGAN, T. H.
1907. Experimental Zoölogy, pp. 454. New York.
Summaries of a variety of experimental studies.
SEMPER, K.
1881. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence.
pp. 472. New York.
“‘The Physiology of _Organisms_,’ in contradistinction to the
Physiology of _Organs_, ... [is] that branch of animal biology which
regards the species of animals as actualities and investigates the
reciprocal relations which adjust the balance between the existence of
any species and the natural, external conditions of its existence, in
the widest sense of the term.” p. 33.
JENSEN, P.
1907. Organische Zweckmässigkeit, Entwicklung und Vererbung vom
Standpunkt der Physiologie. Jena. pp. 251.
VERNON, H. M.
1903. Variation in Animals and Plants. pp. 415. London.
VARIGNY, H. DE.
1892. Experimental Evolution, pp. 271. New York.
BACHMETJEW, P.
1901-1907. Experimentelle entomologische Studien vom
physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkt aus. Bd. I. Temperaturverhältnisse
bei Insekten. pp. 160. Leipzig. 1901. Bd. II. Einfluss der Ausseren
Faktoren auf Insekten. pp. 944. Sophia. 1907.
An extremely valuable index to environmental influences upon insects.
Numerous summaries.
HERRICK, C. L.
1906. Applications of Dynamic Theory to Physiological Problems. Jour.
Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 362-375.
RICHARDS, H. M.
1910. On the Nature of Response to Chemical Stimulation. Science, N.
S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 52-62.
SCHÄFER, E. A.
1912. The Nature, Origin and Maintenance of Life. Science, N. S., Vol.
XXXVI, pp. 289-312.
BASKERVILLE, C.
1905. Life and Chemistry. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 641-648.
MORGAN, T. H.
1910. Chance or Purpose in the Origin and Evolution of Adaptation.
Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 201-210.
MATHEWS, A. P.
1905. A Theory of the Nature of Protoplasmic Respiration and Growth.
Biol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 331-346.
JENNINGS, H. S.
1912. Age, Death and Conjugation in the Light of Work on Lower
Organisms. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXX, pp. 563-577.
Death is due to differentiation and not to a “running down” of the
organism.
LILLIE, F. R.
1909. The Theory of Individual Development. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXV,
pp. 239-252.
HOLMES, S. J.
1904. The Problem of Form Regulation. Archiv für Entwickelungsmechanik
der Organismen (Roux), Bd. XVII, pp. 265-305.
1907. Regeneration as Functional Adjustment. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IV,
pp. 419-430.
WILSON, E. B.
1905. The Problem of Development. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 281-294.
SHERRINGTON, C. S.
1906. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. pp. 411. New York.
The activity of the nervous system is viewed as a _regulatory process_.
The similar responses to diverse stimuli or the similar results
produced by diverse causes are the conditions which make an analysis
and the isolation of causes necessary. With departures from the normal
and optimum into zones of stimulation and of unfavorable conditions
many similar effects or results are produced. The similar results of
extremes of high and low temperature as shown in Fischer’s experiments
on Lepidoptera, and the effects of high temperatures, aridity, and the
lack of oxygen may be cited as examples. Such effects have an important
bearing upon the subject of physical and chemical _limiting factors_
which influence individuals, aggregations, and associations.
BLACKMAN, F. F.
1905. Optima and Limiting Factors. Ann. of Bot., Vol. XIX, pp. 281-295.
“When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of
separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the
‘slowest’ factor.” p. 289.
1908. The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical Mechanics in the
Living Plant. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1908, pp. 1-18.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1904. On the Analogy Between the Departure from Optimum Vital
Conditions and Departure from Geographic Life Centers. Science, N. S.,
Vol. XIX, pp. 210-211.
GREELEY, A. W.
1901. On the Analogy Between the Effects of Loss of Water and Lowering
of Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VI, pp. 122-128.
ZOETHOUT, W. D.
1899. On Some Analogies Between the Physiological Effects of High
Temperature, Lack of Oxygen, and Certain Poisons. Amer. Jour. Physiol.,
Vol. II, pp. 220-242.
LYON, E. P.
1902. Effects of Potassium Cyanide and of Lack of Oxygen upon
the Fertilized Eggs and the Embryos of the Sea-Urchin (_Arbacia
punctulata_). Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VII, pp. 56-75.
PACKARD, W. H.
1905. On Resistance to Lack of Oxygen and on a Method of Increasing
this Resistance. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XV, pp. 30-41.
1907. The Effect of Carbohydrates on Resistance to Lack of Oxygen.
Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 164-180.
FISCHER, E.
1903. Lepidopterologische Experimental-Forschungen. III. Allgem. Zeit.
für Entomologie, Bd. VIII, pp. 221-228.
These experiments illustrate in a very striking manner how abnormally
high and low temperatures produce the same kind of effect or response.
_2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers_
(Alphabetically arranged)
CLESSIN, S.
1897. Über den Einfluss der Umgebung auf die Gehäuse der Schnecken.
Württemberg naturw. Jahreshefte 53, pp. 68-86.
COLTON, H. S.
1908. Some Effects of Environment on the Growth of Lymnaea columella
Say. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 410-448.
KELLER, C.
1887. Humusbildung und Bodenkultur unter dem Einfluss tierischer
Thätigkeit.
Not seen.
KNAUTHE, K.
1898. Zur Kenntnis des Stoffwechsels der Fische. Archiv f. d. gesammte
Physiol. (Pflüger), Bd. LXXIII, pp. 490-500.
LANG, A.
1888. Über den Einfluss der festsitzenden Lebensweise auf die Thiere
und über den Ursprung der ungeschlichtlichen Fortpflanzung durch
Theilung und Knospung. pp. 166. Jena.
LOCARD, A.
1892. L’Influence des Milieux sur le Développement des Mollusques. pp.
140. Lyon.
MARSHALL, F. H.
1910. The Physiology of Reproduction. pp. 706. London.
MILLER, N.
1909. The American Toad (Bufo lentiginosus americanus Le Conte). Amer.
Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 641-668, 730-745.
A study of the natural history of a single species.
RIDDLE, O.
1909. The Rate of Digestion in Cold-Blooded Vertebrates,--The
Influence of Season and Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XXIV,
pp. 447-458.
RUSSELL, E. S.
1908. Environmental Studies on the Limpet. Proc. Zoöl. Soc., London,
1907, pp. 856-870.
SCHIEMENZ, P.
1911. Vergleichung der Fruchtbarkeit von Seen und Flussen. Aus
deutscher Fischerei. pp. 75-82. Neudamm.
A comparison of the relative productivity of fish in standing and
running water environments.
SHELFORD, V. E.
1911. Physiological Animal Geography. Jour. Morph., Vol. XXII, pp.
551-618.
An important paper. Explains the habitats and distribution of animals
as due to physiological responses and characters. The dynamic and
genetic standpoint of the present writer (p. 555) is erroneously
_contrasted_ with a physiological process. The dynamic includes all
processes, the physiologic process is a species of this genus. The
genetic is the application of processes to explain origins. The
responsive and functional processes are dynamic in character.
1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological
Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.
Further studies along the lines of the preceding paper.
VIRE, A.
1896. Modifications Produced in the Organs of Sense and of Nutrition in
Certain Arthropods by Confinement in Caves. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6),
Vol. XVII, pp. 407-408.
VOSSELER, J.
1902. Über Anpassung und chemische Vertheidigungs mittel bei
nordafrikanischen Orthopteren. Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Gesell. 1902, pp.
108-120.
1902-1903. Beiträge zur Faunistik und Biologie der Orthopteren
Algeriens und Tunesiens. Zool. Jahrb. Abteilung f. Syst. Geog. u. Biol.
der Tiere, Bd. XVI, pp. 337-404; Bd. XVII, pp. 1-98.
_3. Animal Behavior as a Process_
“The actual method of work is to first watch the organism under its
natural environment, until one finds out all things it does. Then the
environment is changed a little, to see what difference this makes in
the behavior. We thus try all sorts of different ways of getting the
animal to change its behavior,--including the application of definite
chemical and physical reagents of most varied character.... We thus try
to find the organism’s system of behavior and the things that influence
it,--becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted
with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact.”--H. S. JENNINGS
(1910).
“My object being the study of the correlative instincts of the young
and adult in relation to all that could be learned about them in a
natural environment, I have followed my usual custom of going out to
the birds, instead of taking them into the laboratory. The facts which
the laboratory can be made to yield are invaluable, but they belong to
a different class from those for which we are now mainly in search,
behavior under the usual or normal conditions.”--F. H. HERRICK (1910).
“As will be seen, these studies include both field and laboratory work,
especially of the American species, and I have made the field work
emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have elsewhere (1909, p. 157)
[Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII] emphasized the crying need for larger
attention to this phase of experimental work, believing that in many
cases it is all but impossible to secure trustworthy results as to
behavior of animals where the work has been done under such unusual,
unnatural and artificial conditions as most laboratory provisions
afford. What right has one to assume that the actions of an animal
taken rudely from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some
improvised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its normal
behavior, either physical or psychical? Is it within the range of the
calculus of probability that conclusions drawn from observations made
upon an animal in the shallow confines of a finger-bowl, but whose
habitat has been the open sea, are wholly trustworthy? It is no part
of my purpose to discredit the laboratory or laboratory appliances as
related to such investigations. They are indispensable. But at the
same time let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial
make-shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to
nature, must be taken at something of discount.... It seems to the
writer that until one has been able to place his specimens under
conditions approximating the natural, or has at least brought them
to a state of semi-domestication, where in food-taking, evidence of
health, etc., they are at ease, he has small right to dogmatize as to
conclusions, or presume to make such conclusions the basis of so-called
laws of behavior. Not a little of recent investigation along the lines
of behavior has been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated
to be made trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which
has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some
extent to this misfortune.”--C. W. HARGITT (1912).
“We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and intelligence,
to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one and the
consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like contrasting the
extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the transitional degrees
of twilight.... Instinct is blind; so is the highest human wisdom
blind. The distinction is one of degree. There is no absolute blindness
on the one side, and no absolute wisdom on the other.”--C. O. WHITMAN
(1899).
The precedence here given to _changes in behavior_ is in harmony
with the emphasis which is put upon _processes_ and genetic phases
or sequences throughout this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well
pointed out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively
changeable responses, with intergradations. There are thus two avenues
of approach which he sums up as follows (p. 112): “In the trial and
error method the random character of the movement impresses us most; in
the tropisms, the element of direct determination by the environment.
Both of these factors run through the behavior of all animals, but they
are mingled in various proportions in different forms. In the lives of
most, if not all animals both are essential elements in the adjustment
of the organism to its conditions of existence.” And in regard to those
responses which do not change in form with experience, he says (p.
106): “The element of spontaneous undirected activity is one of vast if
not essential importance in the life of nearly all animals. The simpler
animals profit by their varied experience, although they may not learn,
and thus secure some of the advantages which it is generally considered
the special function of intelligence to confer.” Thus to the ecologist
studying the sequences of changes in the environment, and changes in
the organism, it is but natural and consistent for him to apply the
same methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their mutual relations
and aid in their interpretation. In a study of the environment we also
have the relatively stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing
ones, and any adequate understanding of animals must correlate these
four variables: two relatively changing, one in the organism and
one in the environment; and two others relatively stable, one in the
organism and the other in the environment.
JENNINGS, H. S.
1905. The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Jour.
Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 473-494.
HOLMES, S. J.
1905. The Selection of Random Movements as a Factor in Phototaxis.
Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 98-112.
JENNINGS, H. S.
1905. Modifiability in Behavior. I. Behavior of Sea Anemones. Jour.
Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 447-472.
1906. Modifiability in Behavior, II. Factors Determining Direction and
Character of Movement in the Earthworm. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp.
435-455.
1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.
1907. Behavior of the Starfish (_Asterias Forreri_ De Loriol). Univ.
Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 53-185.
WALTER, H. E.
1907. The Reactions of Planarians to Light. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. V,
pp. 35-162.
YERKES, R. M.
1901. The Formation of Habits in the Turtle. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LVIII,
pp. 519-525.
PEARL, R.
1904. On the Behavior and Reactions of Limulus in Early Stages of its
Development. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 138-164.
HADLEY, P. B.
1908. The Behavior of the Larval and Adolescent Stages of the American
Lobster (_Homarus Americanus_). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol.
XVIII, pp. 199-301.
MAYER, A. G., and SOULE, C. G.
1906. Some Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol.
III, pp. 415-433.
CRAIG, W.
1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control.
Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.
HERRICK, F. H.
1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl.
Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.
YERKES, A. W.
1906. Modifiability of Behavior in Hydroides Dianthus V. Jour. Comp.
Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 441-449.
YERKES, R. M., and HUGGINS, G. E.
1903. Habit Formation in the Crawfish, Cambarus affinis. Psychol. Rev.;
Series of Monog. Suppl., Vol. IV, No. I; Harvard Psychol. Studies, Vol.
I, pp. 565-577.
YERKES, R. M.
1905. Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic. Jour. Phil.,
Psychol., and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 141-149.
1905. Concerning the Genetic Relations of Types of Action. Jour. Comp.
Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 132-137.
ALLEE, W. C.
1912. An Experimental Analysis of the Relation between Physiological
States and Rheotaxis in Isopoda. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIII, pp.
269-344.
A study of the responses of pond and stream Isopods to natural and
experimental conditions.
WASHBURN, M. F.
1908. The Animal Mind. pp. 333. New York.
For modifications of behavior by experience see pp. 205-269. Also many
references on behavior.
_4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies_
1911. [Reviews of papers on animal behavior for 1910.] Jour. Animal
Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 393-455, 465-470.
Reviews by Holmes, Turner, Wheeler, Watson, and Bohn.
JENNINGS, H. S.
1909. The Work of J. von Uexkuell on the Physiology of Movements and
Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 313-336.
CONGDON, E. D.
1908. Recent Studies upon the Locomotor Responses of Animals to White
Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 309-328.
MAST, S. O.
1910. Literature of the Past Year on the Behavior of Lower Organisms.
Psychol. Bull., Vol. VII, pp. 267-280.
1911. Recent Literature on the Behavior of the Lower Invertebrates.
Psychol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 263-277.
YERKES, R. M.
1906. George Bohn’s Studies in Animal Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 231-238.
WASHBURN, M. F.
1908. French Work in Comparative Psychology for the Past Two Years.
Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 511-520.
WASHBURN, M. F. (Editor).
1912. Comparative Psychology Number. Psychol. Bull., Vol. IX, No. 8,
pp. 281-313.
Reviews by Pearse, Turner, and Washburn.
COUES, E.
1877. Monograph of North American Rodentia. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv.
Terr. (Hayden), Vol. XI.
Contains on pp. 255-264 and 951-1081 an extensive bibliography of North
American mammals, and includes much on their habits.
_5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior_
(Alphabetically arranged)
ANDREWS, E. A.
1906. Egg-laying of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XL, pp. 343-356.
1904. Breeding Habits of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVIII, pp.
165-206.
BAKER, F. C.
1911. Ecology of Lymnæas. pp. 19-51. Lymnæidæ of North and Middle
America Recent and Fossil. Special Pub. No. 3, Chicago Acad. Sciences.
BANTA, A. M.
1910. A Comparison of the Reactions of a Species of Surface Isopod with
those of a Subterranean Species. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, Part I,
Experiments with Light, pp. 243-310; Part II, pp. 439-488.
BELDING, D. L., and LANE, F. C.
1909. The Shellfisheries of Massachusetts: their Present Condition and
Extent. Report upon the Mollusk Fisheries of Massachusetts, pp. 16-233.
Boston.
Contains some excellent photographs of the habitat.
1910. A Report upon the Scallop Fishery of Massachusetts, including the
Habits, Life History of _Pecten irradians_, its Rate of Growth, and
Other Facts of Economic Value. pp. 150. Boston.
1911. The Life History and Growth of the Quahaug (_Venus mercenaria_).
Rep. Mass. Comm. Fisheries and Game for 1910, pp. 18-128. Boston.
These papers are examples of applied ecology, and contain much on the
life histories and habits of these mollusks.
BENDIRE, C.
1892. Life Histories of North American Birds with Special Reference
to their Breeding Habits and Eggs, with Twelve Lithographic Plates.
Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. No. 1. pp. 414.
1895. Life Histories of North American Birds, from the Parrots to the
Grackles, with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs.
Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. pp. 508.
BLACKWALL, J.
1873. Researches in Zoölogy. London.
Not seen by writer.
BÖVING, A. G.
1910. Natural History of the Larvæ of Donaciinæ. Inter. Revue der
gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd. III, Biol. Suppl., Heft I, pp.
1-108.
BUTTEL-REEPEN, H. VON. (Trans. by M. H. GEISLER.)
1907. Are Bees Reflex Machines? Experimental Contribution to the
Natural History of the Honey-bee. pp. 48. Medina, Ohio.
CALKINS, M. W.
1905. The Limits of Genetic and of Comparative Psychology. Jour. of
Psychol., Vol. I, pp. 261-285; Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St.
Louis, Vol. V, pp. 712-734.
CARPENTER, F. W.
1908. Some Reactions of Drosophila, with Special Reference to
Convulsive Reflexes. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psych., Vol. XVIII, pp.
483-491.
1910. Feeding Reactions of the Rose Coral (Isophyllia). Proc. Amer.
Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLVI, pp. 149-162.
CASTEEL, D. B.
1911. The Discriminative Ability of the Painted Turtle. Jour. Animal
Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 1-28.
CLARKE, W. E.
1912. Studies in Bird Migration. Vol. I, pp. 323; Vol. II, pp. 346.
London.
Bird migration may be studied as a response of the animals to the
conditions of their life, and the above work is a good example of the
best kind of work being done along this line.
COLE, L. J.
1907. An Experimental Study of the Image-Forming Powers of Various
Types of Eyes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol XLII, pp. 335-417.
A study of worms, insects, sow bug, snail, slug, and frogs.
1913. Direction of Locomotion of the Starfish (Asterias Forbesi). Jour.
Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 1-32.
COLE, L. W.
1907. Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 211-261.
1912. Observations on the Senses and Instincts of the Raccoon. Jour.
Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 299-309.
COLE, L. W., and LONG, F. M.
1909. Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 657-683.
COLTON, H. S.
1908. How Fulgur and Sycotypus Eat Oysters, Mussels and Clams. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 3-10.
COKER, R. E.
1906. The Natural History and Cultivation of the Diamond-Back Terrapin
with Notes on other Forms of Turtles. Bull. No. 14, N. Carolina Geol.
Survey, pp. 1-67.
CRAIG, W.
1909. The Expressions of Emotion in the Pigeons. I. The Blond Ring-Dove
(_Turtor risorius_). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp.
30-80.
DAWSON, J.
1911. The Biology of Physa. Behavior Monographs, Vol. I, No. 4, pp.
1-120.
Behavior is related to the natural environment.
DAVIS, H. B.
1907. The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence. Amer. Jour.
Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 447-489.
DEAN, B.
1892. The Physical and Biological Characteristics of the Natural Oyster
Grounds of South Carolina. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1890, Vol. X, pp.
335-361.
Contains good illustrations of the oyster habitat.
DIMON, A. C.
1905. The Mud Snail: Nassa obsoleta. Cold Spring Harbor, Monogr. V. pp.
48.
A behavior study of a marine snail.
EMBODY, G. C.
1912. A Preliminary Study of the Distribution, Food, and Reproductive
Capacity of Some Fresh-water Amphipods. Inter. Revue. der gesamten
Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Biol. Suppl. III. Serie, Heft 2, pp. 1-33.
ENTEMAN, M. M.
1902. Some Observations on the Behavior of Social Wasps. Pop. Sci. Mo.,
Vol. XLI, pp. 339-351.
FABRE, J. H. (Translated.)
1901. Insect Life. Souvenirs of a Naturalist. pp. 320. London.
FABRE, J. H. (Trans. by MIALL, B.)
1912. Social Life in the Insect World. pp. 327. London.
FLORENTIN, R.
1899. Études sur la Faune des Mares Salées de Lorraine. Ann. des Sci.
Nat. Zoöl. (8ᵉ S.), Tome X, pp. 209-350.
FOREL, A. (Trans. by WHEELER, W. M.)
1904. Ants and Some Other Insects. Religion of Sci. Library No. 56. pp.
49. Chicago.
FOREL, A. (Trans. by YEARSLEY, M.)
1908. The Senses of Insects, pp. 324. London.
GILL, T.
1909. Contributions to the Life Histories of Fishes. Vol. I, 1904-1907.
Smithsonian Institution, No. 1858.
A collection of reprints on the natural history of fishes, including
much on their habits.
GRAVE, C.
1904. Investigations for the Promotion of the Oyster Industry of North
Carolina. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1903, pp. 247-341.
On pp. 261-264 the growth or development of an oyster reef is
described. This illustrates ecological succession on a reef. The food
and the influence of storms are described.
GROOS, K. (Trans. by BALDWIN, E. L.)
1898. The Play of Animals. pp. 341. New York.
GURLEY, R. R.
1902. The Habits of Fishes. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XIII, pp.
408-425.
An important and apparently little known paper which explains the
spawning habits of fish and their distribution in terms of their
physiological responses. Compare with Shelford’s Physiological Animal
Geography. 1911.
HAHN, W.
1908. Some Habits and Sensory Adaptations of Cave-inhabiting Bats.
Biol. Bull., Vol. XV, pp. 135-193.
HARGITT, C. W.
1906. Experiments on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp.
Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 295-320.
1909. Further Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids.
Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII, pp. 157-187.
1912. Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids, III. Biol.
Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 67-94.
1912. Behavior and Color Changes of Tree Frogs. Jour. Animal Behavior,
Vol. II, pp. 51-78.
HARRIS, J. A.
1903. An Ecological Catalogue of the Crayfishes belonging to the Genus
_Cambarus_. Kan. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 51-187.
Habits and distribution of crawfish. Very useful references to the
stream environment and to crawfish.
HARTMAN, C.
1905. Observations on the Habits of Some Solitary Wasps of Texas. Univ.
of Texas Bull. No. 65, Sci. Ser. No. 6, pp. 1-72.
HERRICK, C. J.
1903. The Organ and Sense of Taste in Fishes. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm.
for 1902, Vol. XXII, pp. 237-272.
HERRICK, F. H.
1910. Instinct and Intelligence in Birds. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVI,
pp. 532-556; Vol. LXXVII, pp. 82-97, 122-141.
1910. Life and Behavior of the Cuckoo. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IX, pp.
169-233.
Illustrates the orderly sequence of forms of behavior.
1911. Natural History of the American Lobster. Bull. U. S. Bur.
Fisheries, Vol. XXIX, pp. 149-408. Doc. No. 747.
HODGE, C. F.
1894. The Methods of Homing Pigeons. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XIV, pp.
758-775.
HOLMES, S. J.
1901. Observations on the Habits and Natural History of Amphithoe
longimana Smith. Biol. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 165-193.
1906. Death-Feigning in Ranatra. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol.
XVI, pp. 200-216.
1908. The Instinct of Feigning Death. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXII, pp.
179-185.
1911. The Evolution of Animal Intelligence. pp. 296. New York.
JENNINGS, H. S.
1910. Diverse Ideals and Divergent Conclusions in the Study of Behavior
in Lower Organisms. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 349-370.
Valuable for its discussion of points of view in the study of behavior.
KELLOGG, J. L.
1900. Observations on the Life-History of the Common Clam, Mya
Arenaria. Bull. U. S. Fish and Fisheries Comm. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp.
193-202.
1903. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus Mercenaria. Bull. 71, N. Y.
State Museum. pp. 27. Albany.
1904. Conditions Governing Existence and Growth of the Soft Clam (Mya
Arenaria). Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1903, pp. 195-224.
A suggestive paper.
1905. Notes on Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana. Bull. No. 3, Gulf
Biologic Station. pp. 43. Baton Rouge.
All of these papers by Kellogg are careful studies of the relation of
animals to their environment. They also show the intimate relation of
ecology to economic problems. Biological surveys intended for economic
results should be ecological in their method.
1910. Shell-Fish Industries. pp. 361. New York, Henry Holt and Co.
A popular summary of the marine shell-fish industries of the American
coast, from the standpoint of their biology, culture, and utilization.
The oyster, hard and soft clams, and scallops are considered. The
following subjects deserve mention: ciliary action, feeding reflexes,
function of mucus, and food.
LEFEVRE, G., and CURTIS, W. C.
1912. Studies on the Reproduction and Artificial Propagation of
Fresh-water Mussels. U. S. Bur. Fisheries for 1910, Bull. Vol. XXX, pp.
105-201.
LYON, E. P.
1904. On Rheotropism. I. Rheotropism in Fishes. Amer. Jour. Physiol.,
Vol. XII, pp. 149-161.
MAST, S. O.
1911. Light and the Behavior of Organisms. pp. 410. New York.
An elaborate treatise on reactions to light.
MEAD, A. D.
1900. The Natural History of the Star-fish. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for
1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 203-224.
MICHAEL, E.
1911. Classification and Vertical Distribution of the Chætognatha of
the San Diego Region. Univ. of Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 21-186.
The distribution is studied as a response to the conditions of life,
and the optima are determined.
MILLS, W.
1898. The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence. pp. 307. New
York.
Valuable account of the habits of squirrels. Observations on
hibernation, and on the psychic development of the young of some of the
domestic animals.
MONTGOMERY, T. H.
1903. Studies on the Habits of Spiders, particularly those of the
Mating Period. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1903, pp. 59-149.
Contains a valuable bibliography.
1908. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol.
XLII, pp. 697-709.
1910. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads, II. Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Phila., 1909, pp. 548-569.
1910. The Significance of the Courtship and Secondary Sexual Characters
of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIV, pp. 151-177.
NEWMAN, H. H.
1906. The Habits of Certain Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 126-152.
NEWMAN, H. H., and PATTERSON, J. T.
1909. Field Studies of the Behavior of the Lizard, Sceloporus Spinosus
Floridanus. Bull. Univ. of Texas, No. 137, pp. 1-24.
ORTMANN, A. E.
1905. The Crawfishes of the State of Pennsylvania. Mem. Carnegie Mus.,
Vol. II, pp. 343-523.
Habits and habitats of crawfish.
PARKER, G. H.
1903. The Phototropism of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly, Vanessa Antiopa
Linn. Mark Anniversary Volume, pp. 453-469. New York.
1903. The Sense of Hearing in Fishes. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVII, pp.
185-204.
1905. The Functions of the Lateral-Line Organs of Fishes. U. S. Bur.
Fisheries, Bull. Vol. XXIV, pp. 185-207.
1908. The Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and
Sciences, Vol. XLIII, pp. 415-455.
1910. The Reactions of Sponges, with a Consideration of the Origin of
the Nervous System. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 1-41.
PEARL, R.
1903. The Movements and Reactions of Fresh Water Planarians. Quart.
Jour. Micros. Sci., Vol. XLVI, pp. 509-714.
A good example of a very detailed study of behavior of a lower animal.
PEARSE, A. S.
1910. The Reactions of Amphibians to Light. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and
Sciences, Vol. XLV, pp. 161-208.
PECKHAM, G. W. and E. G.
1898. On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps. Bull. No. 2,
Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. pp. 245.
1905. Wasps, Social and Solitary. pp. 311. Boston and New York.
A revised and enlarged edition of the preceding reference.
PIERSOL, W. H.
1909. The Habits and Larval State of _Plethodon cinereus erythronotus_.
Trans. Canadian Inst., Vol. VIII, pp. 469-493.
Contains a useful list of references on Amphibians.
PORTER, J. P.
1904. A Preliminary Study of the Psychology of the English Sparrow.
Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 313-346.
1906. The Habits, Instincts and Mental Powers of Spiders, Genera
Argiope and Epeira. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 306-357.
1906. Further Study of the English Sparrow and Other Birds. Amer. Jour.
Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 248-271.
Includes the Vesper Sparrow, Cowbird, Common Pigeon, Passenger Pigeon,
and Red-headed Woodpecker.
1910. Intelligence and Imitation in Birds, a Criterion of Imitation.
Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 1-71.
Studies of English Sparrow, Cowbird, Snowbird, White-throated Sparrow,
Field Sparrow, Bluebird, White-crowned Sparrow, Fox, Song and Tree
Sparrows, Blue Jay, Baltimore Oriole, and Crows.
POULTON, E. B.
1896. On the Courtship of Certain Acridiidæ. Trans. Ent. Soc. London,
pp. 233-252.
REIGHARD, J.
1903. The Natural History of _Amia calva_ Linnæus. Mark Anniversary
Volume, pp. 57-109.
REYNAUD, G.
1900. The Laws of Orientation Among Animals. Smithsonian Report for
1898, pp. 481-498.
RILEY, C. F. C.
1912. Observations on the Ecology of the Dragon-Fly Nymphs: Reactions
to Light and Contact. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. V, pp. 273-292.
SCHEFFER, T. H.
1905. The Cocooning Habits of Spiders. Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol.
III, pp. 85-114.
SEITZ, A.
1891. Allgemeine Biologie der Schmetterlinge. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. Syst.
Geog. Biol. der Thiere, Bd. V, pp. 281-343.
SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON.
1909. Life Histories of Northern Animals. Vol. I, pp. 673, and Vol. II,
pp. 677-1267. New York.
Valuable for life histories and habits. Extensive bibliography.
SEVERIN, H. H. P. and H. C.
1911. An Experimental Study on the Death-Feigning of Belostoma (=
Zaitha Aucct.) flumineum Say and Nepa apiculata Uhler. Behavior
Monographs, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-44.
SHELFORD, V. E.
1908. Life-Histories and Larval Habits of the Tiger Beetles
(_Cicindelidæ_). Jour. Linn. Soc. Zoöl., Vol. XXX, pp. 157-184.
SHELFORD, V. E., and ALLEE, W. C.
1913. The Reactions of Fishes to Gradients of Dissolved Atmospheric
Gases. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 207-266.
The reaction of fish to oxygen and carbonic acid; the latter is
considered the best single index to the environment.
SIMPSON, C. T.
1899. The Pearly Fresh-water Mussels of the United States; their
Habits, Enemies, and Diseases; with Suggestions for their Protection.
U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1898, Vol. XVIII, pp. 279-288.
SLADEN, F. W. L.
1912. The Humble-Bee, its Life-History and how to Domesticate it. pp.
283. London.
A very valuable account of the British species, with numerous
suggestions on methods of studying them.
SMALLWOOD, M. E.
1903. The Beach Flea: Talorchestia longicornis. Cold Spring Harbor
Monogr. I. pp. 27.
1905. The Salt-Marsh Amphipod: Orchestia palustris. Cold Spring Harbor
Monogr. III. pp. 21.
Both of these papers discuss habits and life histories.
SMITH, B. G.
1907. The Life History and Habits of Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis.
Biol. Bull., Vol. XIII, pp. 5-39.
Contains references to other salamanders.
STOCKARD, C. R.
1908. Habits, Reactions, and Mating Instincts of the “Walking Stick,”
Aplopus Mayeri. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 103, pp. 43-59.
TOWER, W. L.
1906. Habits and Instincts in Leptinotarsa. pp. 229-257. In An
Investigation of Evolution in Chrysomelid Beetles of the Genus
Leptinotarsa, Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 8. Washington, D.C.
TUTT, J. W.
1897. The Drinking Habits of Butterflies and Moths. Proc. South London
Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1897, pp. [1-9].
VOIGT, W.
1904. Über die Wanderungen der Strudelwürmer in unseren Gebirgsbächen.
Verhand. naturhis. Ver. der preuss. Rheinlande, Westfalens und des
Regiersungsbezirks Osnabrück, Jahrg. 61, pp. 103-178.
Shows the relation of behavior to the local distributions of Planarians.
WAGNER, W.
1907. Psycho-biologische Untersuchungen an Hummeln mit Bezugnahme auf
die Frage der Geselligkeit im Tierreich. Zoologica (Chun), Bd. XIX,
Heft 46, pp. 1-239.
An important study of the behavior of _Bombus_.
WALTER, H. E.
1906. The Behavior of the Pond Snail, _Lymnæus Eleodes_ Say. Cold
Spring Harbor Monogr. VI. pp. 35.
WASMANN, E. (Trans.)
1903. Instinct and Intelligence in the Animal Kingdom. A Critical
Contribution to Modern Animal Psychology. pp. 171. St. Louis, Mo. From
the second and enlarged German edition.
1905. Comparative Studies in the Psychology of Ants and of Higher
Animals. pp. 200. St. Louis, Mo. Translated from the revised and
enlarged second German edition.
WATSON, J. B.
1908. The Behavior of Noddy and Sooty Terns. Pub. 103, Carnegie Inst.
pp. 187-255.
An excellent account of bird behavior in colonial species.
WHEELER, W. M.
1903. Ethological Observations on an American Ant (Leptothorax Emersoni
Wheeler). Jour. für Psychol. und Neurol., Bd. II, pp. (1-31).
1910. Ants, their Structure, Development and Behavior. pp. 663. New
York.
The most useful single work on ants, ant behavior, slaves, commensals,
etc.; a very important work. Extensive references.
WHITMAN, C. O.
1899. Animal Behavior. Biol. Lectures, Marine Biol. Lab., Wood’s Holl,
1898, pp. 285-338.
Behavior of leech, Necturus, birds, etc.
WICKHAM, H. F.
1899. The Habits of American Cicindelidæ. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci.,
Vol. VII, pp. 206-228.
YERKES, R. M.
1904. Space Perception of Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol.,
Vol. XIV, pp. 17-26.
YOAKUM, C. S.
1909. Some Experiments upon the Behavior of Squirrels. Jour. Comp.
Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 541-568.
IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT AND
THE ANIMAL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS
THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATION OF ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS
1. The Struggle for Existence.
2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations, with Special
Reference to Animal Associations.
_a._ The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls.
_b._ Subterranean and Cave Associations.
_c._ Selected References on Aggregations and Associations.
“Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal
struggle for life, or more difficult--at least I have found it so--than
constantly to bear this conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly
engrained in the mind, the whole economy of nature, with every fact on
distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation, will be
dimly seen or quite misunderstood.”--DARWIN.
“Every reflective biologist must know that no living being is
self-sufficient, or would be what it is, or be at all, if it were not
part of the natural world, although no truth is easier to lose sight
of. Living things are real things, ... but their reality is in their
interrelations with the rest of nature, and not in themselves.”--W. K.
BROOKS. (1906.)
_1. The Struggle for Existence_
DARWIN, CHAS.
1876. Struggle for Existence. pp. 43-61. In On the Origin of Species,
6th ed. New York. (See Figures 2 and 3.)
BROOKS, W. K.
1893. Salpa in its Relation to the Evolution of Life. Studies Biol.
Lab., Johns Hopkins Univ., Vol. V, pp. 129-211. See particularly pp.
129-170.
A remarkable and little known paper on the struggle for existence in
the sea.
FORBES, S. A.
1887. The Lake as a Microcosm. Bull. Sci. Assoc. of Peoria, Illinois,
1887, pp. 77-87. Reprinted, with revisions, as from the Bull. Peoria
Sci. Association, 1887, pp. 1-15.
An excellent picture of the struggle for existence in a lake, where the
life is considered as a microcosm or social community.
1880. On Some Interactions of Organisms. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-18. Second Edition. 1903.
1882. The Ornithological Balance-Wheel. Trans. Ill. State Hort. Soc.
for 1881, N. S., Vol. XV, pp. 120-131.
1883. The Regulative Action of Birds upon Insect Oscillations. Bull.
Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 6, pp. 3-32.
These three papers are very important for their discussion of the
dynamic character of the struggle among organisms, and how the balance
of nature is maintained.
1888. On the Food Relations of Fresh-Water Fishes: a Summary and
Discussion. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, pp. 475-538.
A summary of the food of fishes, based upon a detailed study of the
contents of their stomachs.
RODWAY, J.
1911. In the Guiana Forest, Studies of Nature in Relation to the
Struggle for Life. Second Edition, pp. 326. London.
A graphic account of the biotic competition in the tropics.
JOHNSTONE, J.
1908. Conditions of Life in the Sea. pp. 332. Cambridge, England.
An excellent study of the recent quantitative investigations of marine
life.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv.
for 1908, pp. 121-154.
Ecological succession is discussed from the process standpoint.
References to literature on birds.
FORBUSH, E. H.
1899. Nature’s Foresters. Forty-sixth Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board
Agr. for 1898, pp. 279-294.
1901. Birds as Protectors of Woodlands. Forty-eighth Ann. Rep. Sec.
Mass. State Board Agr. for 1900, pp. 300-321.
1904. The Destruction of Birds by the Elements in 1903-1904.
Fifty-first Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. for 1903, pp. 457-503.
1905. Special Report on the Decrease of Certain Birds, and its Causes,
with Suggestions for Bird Protection. Fifty-Second Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass.
State Board Agr. for 1904, pp. 429-543.
PALMER, T. S.
1898. The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals and Birds. Yearbook U.
S. Dept. Agr. for 1898, pp. 87-110.
RYDER, J. A.
1892. A Geometrical Representation of the Relative Intensity of the
Conflict between Organisms. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXVI, pp. 923-929.
MCATEE, W. L.
1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency of Warning and
Cryptic Coloration in Protecting Animals from their Enemies. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.
JUDD, S. D.
1899. The Efficiency of Some Protective Adaptations in Securing Insects
from Birds. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIII, pp. 461-484.
1902. The Birds of a Maryland Farm. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Biol. Surv.,
Bull. No. 17. pp. 116.
A study in applied ecology. One of the best detailed studies of the
birds of a small tract of land and their ecological relations.
STAHL, E.
1888. Pflanzen und Schnecken. Biologische Studie über die Schutzmittel
der Pflanzen gegen Schneckenfrass. Jena. Zeitschr. für Naturwiss.
herausgegeben von der med.-naturwiss. Gesell. zu Jena, Bd. XXII, pp.
557-684.
A study of the means by which plants are protected(?) from snails and
slugs. Numerous feeding experiments.
DAHL, F.
1908. Die Lycosiden oder Wolfspinnen Deutschlands und ihre Stellung im
Haushalte der Natur. Nova Acta der Ksl. Leop.-Carol.-Deutschen Akad.
der Naturf., Bd. LXXXVII, pp. 175-678. Halle.
Not seen by writer. Mr. J. H. Emerton writes that this paper “gives
tables of comparative collecting in all kinds of country.”
PIERCE, W. D., CUSHMAN, R. A., and HOOD, C. E.
1912. The Insect Enemies of the Cotton Boll Weevil. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 100. pp. 99.
An excellent example of the character of the competition with which an
animal meets when extending its range into new territory. See diagram,
p. 44.
WHEELER, W. M.
1906. An Ethological Study of Certain Maladjustments in the Relations
of Ants to Plants. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, pp. 403-418.
Competition between plants and ants.
MASSART, J., and VANDERVELDE, E. (Trans. W. MACDONALD.)
1907. Parasitism Organic and Social. Second Edition. Revised by J.
Arthur Thompson, pp. 124. London.
Contains many examples of responses to a parasitic environment.
_Selected References on the Struggle for Existence_
(Alphabetically arranged)
BEAL, F. E. L.
1911. Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 37. pp. 64.
CHAPMAN, F. M.
1902. The Economic Value of Birds to the State. Seventh Rep. N. Y.
Forest, Fish, and Game Comm., 1901, pp. 115-176. Reprint, pp. 66, 1903.
Albany.
Contains an extensive list of papers on the food of birds.
EICHELBAUM, E.
1910. Über Nahrung und Ernährungsorgane von Echinodermen. Wiss.
Meeruntersuch. heraus. von der Komm. zur wiss. Unter. der deutsch.
Meere in Kiel. N. F. Bd. XI, Abth. Kiel, pp. 187-275.
FORBES, S. A.
1883. The Food Relations of Predaceous Beetles. Twelfth Rep. State Ent.
Ill., pp. 105-120.
1903. The Food of Birds. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Second
Edition, Vol. I, pp. 86-161.
1903. Notes on Insectivorous Coleoptera. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 167-176.
1883. The Food Relations of the Carabidæ and Coccinellidæ. Bull. Ill.
State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 6, pp. 33-64.
FORBUSH, E. H.
1907. Useful Birds and their Protection. Mass. State Board Agr. pp.
437. Boston.
FOREL, A.
1896. Ants’ Nests. Smithsonian Report for 1894, pp. 479-505.
Ants’ nests, and symbiosis between plants and ants.
GAMBLE, F. W., and KEEBLE, F.
1903. The Bionomics of _Convoluta roscoffensis_ with Special Reference
to its Green Cells. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., Vol. XLVII, pp. 363-431.
A study of the ecology of a Turbellarian worm, its food, habitat, and
behavior.
HEIM.
1898. The Biologic Relations Between Plants and Ants. Smithsonian
Report for 1896, pp. 411-455.
HOPKINS, A. D.
1909. Insect Depredations in North American Forests and Practical
Methods of Prevention and Control. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull.
No. 58, pp. 57-101.
Contains many facts of much ecological value showing the interrelations
existing between forests and insects. Good examples of insects as
initiators of successions and changes in insect associations.
HUBBARD, H. G.
1897. The Ambrosia Beetles of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div.
Ent., Bull. No. 7, N. S., pp. 9-30.
The relations of bark beetles to fungi.
HUBER, J.
1907. The Founding of Colonies by Atta Sexdens. Smithsonian Report for
1906, pp. 355-372.
Ants and fungi.
JUDD, S. D.
1901. The Food of Nestling Birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1900,
pp. 411-436.
KEEBLE, F.
1910. Plant Animals, A Study of Symbiosis. pp. 163. Cambridge, England.
KIRBY, W., and SPENCE, W.
1859. An Introduction to Entomology; or, Elements of the Natural
History of Insects: Comprising an Account of Noxious and Useful
Insects, of their Metamorphoses, Food, Stratagems, Habitations,
Societies, Motions, Noises, Hybernation, Instinct, Etc., Etc. pp. 607.
Seventh edition, London.
MARSHALL, G. A. K., and others.
1902. Five Years’ Observations and Experiments (1896-1901) on
the Bionomics of South African Insects, chiefly directed to the
Investigation of Mimicry and Warning Colours. Trans. Ent. Soc., London,
1902, pp. 287-584.
MCATEE, W. L.
1908. Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Surv.,
Bull. 32. pp. 92.
1913. Index to Papers Relating to the Food of Birds by Members of the
Biological Survey in Publications of the United States Department of
Agriculture, 1885-1911. U. S. Dept. Agr., Biol. Surv., Bull. No. 43.
pp. 69.
The Bureau of Biological Survey, and its predecessor, the Division of
Ornithology and Mammalogy, have published in the Annual Reports and in
numerous bulletins elaborate studies of the foods and habits of birds
and mammals.
RAUSCHENPLAT, E.
1901. Ueber die Nahrung von Thieren aus der Kieler Bucht. Wiss.
Meeruntersuch. heraus. von der Komm. zur wiss. Unter. der deutsch.
Meere in Kiel. N. F. Bd. V, Abth. Kiel, pp. 85-151.
RILEY, C. V.
1893. Parasitism in Insects. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II, pp.
397-431.
STILES, C. W.
1893. Parasitism. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. III, pp. 1-7.
STILES, C. W., and HASSALL, A.
1902--. Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoölogy. U. S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Animal Industry, Bull. No. 39, Parts 1-36 (1912).
1908, 1912. Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoölogy.
Subjects: Trematoda and trematode diseases, Bull. No. 37, pp. 401,
1908.--Subjects: Cestoda and Cestodaria, Bull. No. 85. pp. 467, 1912.
Hyg. Lab., U. S. Pub. Health and Mar.-Hosp. Serv., Washington.
These extensive bibliographies are very useful.
SURFACE, H. A.
1906. The Serpents of Pennsylvania. Penn. Dept. Agr., Monthly Bull.,
Vol. IV, pp. 113-208.
Observations on food of serpents.
1908. First Report on the Lizards of Pennsylvania. Penn. Dept. Agr.,
Zoöl. Bull., Vol. V, pp. 233-264.
Food of lizards.
1908. First Report on the Economy of Pennsylvania Turtles. Penn. Dept.
Agr., Zoöl. Bull., Vol. VI, pp. 107-195.
Many observations on food.
WARD, H. B.
1910. Internal Parasites of the Sebago Salmon. U. S. Bur. Fisheries,
Bull., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1151-1194.
“The parasitic fauna of any animal is primarily a function of its
habitat.” p. 1191.
1912. The Influence of Hibernation and Migration on Animal Parasites.
Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 673-684.
WASMANN, E.
1894. Kritisches Verzeichniss der Myrmekophilen und Termitophilen
Arthropoden. pp. 231. Berlin.
A list of Arthropods found living with ants and termites.
WEBSTER, F. M.
1903. Notes upon the Food of Predaceous Beetles. Bull. Ill. State Lab.
Nat. Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 162-166.
WEED, C. M., and DEARBORN, N.
1903. Birds in their Relations to Man. pp. 380. Phila. Extensive
bibliography on the food of birds.
WHEELER, W. M.
1911. Insect Parasitism and its Peculiarities. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol.
LXXIX, pp. 431-449.
1910. The Effects of Parasitic and Other Kinds of Castration in
Insects. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 377-438.
ZACHARIAS, O., and others.
1891. Die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des Süsswassers. Bd. I, pp. 380; Bd.
II, pp. 369. Leipzig.
Contains several valuable and suggestive papers on the general
biological relations of fresh-water plants and animals.
_2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations, with
Special Reference to Animal Associations_
“A group or association of animals or plants is like a single organism
in the fact that it brings to bear upon the outer world only the
surplus of forces remaining after all conflicts interior to itself have
been adjusted. Whatever expenditure of energy is necessary to maintain
the existing internal balance amounts to so much power locked up,
and rendered unavailable for external use. In many groups this latent
energy is so considerable and is liable to such fluctuations, that
a knowledge of its amounts and kinds, and of the laws governing its
distribution, is extremely important to one interested in measuring or
foreseeing the sum and character of the outward-tending activities of
the class.”
--S. A. FORBES (1883).
MÖBIUS, K.
1883. The Oyster and Oyster-Culture. U. S. Comm. of Fish and Fisheries,
Report of Comm. for 1880, Part VIII, pp. 683-751.
On pp. 721-729 the oyster is discussed as a member of a social
community or “biocönosis.” He describes the succession of animals due
to the overfishing of the oyster beds and the invasion of cockles and
edible mussels which close up the available space and prevent the
return of the oyster. One of the earliest papers to recognize clearly a
social community in animals. A very important paper, which also shows
the method of applying the science of ecology.
FORBES, S. A.
1887. The Lake as a Microcosm. Reprint from Bull. Sci. Associa. of
Peoria, Illinois, 1887, pp. 1-15.
Perhaps the first paper by an American naturalist recognizing the
interrelations of the social community.
WHEELER, W. M.
1911. The Ant-Colony as an Organism. Jour. Morphology, Vol. XXII, pp.
307-325.
The ant colony is considered as a unit. This paper furnishes an
excellent example showing how “individual ecology” may become
transformed into an “associational” unit.
MÖBIUS, K.
1893. Ueber die Thiere der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Austerbänke, ihre
physikalischen und biologischen Lebensvershältnisse. Sitzungsber. d.
Kgl. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, Jhrg. 1893, I, pp. 67-92.
The physical and biological relations of the Schleswig-Holstein oyster
bank as a social community are carefully described. The animals
associated are listed (in all about 100 kinds, p. 80) and their
relation to the oyster is shown.
FORBES, S. A.
1909. The General Entomological Ecology of the Indian Corn Plant. Amer.
Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 286-301.
ESPINAS, ALFRED.
1878. Des Sociétés Animales. Second Edition, pp. 588. Paris.
Discusses associations of different species--parasites, commensals,
mutuals, domestic animals; associations of the same species and related
through nutrition--the colonial forms, as corals; associations based
upon reproduction--the family; and associations based upon relation--as
in a horde. Contains an extensive historical introduction. Valuable,
although somewhat old.
PETRUCCI, R.
1906. Origine Polyphylétique, Homotypie, et Non Comparabilité directe
des Sociétés Animales. L’Inst. de Sociologie (Solvay). Notes et
Mémoires, Fascicule 7. pp. 126. Bruxelles.
The multiple or independent origin of “social” life in diverse lines of
descent is emphasized and viewed from the comparative and phylogenetic
standpoint.
WAXWEILER, E.
1906. Esquisse d’une Sociologie. L’Inst. de Sociologie (Solvay). Notes
et Mémoires, Fascicule 2. pp. 306. Bruxelles.
A very important survey of sociology as a branch of ethology or
ecology. The history of ecology, and animal societies are parts which
deserve special mention. A diagram, on p. 63, gives the subdivisions of
ethology.
KROPOTKIN, P.
1903. Mutual Aid a Factor of Evolution. pp. 348. New York.
PARMELEE, M.
1913. The Science of Human Behavior. Biological and Psychological
Foundations. pp. 443. New York. The Macmillan Company.
An important discussion of certain phases of animal and human
responses. Communities are considered mainly from the standpoint of
“aggregate ecology” and phylogeny. Little recognition is made of the
“ecological association” as a fundamental unit in the study of human
relations.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv.
for 1908, pp. 121-154.
A study of changes in bird associations.
SHELFORD, V. E.
1911. Ecological Succession.
I. Stream Fishes and the Method of Physiographic Analysis. Biol. Bull.,
Vol. XXI, pp. 9-34.
1911_a_. II. Pond Fishes. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXI, pp. 127-151.
1911_b_. III. A Reconnaissance of its Causes in Ponds with Particular
Reference to Fish. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 1-38.
1912. IV. Vegetation and the Control of Land Animal Communities. Biol.
Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 59-99.
1912_a_. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol.
XXIII, pp. 331-370.
A series of detailed studies on successions in standing and running
water, and upon land. Intimately related to the following.
1913. Animal Communities in Temperate America as Illustrated in the
Chicago Region; A Study in Animal Ecology. Bull. Geogr. Soc. of
Chicago, No. 5. pp. (In press.)
This is the most comprehensive and detailed _local study_ of animal
ecology thus far published from a distinctly modern standpoint.
CRAIG, W.
1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control.
Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.
HERRICK, C. L.
1904. The Beginnings of Social Reaction in Man and Lower Animals. Jour.
Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 118-123.
HERRICK, F. H.
1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl.
Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.
WESENBERG-LUND, C.
1908. Die littoralen Tiergesellschaften unserer grosseren Seen. _a._
Die Tiergesellschaften des Brandungsufers. Inter. Revue der gesamten
Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd. I, pp. 574-609.
Animal associations of a lake shore.
JÄGER, G.
1874. Deutschlands Thierwelt nach ihren Standorten eingetheilt. Bd. I,
pp. 400; Bd. II, pp. 367 + XXIV. Stuttgart.
A popular account of the fauna of Germany arranged according to
habitat. A suggestive book to the student of local associations. Worthy
of imitation.
MELANDER, A. L., and BRUES, C. T.
1903. Guests and Parasites of the Burrowing Bee Halictus. Biol. Bull.,
Vol. V, pp. 1-27.
Gives a diagram of the Halictus biocönose on p. 27.
HUBBARD, H. G.
1894. The Insect Guests of the Florida Land Tortoise. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 302-315.
HUBBARD, H. G. (Appendix by SCHWARZ, E. A.)
1899. Insect Fauna of the Giant Cactus of Arizona: Letters from the
Southwest. Psyche, Vol. VIII, Suppl., pp. 1-8, Appendix, pp. 8-14.
HUNTER, W. D., PRATT, F. C., and MITCHELL, J. D.
1912. The Principal Cactus Insects of the United States. U. S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 113. pp. 71.
In addition to the insects feeding upon cacti, their enemies or
parasites are listed and also the scavengers, flower visitors, and
incidentally associated species. This is a social community composed
of 324 species of insects, and it forms an excellent foundation for a
study of their interrelations. This is more ecological than is usually
the case in economic reports.
MÖLLER, L.
1867. Die Abhängigkeit der Insecten von ihrer Umgebung. pp. 107.
Leipzig. W. Englemann.
A very interesting and suggestive work. An excellent local habitat
study from the standpoint of insects. Apparently not known to Dahl
(’98, ’03) in his brief outline of the history of ecology. Möller
discusses the influence of climate, soil, plants, animal substances and
man upon insects, and the influence of insects in the economy of nature.
LORENZ, J. R.
1863. Physicalische Verhältnisse und Vertheilung der Organismen im
Quarnerischen Golfe. pp. 379. Wien.
An early and important study of the habitat and the plants and animals
associated in the marine habitats. Apparently but little known. Also
not mentioned by Dahl (’98, ’03).
VERRILL, A. E.
1873. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound and the
Adjacent Waters, with an Account of the Physical Characters of the
Region. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries. Rep. on the Condition of the
Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England in 1871 and 1872. Part
I. Senate Misc. Doc. No. 61, 42d Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 295-778.
An early descriptive associational and habitat study of the marine
animals of our coast. A kind of work, in its standpoint, far in advance
of the times. It is remarkable that this well-known work has not been a
model for other similar studies on our coast.
DAVENPORT, C. B.
1903. The Collembola of Cold Spring Beach, with Special Reference to
the Movements of the Poduridae. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. II. pp. 32.
An excellent study of a single group in a habitat, and its relation to
behavior.
1903_a_. The Animal Ecology of the Cold Spring Sand Spit, with Remarks
on the Theory of Adaptation. Decennial Pub. Univ. Chicago, Vol. X, pp.
157-176.
An associational study of a sea beach.
PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.
1911. Valuation of the Sea. I. Animal Life of the Sea-Bottom, its Food
and Quantity. Rep. of Danish Biol. Sta. to Board of Agriculture, Vol.
XX, pp. 1-76. Transl. from Fiskeri-Beretning for 1910. Copenhagen.
The sea-bottom animals are studied as a community. The most important
study of the kind known to the writer. Similar work should be done in
American waters.
WARMING, E., WESENBERG-LUND, C., and others.
1904. Sur les ‘vads’ et les sables maritimes de la mer du nord. Kon.
Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrift., Bd. VII, R. II, pp. 48-56.
The sandy flats of the sea coast of Jutland and Holland are treated as
a biotic association, and from a modern ecological standpoint.
BAKER, F. C.
1910. The Ecology of the Skokie Marsh Area, with Special Reference to
the Mollusca. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, pp. 441-499.
A descriptive account of local molluscan associations near Chicago.
1911. The Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis.
Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, Vol. XVII, pp. 200-246.
An associational study of molluscan succession. One of the very few of
its kind.
HANCOCK, J. L.
1911. Nature Sketches in Temperate America, pp. 451. Chicago.
A discussion of the habitats of Orthoptera is given on pp. 317-418,
and a classification of them on pp. 419-433, based upon the egg-laying
sites.
DAHL, F.
1899. Das Leben der Vögel auf den Bismarckinseln nach eigenen
Beobachtungen vergleichend dargestellt. Mitt. aus der Zoöl. Sammlung
des Mus. für Naturk. in Berlin, Bd. I, Heft 3, pp. 107-222.
The bird habitats of the Bismarck Archipelago are discussed. This is
the earliest detailed study of bird habitats known to the writer.
1901. Das Leben der Ameisen im Bismarck-Archipel, nach eigenen
Beobachtungen vergleichend dargestellt. Mitt. aus. d. Zoöl. Mus. in
Berlin, Bd. II, Heft 1, pp. 1-69.
An ecological study of ants, their nesting habitats, keys to their
ecological relations, and quantitative data.
1902. Stufenfänge echter Spinnen am Riesengebirge. (Eine vergleichend
ethologische Studie.) Sitz.-Ber. Ges. naturf. Freunde zu Berlin, 1902,
pp. 185-203.
A comparative study of the habitats of spiders.
1903. Winke für ein wissenschaftliches Sammeln von Thieren.
Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu Berlin, 1903, pp.
444-475.
Gives a classification of animal habitats, associations, and a brief
history of their recognition by zoölogists. Compare the habitats with
those given by Shelford, Physiological Animal Geography, 1911.
1893. Untersuchungen über die Thierwelt der Unterelbe. Sechster Ber.
Komm. zur Wissenschaft. Untersuch. der deutschen Meere in Kiel, Jahrg.
XVII-XXI, Heft III, pp. 151-185. Berlin.
Lists the fauna of the brackish waters of the lower Elbe River,
discusses their relation to the environment (salinity, etc.) and gives
quantitative determinations of its frequency per square meter, as
determined by digging at low tide.
MEYER, H. A., and MÖBIUS, K.
1865. Fauna der Kieler Bucht. Bd. I. Leipzig.
Not seen by writer.
LOCARD, A.
1881. De L’Habitat des Mollusques. pp. 88-128. Études sur les
Variations Malacologiques d’après la Faune Vivante et Fossile de la
Partie Centrale du Bassin du Rhone. Tome II, Paris et Lyon.
This is the most detailed study and classification of the habitats of
mollusks of land and fresh-water which the writer has seen. It seems
to be little known to students. The volume contains many ecological
observations. The classification of habitats is often very artificial.
See Von Marten’s comment (Zoöl. Record for 1881, Vol. XVIII, p. 18,
Moll.), which refers to English and German works along similar
lines, but these have not been found by the writer.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Remnant of the (original) prairie animal
habitat in central Illinois. Loxa, Illinois. These areas are becoming
extinct rapidly. Photo. by T. L. Hankinson.]
KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.
1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the Shore. Proc.
Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XVII, pp. 225-253.
An associational study of shore animals.
ORTMANN, A. E.
1896. Grundzüge der marinen Tiergeographie. pp. 96. Jena.
Contains much of ecological value.
ENDERLEIN, G.
1908. Biologisch-faunistische Moor- und Dünen-Studien. Ein Beitrag
zur Kenntnis-biosynöcischer Regionen in Westprussen. 30 Ber. des
Westpreussischen Bot.-Zoöl. Vereins Danzig, pp. 54-238.
Adopts Dahl’s (1903) classification of habitats.
HÖPPNER, H.
1901. Die Bienenfauna der Dünen und Weserabhänge zwischen Uesen
und Baden. Beitr. nordwest-deutsch. Volks- und Landesk. her. vom
Naturwissen. Ver. zu Bremen, Bd. XV, pp. 231-255.
PIERCE, W. D.
1904. Some Hypermetamorphic Beetles and Their Hymenopterous Hosts.
Univ. of Nebraska Studies, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 153-190.
This gives a description of the bee community of _Epinomia
triangulifera_ Vachal, a list of insects in it and valuable data on
their parasitic interrelations.
VESTAL, A. G.
1913. An Associational Study of Illinois Sand Prairies. Bull. Ill.
State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. X, pp.
STENROOS, K. E.
1898. Das Thierleben im Nurmijärvi-See. Eine Faunistisch-Biologische
Studie. Acta Soc. Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Vol. XVII, pp. 1-259.
A descriptive associational study of a lake fauna, correlating the
fauna and the vegetation.
FORBES, S. A., and RICHARDSON, R. E.
1909. The Fishes of Illinois. Ill. State Nat. Hist. Surv., Vol. III.
pp. 357.
Contains numerous observations on the habitats and associations of
fish; a subject hitherto greatly neglected.
WESENBERG-LUND, C.
1908. Plankton Investigations of the Danish Lakes. Danish Freshwater
Biol. Lab., Op. 5, Part I, pp. 389. Part II, Copenhagen.
The only fresh-water plankton study known to the writer, which takes
up the plankton from a distinctly modern ecological standpoint. An
excellent summary of the problems of the fresh-water lake plankton.
Abundant references to the literature.
ALLEE, W. C.
1912. Seasonal Succession in Old Forest Ponds. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci.,
1911, Vol. IV, pp. 126-131.
To determine the complete composition of an animal association
observations must cover all seasons of the year. This paper and the
following ones will indicate the general character of the seasonal
changes.
WOOD, J. G. and T.
1886. The Field Naturalist’s Handbook. pp. 167. Fourth Edition. London.
This is a British work. It gives by months the seasonal succession of
moths, butterflies, birds, flowering of plants, notes on habitat, etc.
FRITSCH, C.
1850. Resultate dreijähriger Beobachtungen über die jährliche
Vertheilung der Papilioniden. Sitzungsber. der math.-naturw. Classe
der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1850, Bd. V, pp.
426-433.
1851. Ueber die jährliche Vertheilung der Käfer. Sitzungsber. der
math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges
1851, Bd. VI, pp. 3-42.
1851. Resultate zweijähriger Beobachtungen über die jährliche
Vertheilung der Käfer. Sitzungsber. der math.-naturw. Classe der K.
Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1851, Bd. VII, pp. 689-710.
1852. Jährliche Vertheilung der Hemipteren. Sitzungsber. der
math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges
1852, Bd. IX, pp. 554-555.
A series of papers showing the seasonal succession in insects at
Prague, Bohemia.
_a. The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls_
The relation of animals to the pollination of plants and to plant galls
is a phase of the _associational relation_ of organisms, but it has
rarely been considered (if at all) from the standpoint of a _biotic
community_. The following list will probably aid one but little in
gaining this general conception, but once the student has it he will
find the list of much assistance. Undoubtedly a relatively new and
fertile field for investigation would be to study the interrelations
of plants and their pollinators as an ecological community, the
association being taken as a unit rather than the individual species of
plants or animals.
BOUVIER, E. L.
1905. Bees and Flowers. Smithsonian Report for 1904, pp. 469-484. No.
1627.
KNUTH, P. (APPEL, O., and LOEW, E.)
1898-1899. Handbuch der Blütenbiologie. Unter Zugrundelegung von
Hermann Müller’s Werk: “Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten.”
Bd. I. Einleitung und Litteratur. 1898. Leipzig. Bd. II. Die bisher
in Europa und im Arktischen Gebiet gemachten Blütenbiologischen
Beobachtungen. Theil 1 und 2. 1899. Leipzig.
APPEL, O., and LOEW, E.
1904-1905. (Continues Knuth.) Bd. III. Die bisher in Aussereuropäischen
Gebieten gemachten Blütenbiologischen Beobachtungen. Theil 1,
1904-1905, Leipzig; Theil 2, 1905, Leipzig.
This is an encyclopedia on the relation of animals to the pollination
of flowers. Plants are arranged systematically and the visitors are
listed. In Bd. II, Th. 2, pp. 559-672, and Bd. III, Th. 2, pp. 259-470,
are given systematic-alphabetic lists of animal visitors to flowers.
Full references.
MÜLLER, H. (Trans. by D. W. THOMPSON.)
1883. The Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 669. London.
NEEDHAM, J. G.
1900. The Fruiting of the Blue Flag (Iris versicolor L.). Amer. Nat.,
Vol. XXXIV, pp. 361-386.
RILEY, C. V.
1892. The Yucca Moth and Yucca Pollination. Third Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot.
Garden, pp. 99-158.
ROBERTSON, C.
1897. Flowers and Insects. Contributions to an Account of the
Ecological Relations of the Entomophilous Flora and the Anthophilous
Insect Fauna of the Neighborhood of Carlinville, Illinois. Trans. Acad.
Sci. St. Louis, Vol. VII, pp. 151-179.
This is only one of a very extensive series of papers published in the
Transactions of the St. Louis Academy, Vols. V, VI, VII, and in the
Botanical Gazette--beginning with Vol. XIV, 1889, and extending to Vol.
XXVIII, 1899.
TRELEASE, W.
1893. Further Studies of Yuccas and their Pollination. Fourth Annual
Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden, pp. 181-226.
BEUTENMÜLLER, W.
1904. The Insect-Galls of the Vicinity of N. Y. City. Am. Mus. Jour.,
Vol. IV, pp. 89-124.
A descriptive illustrated catalogue. Beutenmüller has published several
important papers on galls in the Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. History.
ADLER, H. (Trans. by C. R. STRATON.)
1894. Alternating Generations. A Bibliogical Study of Oak Galls and
Gall Flies. pp. 198. Oxford.
COOK, M. T.
1905. The Insect Galls of Indiana. Twenty-ninth Ann. Rep. Dept. Geol.
and Natural Resources of Indiana, 1904, pp. 801-867.
Descriptive illustrated catalogue.
HOUARD, C.
1908-1909. Les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la
Méditerranée. Tome I, pp. 569; II, pp. 573-1247. Paris.
KIRCHNER, O. VON.
1911. Blumen und Insekten, ihre Anpassungen aneinander und ihre
Gegenseitige Abhängigkeit. pp. 436. Leipzig.
KÜSTER, E.
1911. Die Gallen der Pflanzen. Ein Lehrbuch für Botaniker und
Entomologen. pp. 437. Leipzig.
ROSS, H.
1911. Die Pflanzengallen (Cecidien) Mittel- und Nord-Europas ihre
Erreger und Biologie und Bestimmungstabellen. pp. 350. Jena.
_b. Subterranean and Cave Associations_
BANTA, A. M.
1907. The Fauna of Mayfield’s Cave. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 67. pp.
114.
The cave environment, the vital optimum, and the food relations are
discussed. A valuable paper.
BLATCHLEY, W. S.
1896. Indiana Caves and their Fauna. Twenty-first Ann. Rep. Geol. and
Natural Resources of Indiana, pp. 121-212.
DENDY, A.
1896. The Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
1895, pp. [1-21].
On animals living under stones, logs, and bark of trees.
DIEM, K.
1903. Untersuchungen über die Bodenfauna in den Alpen. Jahrb. d. St.
Gallischen Naturwiss. Gesellsch. f. 1901-1902, pp. 234-414.
HAMANN, O.
1896. Europäische Höhlenfauna. Eine Darstellung der in den Höhlen
Europas lebenden Tierwelt mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der
Höhlenfauna Krains. pp. 296. Jena.
MOTTER, M. G.
1898. A Contribution to the Study of the Fauna of the Grave. A Study of
One Hundred and Fifty Disinterments, with Some Additional Experimental
Observations. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. VI, pp. 201-231.
A list of invertebrates, snails, crustacea, insects, etc., found in
graves. Table compiled from Megnin shows the kinds of animals which
invade bodies at the different stages of decay. This is a form of
succession comparable to the changes in the animals living in a log at
different stages of decay.
PACKARD, A. S.
1888. The Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on the Anatomy of
the Brain and Origin of the Blind Species. Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Vol. IV, pp. 1-156.
Monographic treatment; extensive references to literature.
SCOTT, W.
1909. An Ecological Study of the Plankton of Shawnee Cave. With Notes
on the Cave Environment. Biol. Bull., Vol. XVII, pp. 386-406.
_c. Selected References on Aggregations and Associations_
ADAMS, CHAS. C.
1909. The Coleoptera of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and their Relation
to the North American Centers of Dispersal. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv.
for 1908, pp. 157-215.
On pp. 159-163 the habitats and succession of beetles are briefly
discussed.
1909. Notes on Isle Royale Mammals and their Ecological Relations.
_Ibid._, pp. 389-422.
Brief mention of mammal associations and successions, pp. 390-393.
ANTIPA, G.
1912. Die Biologie des Inundationsgebietes der unteren Donau und des
Donaudeltas. Verhand. VIII. Inter. Zoöl.-Kongresses zu Graz, 1910,
pp.163-208.
Description of the biological conditions on the flooded lower Danube
and its delta.
BAKER, H. B.
1911. Mollusca. pp. 121-176. In A Biological Survey of the Sand Dune
Region on the South Shore of Saginaw Bay, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich.
Board of Geol. and Biol. Survey for 1910. Lansing.
Rather full notes on mollusca, grouped by habitats.
CHAPMAN, F. M.
1909. The Habitat Groups of North American Birds in the American Museum
of Natural History. Am. Mus. Nat. His., Guide Leaflet No. 28. pp. 48.
A descriptive illustrated account of the remarkable habitat exhibits
in the museum. The most remarkable series of its kind in existence. An
excellent example of the educational value of ecological ideas.
DAHL, F.
1896. Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die Lebensweise wirbelloser
Aasfresser. Sitzungsber. d. K. Akad. Wissen. Berlin, 1896. I, pp. 17-30.
A study of carrion-feeding insects by the trapping method. The kinds
of insects attracted change with the stage of decay. There is thus a
succession. Compare with Moffat’s studies (1898).
GATES, F. C.
1911. Summer-bird Life in the Vicinity of Havana, Illinois, in its
Relation to the Prominent Plant Associations. Wilson Bulletin, Vol.
XXIII, No. 74, pp. 1-27.
One of the relatively few associational studies of birds.
GIROD, P.
1891. Les Sociétés chez les Animaux. pp. 342. Paris.
GLEASON, H. A.
1909. The Ecological Relations of the Invertebrate Fauna of Isle
Royale, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geo. Surv. for 1908, pp. 57-78.
GRABAU, A. U.
1898. Zoölogy: Marine Invertebrates, pp. 67-96. Grabau, A. W., and
Woodman, J. E. (editors). Guide to Localities Illustrating the Geology,
Marine Zoölogy, and Botany of the Vicinity of Boston. Salem, Mass.
HART, C. A., and GLEASON, H. A.
1907. On the Biology of the Sand Areas of Illinois. Bull. Ill. State
Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 137-272.
Insect associations are discussed on pp. 220-227. Habitats are figured,
and associated plants and animals are listed.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A deciduous forest (original) as an animal
habitat. The Brownfield woods, Urbana, Illinois. Photo. by H. C.
Chenoweth.]
HANKINSON, T. L.
1910. Ecological Notes on the Fishes of Walnut Lake, Michigan. Trans.
Amer. Fisheries Soc., 1910, pp. 195-206.
One of the few papers dealing with the fish associations in a lake.
1910. An Ecological Study of the Fish of a Small Stream. Trans. Ill.
State Acad. Sci., Vol. III, pp. 23-31.
HERMS, W. B.
1907. An Ecological and Experimental Study of Sarcophagidæ with
Relation to Lake Beach Débris. Jour. Exper. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 45-83.
JORDAN, H.
1883. Die Binnenmollusken der nördlich gemässigten Länder von
Europa und Asien und der Arktischen Länder. Nova Acta der Ksl.
Leop.-Carol.-Deutschen Akad. der Naturf., Bd. XLV, Nr. 4, pp. 181-402.
Halle.
On pp. 201-253 there are many observations on molluskan ecology,
including habitats, table of habitats of freshwater mollusks, and
important observations on habitat variations or forms. Most of the
paper is devoted to geographic problems.
KOFOID, C. A.
1903. The Plankton of the Illinois River, 1894-1899, with Introductory
Notes upon the Hydrography of the Illinois River and its Basin. Part I,
Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, pp. 95-629.
The results of a prolonged, detailed study of the Illinois River
plankton; capable of an associational interpretation.
LINTNER, J. A.
1878. Report on the Insects and Other Animal Forms of Caledonia Creek,
New York. Tenth Ann. Rep. N. Y. Fishery Comm. for 1877, pp. 12-36.
One of the relatively few studies of the animals of a small stream; a
census rather than an ecological study.
MCCREARY, O.
1909. The Ecological Distribution of the Birds of Isle Royale, Lake
Superior. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 81-95.
Habitat preferences of birds.
MORSE, A. P.
1904. Researches on North American Acridiidæ. Carnegie Inst., Pub. 18.
pp. 55.
Associational groupings of the short-horned grasshoppers, with figures
of habitats.
RUTHVEN, A. G.
1907. A Collection of Reptiles and Amphibians from Southern New Mexico
and Arizona. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIII, pp. 483-603.
Discusses the associations, habitats, and food of the desert species.
SCOTT, W.
1910. The Fauna of a Solution Pond. Proc. Ind. Acad. Science for 1910,
pp. 395-442.
Includes a discussion of their interrelations.
SIMROTH, H.
1891. Die Entstehung der Landtiere. Ein Biologische Versuch. pp. 492.
Leipzig.
STEUER, A.
1910. Planktonkunde. pp. 723. Leipzig.
A general treatise on plankton.
WATSON, J. R.
1911. A Contribution to the Study of the Ecological Distribution of the
Animal Life of North Central New Mexico with Especial Attention to the
Insects. First Ann. Rep. New Mexico Nat. Resource and Conserv. Comm.,
pp. 67-117.
Description, lists, and observations on the animal and plant
associations of the arid region.
WHEELER, W. M.
1905. An Annotated List of the Ants of New Jersey. Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., Vol. XXI, pp. 371-403.
Ants grouped in the following associations: woodland, glade, field,
meadow, heath, and sand.
1908. Comparative Ethology of the European and North American Ants.
Jour. für Psychol. und Neurol., Bd. XIII, pp. 404-435. (Festschrift
Forel.)
WICKHAM, H. F.
1903. The Beetles of an Oregon Beach. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVII, pp.
49-52.
INDEX
Abbreviations, 69
Acalyptrate Muscidæ, larval food-habits, 78
Accidents, 62
Acridiidæ,
courtship, 117
habitats, 148
Adaptation,
adjustive, 10
and evolution, 97
as a process, 9
as a product, 9
theory, 136
Adirondacks, aquatic insects, 75
Adjustment of organisms, process of, 122
Adjustment, process of, 5, 30, 31, 33, 122
Age of lower organisms, 97
Aggregate, 8
as agent or entity, 4
ecology, 4, 23, 24, 133
Aggregations, 27, 145
dynamic relations of, 130
Agricultural reports of the U. S. patent office, index, 72
Air, vegetational control of relative evaporating power of, 90
vegetational control of relative humidity, 90
Alluvial flats, vegetational invasion, 89
Alps, soil fauna, 144
Alternating generations of oak gall flies, 143
Ambrosia beetles, 127
American lobster, natural history, 113
_Amia calva_, natural history, 117
Amphibians,
associations of desert species, 148
collecting, 58
desert species, 148
food of desert species, 148
reactions to light, 116
Amphioxus,
behavior, 116
sensory reactions, 116
Amphipods,
distribution of fresh-water, 111
food of fresh-water, 111
reproductive capacity of fresh-water, 111
salt-marsh, habits and life history, 119
_Amphithoe longimana_ Smith, habits and natural history, 113
Animal and plant associations of arid region, 148, 149
Animal associations, and marine vegetation, 89
and vegetation, 90
of a lake shore, 134
Animal behavior, 107, 121
as a process, 102
Bohn’s studies in, 107
limits of study, 103
Animal communities, 133, 134
Animal ecology,
of Chicago region, 134
of Cold Spring sand spit, 136
of seashore, 63, 64
of shore, 139
Animal galls, 143
Animal geography, physiological, 101
Animal intelligence,
development, 115
evolution, 114
nature, 115
raccoon, 111
Animal life,
ecological distribution in New Mexico, 148
of sea-bottom, 63, 136
of sea-bottom, food, 136
of sea-bottom, quantity, 136
mind, 106
psychology, 106, 120
societies, 132, 133, 146
substances, influence upon insects, 135
visitors to flowers, systematic alphabetic list, 142
Animals,
adjustment between environment and, 122
and plant galls, 141
and pollination, 141, 142
collecting, directions, 57
competing in new territory, 126
distribution, physiological, 101
fresh-water, 78
of Lower Elbe, 138
of seashore, 146
of small stream, 147, 148
of soils, 86
orientation, 118
play, 112
responses (locomotor) to white light, 107
seasonal succession, 140
subterranean, 58
variation, 96
Annelids, behavior of tubicolous, 112
Ant, ethological observations on an American, 120
Ant-colony,
as organism, 131
as unit, 131
Anthophilous insect fauna, ecological relations to entomophilous
flora, 142
Ants, 111
and fungi, 128
and plants, 126, 127
Arthropods living with, 130
associations, 149
associations by habitats, 149
behavior, 120
bibliography, 120
development, 120
ecological study, 137
European, comparative ethology, 149
habitat associations, 149
habitats, 120
keys to ecological relations of, in Bismarck Archipelago, 137
nesting habits of, in Bismarck Archipelago, 137
nests, 127
North American, comparative ethology, 149
quantitative data on, 137
psychology, 120
slaves, 120
structure, 120
_Aplopus Mayeri_, habits, reactions, and mating instincts, 119
Applied ecology, 125, 131
Application of the process method, 86
Aquatic animals, photography, 63
Aquatic Chrysomelidæ, 75
Aquatic insects, 75
immature, keys, 75
in Adirondacks, 75
Aquatic nematocerous Diptera, 75
Aquatic resources, 24
Aquiculture, 21
Araneads,
activities, 115
courtship of, significance, 115
secondary sexual characters, 115
_Arbacia punctulata_, 99
_Argiope_, habits and instincts, 117
Arid region,
animal and plant associations, 148, 149
associations, 149
habitats, 149
Arizona,
Amphibians, 148
cactus and insect fauna, 135
reptiles, 148
Army cooks’ manual, 58
Art,
of ecology, 33
of presentation, 67
Arthropods,
effect of caves on, 101
living with ants, 130
living with termites, 130
Artificial and “pathological” conditions, 27
Association, 4, 5, 6, 8, 27, 60, 132, 139, 145
Associational ecology, 5, 24, 29
Associational optimum, 94
Associational relation, of pollination, 141, 142
Associational study,
of birds, Illinois, 146
of lake fauna, 140
of sand prairies of Illinois, 139
of sea beach, 136
of shore animals, 139
Associational unit, and individual ecology, 131
Associations,
amphibian, 148
animal, 137, 138
animal, local, 134
ants, 149
as agent, 5
biotic, 29
biotic, of sand areas, 146
cave, 143
climax biotic, 30
dynamic relations of, 130
fish, of Illinois, 140
fish, in lake, 147
human, 10, 11
lake fish, 147
making to order, 33
mammal, 145
marine animals, 135, 136
methods of studying local, 14
mollusks, 137, 138
natural or normal, 34
reptiles, 148
resemble plays, 47
sand flats, 136, 137
short-horned grasshoppers, 148
succession, 91
_Asterias Forbesi_, direction of locomotion, 110
_Asterias Forreri_ De Loriol, behavior, 105
Atmospheric conditions about woodlands, 91
_Atta sexdens_, colonies founded by, 128
Authors,
guide, 68
suggestions to, 68
Australasia, cryptozoic fauna, 144
Balance of nature, 28, 29, 123
Bark beetles, 76
and fungi, 127
Bark of trees, fauna under, 144
Baseleveling, 86
faunal significance, 86
Bass, black, as a microcosmic center, 49
Bats, habits and sensory adaptations of cave-inhabiting, 112
Beach,
associational study of a sea, 136
beetles of an Oregon, 149
Beach flea,
habits, 119
life history, 119
Beach, sea, as animal habitat, 136
Bee,
burrowing, 134
community of _Epinomia triangulifera_ Vachal, 139
community, parasitic interrelations, 139
fauna of dunes, 139
humble, 119
Bees,
and flowers, 141
as reflex machines, 109
Beetles,
Ambrosia, 127
bark, 76
evolution in Chrysomelid, 119
food of predaceous, 126, 130
habitats, 145
hymenopterous hosts, 139
hypermetamorphic, 139
immature stages, 75
longicorn, food habits, 77
of an Oregon beach, 149
predaceous, food, 126, 130
seasonal succession of, 140
snout, 76
succession of, 145
Behavior, 92, 93
Amphioxus, 116
and natural environment, 110
animal, 167
animal. _See also_ Animal behavior
animal, as a process, 102
ants, 120
birds, 121
_Bombus_, 120
Collembola, 136
cuckoo, 113
fixed and changeable responses, 104
human, 133
_Hydroides Dianthus_ V., modifiability, 106
ideals and conclusions, 114
Isopods, surface and subterranean, 108
laws, 103
leech, 121
_Leptinotarsa_, 119
_Limulus_, 105
lizard, 116
lobster, immature stages, 105
lower organisms, 96, 105, 107
method of regulation, 105
modifiability, 93, 105, 106
mud snail, 111
nature, study of in, 39
_Necturus_, 121
orderly sequence, 113
organisms, 115
physiology, 107
Planarians, fresh-water, 116, 120
pond snail, 120
social wasps, 111
sponges, 116
squirrels, 121
terns, noddy and sooty, 120
tree frogs, 112
tubicolous annelids, 112
Turbellarian, marine, 127
“walking stick,” 119
_Belostoma_ (= _Zaitha_) _flumineum_ Say, death-feigning, 118
Bibliography, 71
animals and pollination, 141, 142
ants, 120
bark beetles, 76
caterpillars, 74
ecological succession of birds, 124
economic entomology (American), 71, 75
environmental influences upon insects, 96, 97
flowers and insects, 141, 142
food of birds, 130
forest insects, 74
fresh-water biology, 78
Hymenoptera of N. America, 73
insects, 74, 75
mammals, North American, 107
medical zoölogy, 129
plant ecology, 89
snout beetles, 76
veterinary zoölogy, 129
Biocœnose, 18
or community, 7
Biocœnosis, 6, 7, 29
Biocönose, 18
_Halictus_, 134
Biocönosis, 131
Biocönotic, 18
Biologia Centrali-Americana, 23
Biologic relations of plants and ants, 126, 127
Biological significance,
of dissolved gases of water, 87
of thermocline, 87
Biological survey,
of U. S., index to papers on, 128
ecological in methods, 114
Biology, 1, 2, 18, 60
butterflies, 118
lower Danube delta, 145
Orthoptera, 101
Physa, 110
relation to geological investigation, 22
relation to man, 11, 12
sand areas of Illinois, 146
Biometric ideas, 63
Biometric methods, 63
Bionomic base line, 30
Bionomics, 19, 21
green cells of _Convoluta roscoffensis_, 127
insects, 128
Bionomy, marine, and stratigraphy, 22
Biota, postglacial dispersal, 91
Biotic associations, 29, 91
sand areas, 146
sandy flats of seacoast, 136, 137
Biotic base, 30
Biotic community, 141
Biotic competition in tropics, 124
Biotic succession in media, 88
Bird census, sectional, 59
Bird habitats of Bismarck Archipelago, 137
Birds,
adaptations by insects to, 125
and man, 130
associational studies, 146
behavior, 121
breeding habits of North American, 109
collecting, 58
colonies, 120
decrease, 124
destruction by elements, 124
ecological succession, 21, 124, 133
economic value, 123, 126
eggs of North American, 109
food, 126, 128, 130
food of nestling, 128
habitat groups, 145, 146
habitat preferences, 148
habitats in summer, 146
instinct, 113
intelligence, 113
life histories of North American, 109
methods of study, 39, 60, 61
migration, 109
migration as a response, 109
noxious, introduction, 124
of a Maryland farm, 125
of Isle Royale, ecological distribution of, 148
photographing, 59, 61
protecting woodlands, 124
protection, 124
protection of useful, 127
quantitative study, 59, 60
regulative action upon insect oscillations, 123
statistical study, 59, 60
stomach contents, estimating, 62
study 39, 60, 61
Birds’ eggs, collecting, 58
Birds’ nests, collecting, 58
Bismarck Archipelago, bird habitats, 137
Black bass as a microcosmic center, 49
Blind species of cave fauna, origin, 144
_Blissus leucopterus_ Say, 20
Blond ring-dove, 110
Blue flag, fruiting, 142
Bluebird, 117
Bluejay, 117
Bohn’s studies in animal behavior, 107
Boll worm, report on, 77
_Bombus_,
behavior, 120
_see also_ Humble-bee
Borers, wood, 77
Brackish waters of Lower Elbe, fauna, 138
Breeding habits,
bark beetles, 76
birds, of North America, 109
crawfish, 108
horned dace, 63
snout beetles, 76
_Bufo lentiginosus americanus_ Le Conte, 100
Bumble-bee,
see _Bombus_
_see also_ Humble-bee
Burrowing bee, 134
Butterflies,
biology, 118
drinking habits, 119
food plants, 77
Cactus, Arizona, insect fauna, 135
Cactus,
giant, and its insect fauna, 135
insects, 135
Caithness, vegetation, 88
Caledonia Creek, N. Y., insects and animal forms, 147, 148
_Cambarus_, 113
_Cambarus affinis_, habit formation, 106
Camp cooking, 62
Camping, 57, 60, 61, 65
Capitalization, 69
Carabidæ,
early stages, 73
food relations, 127
Carbohydrates, effect on resistance to lack of oxygen, 99
Carbonic acid, reaction of fish to, 118
Card-index system for records, 64
Carrion-feeding insects, 146
Castration, parasitic, in insects, 130
Catalogues of governmental publications, 65
Caterpillars, 74
reactions, 106
Cave associations, 143
Cave environment, 144, 145
Cave fauna,
European, 144
origin of blind species, 144
Cave habitats, 112, 144
Cave-inhabiting bats, habits and sensory adaptations, 112
Cave life,
effect on Arthropods, 101
effect on nutrition, 101
effect on sense organs, 101
Cell and its medium, chemical studies, 88
Census,
bird, 59
invertebrates, 62
of four square feet, 58, 62
Centers of dispersal for beetles of North America, 145
Cerambycidæ, food habits, 72
Cestoda and Cestodaria, index to literature of, 129
Chætognatha,
classification, 115
distribution vertically, 115
San Diego region, 115
_Challenger_, 23
Change, laws of, 79
Changes, in fresh-water habitats, sequence, 86
Changes, in land habitats, sequence, 86
Chemical stimulations, responses to, 97
Chemical studies on the cell and its medium, 88
Chicago, physiographic ecology, 88
Chicago region, animal communities, 134
Chinch-bug, 20
Chorology, 2
Chrysomelid beetles, evolution, 119
Chrysomelidæ,
aquatic, 75
food habits, 72
Cicindela, 90
Cicindelidæ,
habits, 121
life histories and larval habits, 118
Ciliary action of shell-fish, 114
Circulars of U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Index to, 73
Clams,
eaten by _Fulgur_, 110
eaten by _Sycotypus_, 110
growth of the soft, 114
hard, 114
life history of the common, 114
soft, 114
Classification, 21
animal habitats, 138
genetic, 56
habitats, 139
mollusks’ habitats, 138
physiological, 21, 101, 133, 134
Climate, influence upon insects, 135
Climatic sequences, 91
Climax biotic associations, 30
Coccinellidæ, food relations, 127
Cocooning habits of spiders, 118
Cold-blooded vertebrates, digestion influenced by season and
temperature, 100
Cold Spring Beach, Collembola, 136
Cold Spring sand spit, animal ecology, 136
Coleoptera,
centers of dispersal, North American, 145
food, 76, 77
insectivorous, 127
of Isle Royale, 145
transformations described, 72
Collecting, 49, 50, 59, 61
directions for, 39
natural history specimens, 63
of specimens, 49, 50
Collembola, Cold Spring Beach, 136
Colonial forms, 132
Colonies founded by _Atta sexdens_, 128
Color changes of tree frogs, 112
Colors of insects, warning, 128
Commensals, 132
of ants, 120
Community,
biotic, 141
_Epinomia_, 139
gulls, 106
gulls, organization, 134
living beings, 6
social, 18, 123, 131
_See also_ Associations
Communities of land animals, 91, 124
vegetational control, 90, 133
Comparative method, 14, 15
limits, 56
Comparative physiology, 95
Comparative psychology, 120
French work in, 107
limits, 109
Competition of animals, in new territory, 126
Competition,
ants and plants, 126
cotton boll weevil, 125
Composition,
correct, 68
handbook of, 69
scientific papers, 66
Condition,
of stress, 30, 31
pathological, 26
Conditions,
artificial and “pathological,” 27
of existence, natural, 96
of production in the sea, 87
Conflict between organisms, geometrical representation, 125
Conjugation, lower organisms, 97
Contact, reactions of dragon-fly nymphs to, 118
Control of nature, 33
_Convoluta roscoffensis_, bionomics of green cells, 127
Cooking, manual, 58
Coöperation in study, 52
Coral, rose, feeding reactions, 109
Corn, 132
entomological ecology of Indian, 132
Corn plant, entomological ecology of Indian, 132
Correct composition, 68
Cotton boll weevil, insect enemies, 125
Cotton insects, 72
enemies, 72
Cotton worm, report on, 77
Courtship, _Acridiidæ_, 117
Cowbirds, 117
Crane flies, 76
larval habits, 76
life histories, 76
Crawfish,
breeding habits, 108
ecological catalogue, 113
egg-laying, 108
habit formation, 106
habitats, 116
Pennsylvania, 116
stream environment, references, 113
Cricket, western, 77
Criteria,
ecological, 16
in genetic studies, 56
of the psychic, 106
Criterion of imitation, 117
Crop rotation, 28
Crows, 117
Crustacea, in grave, 144
Cryptic coloration, 62
testing by experiment, 125
_Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis_,
habits, 119
life history, 119
Cryptozoic fauna of Australasia, 144
Cuckoo,
behavior, 113
life, 113
Cultivation of turtles, 110
Cycle of matter, in the sea, 87
Cycles, vegetative, causes, 88
Dace, horned, 63
Danish lakes, plankton investigations, 140
Danish waters, ecology of grass-wrack in, 89
Danube and its delta, biology affected by floods, 145
Death feigning,
_Belostoma_ (= _Zaitha_) _flumineum_ Say, 118
instinct, 113
_Nepa apiculata_ Say, 118
Ranatra, 113
Death of lower organisms, 97
Decrease of birds, 124
Describing environments, 45
Descriptive method, 14
Desert species,
of Amphibians, 148
of reptiles, 148
Determination,
of specimens, 49, 51
of specimens at museums, 52
Determined specimens, series of, 52
Development, 92, 93
ants, 120
effect of environment on mollusks, 100
environment, 45, 46
individual, 97
oysters, 112
optima, 94
problem, 98
Developmental or explanatory method, 14, 15
Digestion in cold-blooded vertebrates, influence of season and
temperature, 100
Diptera,
aquatic nematocerous, 75
catalogue of North American, 71
North American, catalogue, 71
Directions for collection, 39, 57
Directory, Naturalist’s, 53
Disadvantages of non-ecological surveys, 31
Diseases, mussels, 119
Distribution,
fish, 64
Planarians, local, 119
vertically of Chætognatha, San Diego region, 115
Domestic animals, 132
psychic development of young, 115
Dominance, 47
Dominant animals, 47, 48
Donaciinæ, natural history of larvæ, 109
Dragon flies, _vs._ mosquitoes, 72
Dragon-fly nymphs,
ecology, 118
keys, 75
reactions to contact and light, 118
Drinking habits,
butterflies, 119
moths, 119
_Drosophila_,
convulsive reflexes, 109
reactions, 109
Dunes, bee fauna, 139
Dynamic conceptions, 80
Dynamic principles, 86
Dynamic relation, 85
Dynamic relations,
of aggregations, 130
of associations, 130
of environment, 82
Dynamic standpoint, 91, 101
Dynamic status, 29, 31
Dynamic theory and physiological problems, 97
Dynamical interpretation, 82
Dynamics of living matter, 96
Earthworm,
behavior modifiable, 105
movements, 105
quantitative studies, 58
Echinoderms, food, 126
Ecological catalogue of crawfish, 113
Ecological criteria, 16
Ecological distribution of birds of Isle Royale, 148
Ecological features of evolution, 21
Ecological ideas, educational value, 146
Ecological organization of museums, 22
Ecological relations,
of entomophilous flora and anthophilous insect fauna of Illinois,
142
of invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale, 146
Ecological study,
of cave plankton, Shawnee Cave, 145
of lake plankton, 140
Ecological succession, 21, 90, 101, 124
birds, 124, 133
causes in ponds, 133
fish in ponds and streams, 133
land animals, 133
mammals of Isle Royale, 145
on an oyster reef, 112
Ecological surveys, 23, 24, 67
Ecological training for surveys, 32
Ecology, 1, 2, 18, 19, 20, 60
and economic problems, 114
and geology, 22
art of, 33
associational, 24
fish of Walnut Lake, 147
history, 133, 138
point of view, 8
relation to economic entomology, 21
relation to geology and paleontology, 10
relation to man, 10, 11
relation to physiology, 8
relation to sociology, 10
relation to teaching, 13, 14
research methods, 88
Economic entomology, 29, 71, 74, 75
bibliography, 74, 75
bibliography of American, 71, 75
relation to ecology, 21
Economic problems and ecology, 114
Economic value,
of birds, 126
of _Pecten irradians_, 108
Economic zoölogist, 29
Economic zoölogy, 29
Educational value of ecological ideas, 146
Effects, similar, of diverse stimuli, 98
Egg-laying crawfish, 108
Egg-laying sites, Orthoptera, 137
Eggs,
collecting birds’, 58
of birds of North America, 109
Elbe River, fauna of lower, 138
Emergency surgery, 65
Emotion in pigeons, 110
Enchytræidæ, 58
Encroachments of civilization, 26
Enemies, protection of animals from, 125
English in science, better, 67
English sparrow, 28, 117
psychology, 117
Entomological Commission,
of U. S., report on cotton and boll worm, 77
of U. S., report on Rocky Mountain locust, 76
of U. S., report on western cricket, 77
Entomological ecology of Indian corn plant, 132
Entomological work of Townend Glover, 73
Entomological writings of A. S. Packard, 74
Entomologists’ reports,
Illinois, index, 74
Missouri, 77
New York, 74
Entomology,
bibliography of American economic, 71, 75
catalogue of publications on, 71
economic, _see_ Economic entomology
Entomophilous flora, ecological relations to anthophilous insect
fauna, 142
Environment, 5
and the animal, adjustment between, 122
describing, 45
development, 45, 46
effect on development of mollusks, 100
effect on insects, 96, 97
effect on limpet, 101
effect on snails, 100
fish, 64, 118
fitness, 85
great changes, 26
gross evolution, 86
making to order, 33
natural, and behavior, 110
natural or normal, 34
orderly sequence, 79
original conditions, 25, 26
parasites, 126
sequence of changes, 104
_Epeira_, habits, instincts, 117
Ephemeridæ, 76
_Epinomia triangulifera_ Vachal, bee community, 139
Equilibrium, relative, 30, 31
Ethological maladjustments of ants, 126
Ethological observations on an ant, 120
Ethological study, comparative, of spiders, 138
Ethology, 18, 19, 21, 59
and mutation theory, 22
ants, comparative, 149
diagram of subdivisions, 133
history, 133
subdivisions, in diagrams, 133
Europe,
cave fauna, 144
plant galls, 143
Evaporating power of air, vegetational control of, relative, 90
Evaporation,
and plant societies, 90
and soil moisture, 62
open and wooded areas, 91
plant societies and, 64
Evolution, 9
and adaptation, 97
as a process, 10
ecological features of, 21
experimental, 96
mutual aid a factor of, 133
of life and _Salpa_, 123
organic, and baseleveling, 86
Existence,
natural conditions, 96
struggle for, 2, 122, 123
Experiment Station Record, 76
Experimental evolution, 96
Experimental morphology, 95
Experimental study, limits, 103
Experimental zoölogy, 96
Explanatory or developmental method, 14, 15
Exploration, scientific, 63
External relations, 1
Extremes, influence, 98
Eyes,
frog, 110
insects, 110
slug, 110
snail, 110
sow bug, 110
various types and image-forming powers, 110
worms, 110
Factor of evolution, mutual aid a, 133
Factors,
influence of the slowest, 98
limiting, 98
Family, 132
Fauna,
and flora of the sea bottom, 64
cave, 101, 112, 143, 144, 145
cryptozoic of Australasia, 144
Germany, classified by habitat, 134
grave, 144
Indiana caves, 144
Mayfield’s Cave, 143
of brackish waters of Lower Elbe, 138
of Kiel Bay, 138
pond, 148
quantitative determination in brackish waters, 137
salt water, 111
Faunal significance of baseleveling, 86
Feeding habits,
slugs, 125
snails, 125
_Venus mercenaria_, 114
Feeding reactions of rose coral, 109
Feeding reflexes of shell-fish, 114
Fertilization of flowers, 142
Field ants, 149
Field naturalist, 37
Field notes, 42
numbers in, 50, 51
recording, 42
Field study, 36, 37, 38
plan, 36
Field work, primary aim, 41
Fish,
associations of a lake, 147
associations of Illinois, 140
distribution, 64
ecological succession, 133
environment and distribution, 64
environment, index to, 118
feeding grounds, affected by vegetation, 90
food, 76, 123
food relations of fresh-water, 123
habitats of Illinois, 140
habits, 63, 112
Illinois, 140
lateral-line organs of, functions, 116
life histories, 112
marine vegetation, 89
metabolism, 100
methods of study, 39
of a small stream, 147
organ of sense, 113
organ of taste, 113
physiological responses of, 112
pond, 133
productivity in standing and running water, 101
reaction to atmospheric gases in water, 118
reaction to carbonic acid, 118
reaction to oxygen, 118
rheotropism in, 115
sense of hearing, 116
spawning habits of, 112
stream, 133
submerged vegetation affecting feeding ground, 90
Fitness of environment, 85
Floods of lower Danube affecting biological conditions, 145
Florida mangroves forming animal habitats, 89
Flowers,
and insects, 142, 143
animal visitors, 141, 142
bees and, 141
fertilization, 142
pollination of, in relation to animals, 141, 142
Food,
beetles, 126
birds, 126, 128, 130
butterflies, 77
Coleoptera, 77
Echinoderms, 126
fish, 123
insects, 128
lizards, 129
nestling birds, 128
oysters, 112
predaceous beetles, 130
serpents, 129
snails, 125
Turbellarian, 127
woodpeckers, 126
Food habits,
back beetles, 76
Cerambycidæ, 72
Chrysomelidæ, 72
Coleoptera, 77
grosbeaks, 128
larval Acalyptrate Muscidæ, 78
longicorn beetles, 77
Rhynchophora, 72
snout beetles, 76
Food of animals,
in Kiel Bay, 129
of sea-bottom, 63, 136
Food plants,
of Coleoptera, 77
of forest insects, 76
Food relations,
Carabidæ, 127
cave animals, 144
Coccinellidæ, 127
Forest influences, 90
Forest insects,
classified by food plants, 76
life histories, 74
literature, 74
Forest invasion on alluvial flats, 89
Forest types, determining, 89
Foresters, nature’s, 124
Forestry, 58
Forests, insect depredations in, 127
Form regulation, 97
Formation, 60
French work in comparative psychology, 107
Fresh-water Amphipods, 111
Fresh-water animals and plants, biological relations, 130
Fresh-water biology, keys to organisms, 78
Fresh-water biology, technique, 62
Fresh-water fish, food relations, 123
Fresh-water habitats, changes, 86
Fresh-water mollusks, habitats, 147
Fresh-water mussels, pearly, 119
Fresh-water Planarians, reactions, 116
Fresh-water plants and animals, biological relations, 130
Fruiting of blue flag, 142
_Fulgur_ eating oysters, mussels, and clams, 110
Function,
of lateral-line organs of fish, 116
of mucus of shell-fish, 114
Fungi,
and ants, 128
and bark beetles, 127
Galls,
animals in relation to plant, 141
insect, 143
on European plants, 143
Gases,
dissolved in water, biological significance, 87
reaction of fish to atmospheric, 118
General physiology, 95
General principles, value of, 41
Genetic classification, 56
Genetic method, 15
Genetic psychology, limits, 109
Genetic relation of types of action, 106
Genetic standpoint, 91, 101
Genetic studies, criteria in, 56
Geographic life centers, 99
Geologic processes, 86
Geological investigation, relation to biology, 22
Geology and ecology, 22
Glade,
ants, 149
associations of ants, 149
Glover, Townend, entomological work, 73
Governmental publications, catalogues, 65
Grackles, 109
Grasshoppers,
short-horned, associational groupings, 148
short-horned, habitats, 148
Grass-wrack, ecology of, in Danish waters, 89
Grave, fauna of the, 144
Green cells of _Convoluta roscoffensis_, bionomics, 127
Grosbeaks, food habits, 128
Gross environment, evolution, 86
Growth, 92, 93, 97
affected by environment, 100
influence of stimuli upon, 95
quahaug, 108
soft clam, 114
_Venus mercenaria_, 114
Guiana forest, struggle for life in, 124
Gull community, organization, 106, 134
Gypsy moth, 74
enemies of, 74
Habitats, 5, 60
affected by baseleveling, 86
amphibians, 148
animal, formed by plants, 89, 91
animals classified by, 134
ants, 137, 149
beetles, 145
bird preferences, 148
birds, 137
birds in summer, 146
cave, 112, 143, 144
classification, 59, 138, 139
Collembola, 136
crawfish, 116
dune, 139
fish of Illinois, 140
formed by river floods, 145
fresh-water, 86
grasshoppers, 148
history of their recognition, 138
inland, 91
insects, 128, 135
invertebrate, 146
lake, 87
lake beach, 147
lake fauna, 140
lake, for fish, 147
land, 86
mammals, 145
marine animals, 135, 136, 146
marsh for mollusks, 137
mollusks, 138, 145, 147
mollusks, classification, 138
mollusks of land and fresh water, classification, 138
moor, 139
Oregon sea beach, 149
Orthoptera, 137
oyster, 111, 112, 131, 132
parasitic fauna, 129
pond, 148
preferences of birds, 148
reptiles, 148
sand areas, 146
sand prairie, 139
sandy sea flats, 136, 137
sea bottom, 136
shore animals, 139
spiders, 125, 138
stream, 147, 148
three dimensions, 46
Turbellarian, 127
Habits,
Amphipods, 119
_Amphithoe longimana_ Smith, 113
cave-inhabiting bats, 112
Cicindelidæ, 121
fish, 63, 112
formation in crawfish, 106
formation in the turtle, 105
Humble-bee, 118
_Leptinotarsa_, 119
mammals, 118
mammals of North America, 107
mating period of spiders, 115
_Plethodon_, 117
salamanders, 119
solitary wasps of Texas, 113
spiders, 117, 118
squirrels, 115
tortoises, 116
_Venus mercenaria_, 114
Halictus,
biocönose, 134
guests and parasites, 134
Hearing in fish, sense of, 116
Heath ants, 149
Hemiptera, seasonal succession, 141
Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue of Nearctic, 71
Hibernation, 115
influence on animal parasites, 130
insects, 128
Holland, sandy flats of, animals, 136, 137
_Homarus Americanus_, behavior of immature stages, 105
Homing pigeons, methods, 113
Honey-bee, natural history, 109
Horde, 132
Human associations, 11
Human behavior, biological and psychological foundations, 133
Humble-bee,
domestication, 119
habits, 119
life history, 119
Humidity of air, vegetational control of relative, 90
Humus, effect on animal life of soil, 100
Huttonian theory, 80
_Hydroides Dianthus_ V., behavior modifiable, 106
Hydropsyche, photographing nets of, 64
Hymenoptera of N. America,
bibliography, 73
catalogue of species, 73
Hypermetamorphic beetles, 139
Hypotheses, multiple working, 55
Ideas,
biometric, 63
life history of scientific, 57
Illinois,
ecological relations of entomophilous flora and anthophilous insect
fauna, 142
fish, 140
sand areas, biology, 146
sand prairies, associational study, 139
State Entomologist’s reports, 74
Illinois River, entomology, 74
plankton, 147
Image-forming powers of eyes of various types, 110
Imitation,
and intelligence in birds, 117
criterion, 117
Index,
Agricultural reports of the U. S. patent office, 72
circulars, U. S. Entomology Bureau, 73
Experiment Station Record, 76
Illinois State entomologist’s reports,74
Insect Life, 72
Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74
Missouri reports on insects, 77
Ontario entomological society reports, 72
Orthoptera of North America, 77
papers on biological survey of U. S., 128
Riley’s Missouri entomological reports, 77
Index catalogue of medical and veterinary zoölogy, 129
Indian corn, _see_ Corn
Indiana,
caves and their fauna, 144
insect galls, 143
Individual development, 97
Individual ecology, 3, 8, 23, 24
and the associational unit, 131
Influence,
of sessile habit, 100
of slowest factors, 98
Inland habitats, 91
Insect associations, changes in, 127
Insect depredations in forests, 127
Insect enemies of cotton boll weevil, 125
Insect fauna of the giant cactus of Arizona, 135
Insect galls,
Europe, 143
Indiana, 143
New York, 143
Insect guests of Florida land tortoise,135
Insect Life, 111
index, 72
Insect oscillations regulated by birds, 123
Insectivorous Coleoptera, 127
Insects,
affecting park trees, 74
affecting the orange, 75
affecting woodland trees, 74
and animal forms of Caledonia Creek, N. Y., 147, 148
aquatic, 74
aquatic in Adirondacks, 75
bibliography, 74, 75
bionomics of, 128
cactus, 135
carrion-feeding, 146
collecting, 58
environmental influences upon, 96, 97
eyes, 110
flowers and, 142, 143
food, 128
habitats, 128, 135
hibernation, 128
Illinois, 74
in grave, 144
influence in economy of nature, 135
influenced by animal substances, 135
influenced by climate, 135
influenced by environment, 135
influenced by man, 135
influenced by plants, 135
influenced by soil, 135
initiating successions, 127
instinct, 128
life histories, 70, 73
life histories in Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports,
74
mimicry of South African, 128
Missouri, 77
motions, 128
Neuropteroid, synopsis, catalogue, and bibliography, 71
New Mexico, 148
New York, 74
noises, 128
parasitic and other kinds of castration in, 130
parasitism, 129, 130
preserving, 58
protective adaptations against birds by, 125
seasonal succession, 141
senses, 111
social community, 135
social life, 111
societies, 128
stratagems, 128
study, 59
systematic literature, 71
warning colors of South African, 128
Instinct,
and intelligence, 120
birds, 113
blindness of, 103
death-feigning, 113
insects, 128
Leptinotarsa, 119
raccoons, 110
spiders, 117
Instruments, 57, 59
Integrative action of nervous system, 98
Intelligence,
and imitation in birds, 117
and instinct, 120
animal, of the raccoon, 111
birds, 113
evolution of animal, 114
nature and development of animal, 115
raccoons, 110, 111
Interactions of organisms, 49, 123
Internal relations, 1
Interpretation, dynamical, 82
Interrelations, 5
between forests and insects, 127
of the social community, 131
parasitic, of the bee community, 139
Introducing noxious animals, 124
Invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound, 136
Invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale, ecological relations, 146
Invertebrates,
census, 62
life histories, 70, 136
marine, 136, 146
Investigation, methods of scientific, 56
_Iris versicolor_ L., fruiting, 142
Isle Royale,
as biotic environment, 91
birds, ecological succession, 124, 133
birds’ habitats, 148
ecology of Coleoptera, 145
ecological relations of invertebrate fauna, 146
mammals of, ecological succession, 145
_Isophyllia_, feeding reactions, 109
Isopods,
of ponds and streams, responses, 106
physiological states and rheotaxis, 106
reactions of surface and subterranean, 108
reactions to light, 108
Jutland, sandy flats of, animals, 136, 137
Kiel Bay,
fauna, 138
food of animals in, 129
Krakatau, new flora, 89
Lack of oxygen, resistance affected by carbohydrates, 99
Lake as a microcosm, 123, 131
Lake beach,
habitat, 147
débris, Sarcophagidæ with relation to, 147
Lake fauna,
associational study, 140
correlated with vegetation, 140
habitats, 140
Lake, fish associations of a, 147
Lake habitat,
changes in, 87
fish, 147
Lake, respiration of an inland, 87
Lake shore, animal associations, 134
Lakes,
gases dissolved in waters, 87
plankton investigations of Danish, 140
Land animal communities,
controlled by vegetation, 90
vegetation and control, 124, 133
Land animals,
ecological succession, 133
origin, 148
Land forms, changing, 86
Land habitats, changes, 86
Land tortoise of Florida, insect guests, 135
Larval habits of tiger beetles, 118
Larvæ,
catalogue, 77
classification of Lepidopterous, 73
Coleopterous, table of families, 75
Donaciinæ, natural history, 109
Lepidopterous, 73, 78
saw-fly, 78
Lateral-line organs of fish, functions, 116
Law of response to strain, 85
Laws of change, orderly sequence, 79
Laws of regulation,
in behavior, 105
in insect oscillations, 123
in metabolism, 85
Laws of sequence,
in adjustment between animal and environment, 122
in animals, 92, 93
in environment, 79
within the animal, 92
Leech, behavior, 121
Lepidoptera,
and temperature extremes, 99
field tables, 74
larvæ, 73, 78
larvæ, classification, 73
transformations of described, 73
_Leptinotarsa_,
behavior, 119
habits, 119
instincts, 119
_Leptothorax Emersoni_ Wheeler, ethological observations, 120
Life and chemistry, 97
Life centers, geographic, 99
Life histories,
aquatic Nematocerous Diptera, 75
fish, 112
insects, 73
insects and allied invertebrates, 70
insects, in Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74
mammals, 118
Odonata, 76
physiological, 17
salamanders, 119
tiger beetles, 118
Life history,
common clam, 114
humble-bee, 119
quahaug, 108
scientific ideas, 57
Life,
maintenance, 97
nature, 97
origin, 97
Light,
and behavior of organisms, 115
locomotor responses of animals to white, 107
reactions of Amphibians, 116
reactions of dragon-fly nymphs to, 118
reactions of Isopods to, 108
reactions of Planarians to, 105
white, locomotor responses of animals to, 107
Limiting factors, 98
Limpet, environmental studies, 101
Limulus, behavior of early stages, 105
Lists, local, 48
Literature, limitations and value, 82, 83, 84
Living matter, dynamics, 96
Lizards,
behavior, 116
food, 129
Pennsylvania, 129
Lobster,
behavior, 105, 113
natural history of the American, 113
Local lists, 48
Locomotion of starfish, direction, 110
Locomotor responses to white light, 107
Locust, Rocky Mountain, 77
Logs, fauna under, 144
Louisiana, marine food mollusks, 114
Lower organisms,
age, 97
behavior, 96, 105, 107
conjugation, 97
death, 97
Lycosidæ,
ecology, 125
habitats, 125
_Lymnæa Columella_ Say, effects of environment on growth, 100
Lymnæas, ecology, 108
Lymnæidæ, ecology, 108
_Lymnæus Eleodes_ Say, behavior, 120
Maize, _see_ Indian Corn
Maladjustments of plants and ants, 126
Mammal associations, 145
Mammal successions, 145
Mammals,
bibliography of North American, 107
collecting, 58
habits, 118
habits of North American, 107
Isle Royale, ecological succession, 145
life histories, 118
methods of study, 39
Man, influence upon insects, 135
Mangroves, Florida, 89
Manual of style, 68
Manuscript arrangement, 69
Marine animals,
and vegetation, 89
associational study, 136
associations, 135
collecting, 57
distribution, 139
food of, in Kiel Bay, 129
habitat study, 136
Marine food mollusks of Louisiana, 114
Marine habitats of animals, 135
Marine invertebrates, 146
Marine life, quantitative study, 124
Marine vegetation and animal associations, 89
Marsh habitats, mollusks, 137
Maryland farm, birds of a, 125
Massachusetts shell-fisheries, 108
Mating instincts, of walking-stick, 119
Mating period of spiders, habits, 115
Mayfield Cave fauna, 143
Mayfly nymphs, keys, 75, 76
Meadow ants, 149
Media, changes in, 88
Medical zoölogy, bibliography, 129
Metabolism, 92, 93
fish, 100
in the sea, 87
Method,
comparative, limitations, 56
genetic, 56
historical, 56
scientific, 55, 56, 57
Methods,
biometric, 63
of homing pigeons, 113
of investigation, energy, agent and process, 56
of microscopic anatomy, 62
of study, 14, 39
of studying birds, fish, mammals, 39
Microcosm, 4
lake as a, 123, 131
Microscopic anatomy, methods, 62
Migration,
influence on animal parasites, 130
of birds, 109
of birds, as a response, 109, 110
Migratory plant formations, 88
Mimicry, 42
of insects of South Africa, 128
Missouri,
insects, 77
insects, index of reports on, 77
Modifiability of behavior of _Hydroides Dianthus_ V., 106
Modifications,
of behavior, 93
of behavior by experience, 106
Molluscan associations, local, 137
Molluscan succession, associational study, 137
Mollusk fisheries of Massachusetts, 108
Mollusks,
associations, 138
collecting, 58
ecology, 147
effect of environment, 100
habitats, 138, 145, 147
habitats in fresh water, 147
of Louisiana, marine food, 114
of Skokie Marsh area, ecology, 137
Mongoose, 28
Morphology, experimental, 95
Mosquitoes, Dragonflies _vs._, 72
Moth, Yucca, 142
Moths,
drinking habits, 119
reactions, 106
Mourning-cloak butterfly, phototropism, 116
Movements, physiology, 107
Mucus, function of, in shell-fish, 114
Mud snail, behavior, 111
Multiple working hypotheses, 55
Muscidæ, Acalyptrate, 78
Museum exhibit of American birds, ecological, 145, 146
Museums,
determination of specimens at, 52
relation to ecology, 22
use of ecological ideas, 145, 146
Mussels,
artificial propagation of fresh-water, 114, 115
diseases, 119
eaten by _Fulgur_, 110
eaten by _Sycotypus_, 110
enemies, 119
pearly fresh-water, enemies and diseases, 119
pearly fresh-water, habits, 119
pearly fresh-water, protection, 119
reproduction of fresh-water, 114, 115
Mutation theory and ethology, 22
Mutual aid, a factor of evolution, 133
_Mya_ arenaria,
growth, 114
life history, 114
Myriapods,
collecting, 58
systematic literature, 71
_Nassa obsoleta_, 110
Natural conditions of existence, 96
Natural environments, 26
Natural history, 18
American lobster, 113
_Amia calva_ L., 117
Amphithoe, 113
honey-bee, 109
larvæ of Donaciinæ, 109
starfish, 115
surveys, 23, 30
Natural preserves, 34, 38
Naturalist’s Directory, 53
Nature,
and nurture, 17
control, 33
Nature’s foresters, 124
Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue, 71
Nearctic spiders, 72
_Necturus_, behavior, 121
Nematocerous Diptera,
aquatic, 75
aquatic, stages, 75
_Nepa apiculata_ Uhler, death-feigning, 118
Nervous system,
integrative action, 98
origin of, in sponges, 116
regulatory action, 98
Nestling birds, food, 128
Nests,
ants, 127
collecting birds’, 58
New Mexico,
ecological distribution of animal life in, 148
insects, 148
reptiles, 148
New York,
insect galls, 143
State entomologist’s reports, 74
Nomenclature,
ecological, for plants, 60
phytogeographical, 22
Non-ecological surveys, 31
Normal,
as ideal, 27
conditions, 27
departure from, 98
processes of nature, 26
North Carolina, oyster industry, 112
Notebook, aluminum, 44
Note slips, 37, 44
Note taking, 42, 45, 61
Noxious animals, introducing, 124
Numbering specimens, 50, 51
Numerals, 69
Nurmijärvi Lake, fauna and vegetation, 139
Nurture and nature, 17
Nutrition of Arthropods, affected by cave life, 101
Nymphs,
dragon-fly, 76
Mayfly, 76
Zygoptera, keys, 76
Oak gall flies, and oak galls, 143
Oceanography, 21
Odonata,
life histories, 76
transformations described, 72
Œcology, _see_ Ecology
Oligochæta, 58
Ontario, Entomological Society of, index to thirty annual reports, 72
Optima, 98
development, 94
of Chætognatha, 115
physiological, 27
vital, 27, 94
Optimum, 30, 94
associational, 94
departure from, 98
vital conditions, 99
vital, in caves, 144
Orange, insects affecting the, 75
_Orchestia palustris_, habits and life history, 119
Orderly sequence,
laws, 92, 93
of behavior, 113
of disturbances by man, 27
of environment, 79
Oregon beach, beetles of an, 149
Orientation among animals, 118
Origin of land animals, 148
Original conditions, 26, 27
of environment, 25, 26
Oriole, Baltimore, 117
Organ of taste, fish, 113
Organic parasitism, 126
Organism,
ant colony as an, 131
as agent, 4
Organisms,
behavior of lower, 96, 107
geometrical representations of the conflict between, 125
interactions, 49, 123
lower, behavior, 96, 107
physiology, 96
responses to light, 115
Organization of gull community, 106, 134
Organs, physiology, 96
Ornithological balance-wheel, 123
Orthoptera,
biology, 101
classification of, by egg-laying sites, 137
habitats, 137
index to North American, 77
Overfishing of oyster beds, 131
Oxygen,
effects of lack of, on sea-urchin, 99
physiological effects of lack, 99
reaction of fish to, 118
resistance to lack of, increased, 99
Oyster, 18, 114, 131
Oyster bank, 18
as social community, 132
Oyster bed, 6
overfishing, 131
succession of animals on, 131
Oyster culture, 6, 18, 131
Oyster,
development, 112
food, 112
Oyster grounds of South Carolina, natural, 111
Oyster habitat, 111
Oyster industry of North Carolina, 112
Oyster reef affected by storms, 112
Oysters,
eaten by _Fulgur_, 110
eaten by _Sycotypus_, 110
Painted turtle, discriminative ability, 109
Papers, composition of scientific, 66
Papers, preparation for publication, 65, 68
Papilionidæ, seasonal succession, 140
Paragraphing, 69
Parasites, 132
a function of habitat, 129
American Rhynchophora, 76
burrowing bee, 134
influence of hibernation on animal, 130
influence of migration on animal, 129
Sebago salmon, 129
Parasitic castration in insects, 130
Parasitic environment, 126
Parasitic fauna, relation to habitat, 129
Parasitic interrelations of bee community, 139
Parasitism, 129
insect, 129, 130
organic, 126
social, 126
Park trees, insects affecting, 74
Parks for ecological study, 38
Parrots, 109
Passenger pigeon, 117
Pathological condition, 26
Pathological conditions, artificial and, 27
_Pecten irradians_,
economic value, 108
growth, 108
habits, 108
life history, 108
Pennsylvania,
crawfish, 116
lizards, 129
serpents, 129
turtles, 129
Phase rule, 85
Photography, 57, 59, 61, 65
aquatic animals, 63, 64
birds, 39
fish, 39
mammals, 39
nets of Hydropsyche (aquatic), 64
Phototaxis and random movements, 105
Phototropism of Mourning-cloak butterfly, 116
Phylogeny, 21, 96
of human behavior, 133
Physa, biology, 110
Physical change, influence upon animals, 85
Physiographic ecology of Chicago, 88
Physiological chemistry, 95
Physiological classification, and ecological succession, 21
in ecology, 101, 133, 134
Physiological conditions, 92, 93
Physiological life histories of plants, 17
Physiological problems and dynamic theory, 97
Physiological responses,
distribution due to, 101, 112, 136
of fish, 112
Physiological states and rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106
Physiology,
comparative, 95
general, 95
of organisms, 96
of organs, 96
of reproduction, 100
Phytogeographical nomenclature, 22, 60
Pigeon,
common, 117
homing, 113
passenger, 117
Pigeons,
emotion in, 110
methods of homing, 113
voices as means of social control, 106, 134
Planarians,
behavior, 120
distribution locally, 120
reactions of fresh-water, 116
reactions to light, 105
Plane table manual, 64
Plankton, 60, 148
ecological study, 140
investigations of Danish lakes, 140
of Illinois river, 147
of Shawnee Cave, ecological study, 145
organisms, 50
Plant animals, 128
Plant ecology, 59
bibliography, 89
general principles, 88, 89
Plant formations, stable and migratory, 88
Plant galls, 143
animals in relation to, 141
biology and causes of European, 143
Plant societies,
relation to evaporation, 64, 90
relation to humidity, 90
study of Chicago, 88
Plant succession, 90
relation to distribution of tiger beetles, 90
Plants,
and ants, 126, 127
and snails, 125
forming animal habitats, 89
influence upon insects, 135
life histories, physiological, 17
seasonal succession, 140
variation, 96
Play of animals, 112
_Plethodon cinereus erythronotus_,
habits, 117
larval state, 117
Poduridæ,
behavior and habitat, 136
movements, 136
Poisons, physiological effect of certain, 99
Pollination, animals in relation to, 141
Pollination of flowers, animals in relation, 141, 142
Pollination of Yucca, 142
Pond,
fauna, 148
fish, ecological succession, 133
habitat, 148
Isopods, 106
Pond snail, behavior, 120
Pond, solution, 148
Ponds, seasonal succession in old forest, 140
Porcupine mountains, 91
Postglacial dispersal of biota, 91
Potassium cyanide, effects on sea-urchin, 99
Potato beetles, _see Leptinotarsa_
Predaceous beetles, food, 126, 130
Preservation of specimens, 49, 50
Preserves, natural, 34, 38
Principles, value of general, 41
Process, animal behavior as a, 102
Process method,
application, 86
of investigation, 56
Process of adjustment, 30, 31
in organisms, 122
Process of response, 4
Process standpoint, 91, 101
applied to vegetation, 88
Processes,
geologic, 86
of behavior, 93
of development, 93
of growth, 93
of metabolism, 93
of research, 55
regulatory character of physico-chemical and physiological, 85
standpoint, 80, 81, 82
Production, conditions of, in the sea, 87
Proof, correction, 68
Proof-reading, 65, 68
Propagation, artificially, of fresh-water mussels, 114, 115
Protection,
of birds, 124
of useful birds, 127
Protective coloration, 62
Protoplasm, influence of stimuli upon, 95
Protoplasmic respiration, 97
Psychic,
criteria, 106
development of young domestic animals, 115
Psychology,
comparative, 120
comparative, French work in, 107
English sparrow, 117
limits of comparative and genetic, 109
of ants, 120
Publication, preparation of papers for, 65, 68
Punctuation, 68, 69
Quahaug,
growth, 108
life history, 108
Quantitative determination of fauna of lower Elbe, 138
Quantitative study, 61
animal life of sea-bottom, 63, 124, 136
of birds, 59, 60
of life of sea-bottom, 63, 124, 136
Quarnerian Gulf, animals associated in the, 135
Rabbits, 28
Raccoon, animal intelligence, 111
Raccoons,
instincts, 110
intelligence, 110
sense, 110
visual discrimination, 110
Ranatra, death-feigning, 113
Random movements and phototaxis, 105
Rations, 62
Record keeping, 61
Recording notes, 64
Red-headed woodpecker, 117
Reef, ecological succession on an oyster, 112
Regeneration as functional adjustment, 98
Regulation,
in behavior, 105
of insect oscillations by birds, 123
regeneration as functional, 98
Regulative action of nervous system, 98
Regulatory character of physico-chemical and physiological processes,
85
Relative equilibrium, 30, 31
Reproduction,
fresh-water mussels, 114, 115
physiology, 100
Reptiles,
Arizona, 148
associations of desert species, 148
collecting, 58
desert species, 148
food of desert species, 148
New Mexico, 148
Research methods,
in plant ecology, 59, 88
Research,
processes, 55
speculative method in, 55
Respiration,
of an inland lake, 87
protoplasmic, 97
Response,
bird migration as a, 109
to strain, 85
Responses,
Isopods of ponds and streams, 106
study, 15
to chemical stimulations, 97
Rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106
Rheotropism in fish, 115
Rhynchophora,
biologies, 76
food habits, 72
parasites, 76
Ring-dove, blond, 110
River entomology, Illinois, 75
River fauna,
Danube delta, 145
lower Elbe, 138
River habitat, flooded delta, 145
River plankton, Illinois, 147
Rocky Mountain locust, enemies, 77
Rodentia, 107
Rose coral, feeding reactions, 109
Running water, effect on productivity of fish, 101
Salamanders, habits, 119
Salmon, internal parasites of Sebago, 129
_Salpa_ and evolution of life, 123
Salt-marsh Amphipod, habits and life history, 119
Salt-water fauna, 111.
_See also_ Marine animals
San Diego region, Chætognatha of, 115
Sand,
ants, 149
areas of Illinois, biology, 146
prairies of Illinois, associational study, 139
Sandy flats of the sea coast as a biotic association, 136, 137
Sarcophagidæ, relation to lake beach débris, 147
Saw-fly, larvæ, 78
Scallop fishery, 108
Scallops, 114
_Sceloporus spinosus floridanus_, behavior, 116
Schleswig-Holstein oyster bank described, 132
Science, better English in, 67
Scientific exploration, 63
Scientific ideas, life history, 57
Scientific investigation, methods, 56
Scientific method, 55, 56, 57
Scientific papers, composition, 66
Scientific technique, 55
Sea anemone, behavior modifiable, 105
Sea beach, associational study, 136
Sea-bottom,
animal life, 63, 136
fauna and flora, 64
quantitative study of animals, 63
Sea,
conditions of life in, 134
conditions of production in, 87
cycle of matter in, 87
metabolism in, 87
struggle for existence in, 123
valuation of the, 136
Seashore,
animal ecology, 63, 64
animals, 146
Season, influence on digestion of cold-blooded vertebrates, 100
Seasonal succession,
animals, 140
beetles, 140
butterflies, 140
Hemiptera, 141
in old forest ponds, 140
plants, 140
Sea-urchin, 99
resistance to lack of oxygen, 99
resistance to potassium cyanide, 99
Sebago salmon, internal parasites, 129
Second-hand books, dealers in, 65
Sense organ,
Arthropods, effect of caves on, 101
of fish, 113
Senses of insects, 111
Sensory adaptations of cave-inhabiting bats, 112
Sensory reactions of Amphioxus, 116
Sequence of changes in environment, 104
Sessile habit, influence, 100
Serpents,
food, 129
Pennsylvania, 129
Sexual characters of Araneads, secondary, 115
Shawnee Cave plankton, ecological study, 145
Shell-fish,
ciliary action, 114
feeding reflexes, 114
food, 114
function of mucus, 114
Shell-fish industries,
biology, 114
culture, 114
utilization, 114
Shell-fisheries of Massachusetts, 108
Shore, animal ecology of the, 139
Shore animals, associational study, 139
Significance of courtship of Araneads, 115
Skokie Marsh area, ecology of mollusca, 137
Slaves of ants, 120
Slug,
eyes, 110
feeding habits, 125
Snail,
eyes, 110
mud, 111
pond, 120
Snails,
and plants, 125
feeding habits, 125
food, 125
in grave, 144
influence of environment on, 100
Snout-beetles, 76
Snowbird, 117
Social community, 18, 123
animals, 131
insects, 135
interrelations, 131
oyster bank, 132
sea-bottom, 136
Social control, by voices among pigeons, 106, 134
Social life,
from comparative and phylogenetic standpoint, 132
insects, 111
multiple origin, 132
origin, 132
Social parasitism, 126
Social reaction,
beginnings in lower animals, 134
beginnings in man, 134
Social wasps, 117
behavior, 111
Societies, insects, 128
Sociology,
a branch of ecology or ethology, 132
relation to ecology, 10, 11, 12
Soil,
animal life influenced by humus and tillage, 100
animals of the, 86
fauna of Alps, 144
influence upon insects, 135
Soils,
moisture, 62
study, 58
Solitary wasps,
habits, 116, 117
habits in Texas, 113
instincts, 116
Solution pond, fauna, 148
South Africa, insects, 128
South Carolina, natural oyster grounds, 111
Sow bug, eyes, 110
Space, perception by tortoises, 121
Sparrow,
field, 117
fox, 117
song, 117
tree, 117
vesper, 117
white-crowned, 117
white-throated, 117
Spawning habits of fish, 112
Specimens,
collecting natural history, 63
collection, 49, 50
determination, 49, 51
determined, 52
numbering, 50, 51
preservation, 49, 50
Spiders,
cocooning habits, 118
collecting, 58
habitats, 125, 138
habits, 117
instincts, 117
mating habits, 115
mental powers, 117
Nearctic, 72
systematic literature, 71
Sponges,
behavior, 116
reactions, 116
Squirrels,
behavior, 121
habits, 115
Stable plant formations, 88
Starfish,
behavior, 105
locomotion, 110
natural history, 115
Status, dynamic, 29, 31
Stimulations, responses to chemical, 97
Stimuli,
influence upon growth, 95
influence upon protoplasm, 95
similar effects of diverse, 98
Stones, fauna under, 144
Stratigraphy, relation of marine bionomy to, 22
Stream,
animals of a small, 147, 148
environment, references to, 113
fish, ecological succession, 133
fish of a small, 147
habitat, 147, 148
Isopods, 106
Stress, condition, 30, 31
Struggle among organisms, 123
Struggle for existence, 2, 122, 123
in a lake, 123
in Guiana forests, 124
in the sea, 123
references, 126
Studies, quantitative, 61
Style brief, Wistar Institute, 68
Style manual, 68
Subterranean. _See also_ Cave
Subterranean animals, 58, 86, 143, 144, 145
Subterranean Isopods, behavior, 108
Succession,
animals in oyster beds, 131
associations of inland habitats, 91
Succession,
beetles, 145
ecological, 101
ecological, birds, 21, 124, 133
ecological, in the grave, 144
ecological, on oyster reef, 112
in stages of decay, 144, 146
mammal, 145
mollusks, 137
seasonal, 140
Successions, initiated by insects, 127
Suggestions to authors, 68
Summer-bird life near Havana, Illinois, 146
Surgery, emergency, 65
Surveying, 65
Surveys,
ecological, 23, 67
ecological training for, 32
natural history, 23, 30
non-ecological, 31
_Sycotypus_ eating oysters, mussels, and clams, 110
Symbiosis, 127, 128, 130
_Talorchestia longicornis_, habits and life history, 119
Tanganyika problem, 89
Taste, fish’s organ of, 112
Taxonomy, 54
relation to ecology, 8
Teaching, relation to ecology, 13
Technique, 15, 57
of fresh-water biology, 62
scientific, 55
Temperature,
effect of extremes, 99
in open and wooded areas, 91
influence on digestion of cold-blooded vertebrates, 100
lowering of, and loss of water, 99
physiological effects of high temperature, 99
Termites, Arthropods living with, 130
Terns, noddy and sooty, behavior, 120
Terrapin, diamond-back,
cultivation, 110
natural history, 110
Texas,
habits of solitary wasps, 113
wasps, solitary, habits, 113
Theory, use, 40
Thermocline, biological significance, 87
Tiger beetles,
larval habits, 118
life histories, 118
relation of distribution to plant succession, 90
Tipulidæ, 76
Toad, American, 100
Tomahawk Lake, Wis., Mollusca of, 137
Tortoise,
Florida land, 135
habits, 116
perception of space, 121
Tracks and tracking, 58
Trapping, 39, 60
Tree frogs,
behavior, 112
color changes, 112
Trees,
insects affecting, 74
Trematoda and trematode diseases, index to literature, 129
Trial and error, 104
Tubicolous Annelids, behavior, 112
Turbellarian,
behavior, 127
ecology, 127
food, 127
habitat, 127
Turtles,
cultivation, 110
discriminative ability of painted, 109
food, 129
formation of habits, 105
natural history, 110
Pennsylvania, 129
_Turtur risorius_, 110
Types of eyes, image-forming powers of various, 110
Typography, 68
Use of theory, 40
Utah, 55
_Vanessa antiopa_ Linn., phototropism, 116
Variation,
in animals, 96
in plants, 96
statistical, 60
Vegetation,
and animal associations, 90
and control of land animal communities, 133
Caithness, 88
changes in, 88
controlling land animal communities, 90
correlated with lake fauna, 140
development and structure, 88
invading alluvial flats, 89
invading new land surface, 89
Vegetational change, influence upon animals, 85
Vegetational control,
of relative evaporating power of the air, 90
of relative humidity of air, 90
Vegetative cycles, causes, 88
_Venus mercenaria_,
growth, 108, 114
habits, 114
life history, 108
Veterinary zoölogy, bibliography, 129
Vineyard Sound, invertebrate animals of, 136
Visual discrimination in raccoons, 110
Vital conditions, optimum, 99
Vital optimum, 94
Voices of pigeons as means of social control, 106, 134
Volcanic activity and new land surface, 89
Volcanic islands, new flora, 89
“Walking stick,”
behavior, 119
habits, 119
mating instincts, 119
reactions, 119
Walnut Lake,
ecological relations of fish, 147
fish ecology, 147
Warning coloration, 62
testing by experiment, 125
Warning colors, insects of South Africa, 128
Wasps, social, 117
behavior, 110
Wasps, solitary,
habits, 116, 117
habits, of Texas, 113
instincts, 116, 117
Water,
loss of and lowering of temperature, 99
running, effect on productivity of fish, 101
standing, effect on productivity of fish, 101
Weights and measures, 69
Wild life,
photography, 61
study, 61
Windermere, Lake, 90
Wisdom, blindness of, 103
Wistar Institute, style brief, 68
Wood borers, 77
Woodcraft, 61
Woodland,
ants, 149
associations of ants, 149
atmospheric conditions about, 91
birds as protectors, 124
Woodland trees, insects affecting, 74
Woodpecker, red-headed, 117
Woodpeckers, food, 126
Worms, eyes, 110
Yucca,
moth, 142
pollination, 142
Zoölogical Record, 70
Zoölogist, economic, 29
Zoölogy, experimental, 96
_Zostera marina_, ecology in Danish waters, 89
Zygoptera, life histories, 76
INDEX TO NAMES
Adams, Chas. C., 21, 22, 86, 91, 94, 99, 124, 133, 145
Adler, H., 143
Aldrich, J. M., 71
Allbutt, T. C., 66
Allee, W. C., 106, 118, 140
Andrews, E. A., 108
Antipa, G., 145
Appel, O., 141, 142
Bachmetjew, P., 96
Baker, F. C., 108, 137
Baker, H. B., 145
Baldwin, E. L., 112
Balfour, I. B., 89
Bancroft, W. D., 85
Banks, N., 58, 65, 71
Banta, A. M., 108, 143
Baskerville, C., 97
Bates, 23, 42
Beal, F. E. L., 126
Belding, D. L., 108
Belt, 23
Bendire, C., 109
Bethune, C. J. S., 72
Betten, C., 75
Beutenmüller, W., 72, 143
Birge, E. A., 87
Blackman, 94, 98
Blackwall, J., 108
Blatchley, W. S., 144
Boas, F., 56
Bohn, G., 107
Bouvier, E. L., 141
Böving, A. G., 109
Brandt, K., 87
Bretscher, K., 58
Brooks, W. K., 3, 17, 36, 42, 79, 82, 122, 123
Brues, C. T., 134
Brunner, J., 58
Buffon, 20
Burdon-Sanderson, J. K., 1, 18
Burns, F. L., 59
Buttel-Reepen, H. von, 109
Calkins, M. W., 109
Carpenter, F. W., 109
Case, E. C., 21
Cassell, 53
Casteel, D. B., 109
Caudell, A. N., 73
Chamberlin, T. C., 55, 86
Chapman, F. M., 39, 59, 61, 126, 145
Chittenden, F. H., 72
Clarke, W. E., 109
Clements, F. E., 21, 59, 61, 88
Clessin, S., 100
Coker, R. E., 110
Cole, L. J., 110
Cole, L. W., 110
Colton, H. S., 100, 110
Comstock, J. H., 43, 59, 72
Congdon, E. D., 107
Cook, M. T., 143
Cook, O. F., 30, 90
Coquillett, D. W., 73
Coues, E., 107
Cowles, H. C., 88
Craig, W., 106, 110, 134
Cramer, F., 56
Crampton, C. B., 88
Cresson, E. T., 73
Currie, R. P., 73
Curtis, W. C., 114
Cushman, R. A., 125
Dahl, F., 18, 59, 61, 125, 135, 137, 139, 146
Darwin, Charles, 2, 20, 23, 41, 56, 122, 123
Davenport, C. B., 60, 95, 136
Davis, H. B., 111
Davis, W. M., 67, 86
Dawson, J., 110
Dean, B., 111
Dearborn, N., 130
Dendy, A., 144
De Vinne, T. L., 68
Diem, K., 144
Dimmock, G., 73
Dimon, A. C., 111
Dodge, C. R., 73
Dyar, H. G., 73
Edwards, H., 73
Eichelbaum, E., 126
Embody, G. C., 111
Emerton, J. H., 125
Emery, C., 21
Enderlein, G., 59, 139
Enteman, M. M., 111
Ernst, A., 89
Espinas, Alfred, 132
Fabre, J. H., 111
Felt, E. P., 74
Fernald, C. H., 74
Fernald, J. C., 66
Fernow, B. E., 90
Fischer, E., 98, 99
Flahault, C., 22, 60
Florentin, R., 111
Folsom, J. W., 74
Forbes, S. A., 20, 21, 23, 49, 60, 74, 123, 126, 131, 132, 140
Forbes, W. T. M., 74
Forbush, E. H., 74, 124, 127
Forel, A., 111, 127
Fritsch, C., 140
Fuller, G. D., 90
Fürth, O. von, 95
Gamble, F. W., 127
Ganong, W. F., 17
Gates, F. C., 146
Geisler, M. H., 109
Gibson, W. H., 60
Gilbert, G. K., 55
Gill, T., 112
Girod, P., 146
Gleason, H. A., 146
Glover, Townend, 73
Grabau, A. W., 22, 146
Grave, C., 112
Greeley, A. W., 99
Groom, P., 89
Groos, K., 112
Gurley, R. R., 112
Hadley, P. B., 105
Haeckel, E., 2, 19
Hahn, W., 112
Hamann, O., 144
Hammarsten, O., 95
Hancock, J. L., 137
Hankinson, T. L., 147
Hargitt, C. W., 103, 112
Harrington, M. W., 90
Harris, J. A., 113
Hart, C. A., 75, 146
Hartman, C., 113
Hassall, A., 129
Hayden, F. P., 77
Heim, 127
Henderson, L. J., 85
Hensen, V., 60
Henshaw, S., 71, 75
Herdmann, W. A., 21
Herms, W. B., 147
Herrick, C. J., 113
Herrick, C. L., 39, 61, 97, 134
Herrick, F. H., 102, 106, 113, 134
Hodge, C. F., 113
Holmes, S. J., 97, 104, 105, 107, 113
Hood, C. E., 125
Hopkins, A. D., 43, 61, 127
Höppner, H., 139
Houard, C., 143
Hubbard, H. G., 75, 127, 135
Huber, J., 128
Huggins, G. E., 106
Hunter, W. D., 135
Huxley, T. H., 11, 12, 13, 17
Jacob, 19
Jager, G., 134
Jennings, H. S., 92, 96, 97, 102, 105, 107, 114
Jensen, P. B., 63, 96, 136
Jevons, S., 56
Job, H. K., 61
Johannsen, O. A., 75
Johnstone, J., 87, 124
Jordan, H., 147
Juday, C., 87
Judd, S. D., 125, 128
Kearton, R., 39, 61
Keeble, F., 127, 128
Keller, C., 100
Kellogg, J. L., 114
Kephart, H., 61
Keyes, C. R., 56
King, L. A. L., 63, 139
Kirby, W., 19, 128
Kirchner, O. von, 143
Knab, F., 73
Knauthe, K., 62, 100
Knuth, P., 141, 142
Kofoid, C. A., 147
Kropotkin, P., 133
Küster, E., 143
Lamborn, R. H., 72
Lane, E. C., 108
Lang, A., 100
Lankester, E. R., 19
LeBon, G., 57
Lee, A. B., 62
Lefevre, G., 114
Lewes, G. H., 66
Lillie, F. R., 97
Livingston, B. E., 62
Lintner, J. A., 74, 147
Locard, A., 100, 138
Loeb, J., 96
Loew, E., 141, 142
Long, F. M., 110
Lorenz, J. R., 135
Lyon, E. P., 99, 115
McAtee, W. L., 58, 62, 125, 128
McCreary, O., 148
Macdonald, W., 126
MacDougal, R., 57
MacGillivray, A. D., 75
Mandel, J. A., 95
Marshall, F. H., 100
Marshall, G. A. K., 128
Martin, J., 77
Massart, J., 126
Mast, S. O., 107, 115
Mathews, A. P., 97
Mayer, A. G., 106
Mead, A. D., 115
Melander, A. L., 134
Meldola, R., 55
Meyer, H. A., 138
Miall, B., 111
Michael, E., 115
Middleton, N., 77
Mill, J. S., 56, 79
Miller, N., 100
Mills, W., 115
Minot, C. S., 71
Mitchell, J. D., 135
Möbius, K., 6, 18, 29, 131, 138
Moffat, 146
Möller, L., 135
Montgomery, T. H., 115
Moore, J. E. S., 89
Morgan, T. H., 96, 97
Morse, A. P., 148
Motter, M. G., 144
Müller, H., 141, 142
Needham, J. G., 75, 76, 142
Neumayer, G. von, 63
Newman, H. H., 116
Orcutt, W. D., 69
Ortmann, A. E., 116, 139
Ostenfeld, C. H., 89
Packard, A. S., 74, 76, 144
Packard, W. H., 99
Palmer, T. S., 124
Parker, G. H., 116
Parmelee, M., 133
Patterson, J. T., 116
Pearl, R., 63, 105, 116
Pearse, A. S., 107, 116
Pearson, K., 56
Peckham, E. G., 116
Peckham, G. W., 116
Peters, A. W., 88
Petersen, C. G. Joh., 61, 63, 64, 136
Petrucci, R., 132
Pierce, W. D., 76, 125, 139
Piersol, W. H., 117
Playfair, J., 80
Porter, J. P., 117
Poulton, E. B., 117
Pratt, F. C., 135
Przibram, H., 96
Pütter, A., 95
Rauschenplat, E., 129
Reighard, J., 39, 63, 117
Reynaud, G., 118
Richards, H. M., 97
Richardson, R. E., 140
Rickard, T. A., 67
Riddle, O., 100
Riley, C. F. Curtis, 118
Riley, C. V., 76, 77, 129, 142
Robertson, C., 142
Rodway, J., 124
Rosenthal, J., 95
Ross, H., 143
Russell, E. S., 63, 101, 139
Ruthven, A. G., 91, 148
Ryder, J. A., 124
St. Hilaire, I. Geoffray, 19
Salisbury, R. D., 86
Sanderson, E. D., 44, 64
Schäfer, E. A., 97
Scheffer, T. H., 118
Schiemenz, P., 101
Schröter, C., 22, 60
Schwarz, E. A., 77, 135
Scott, F. N., 66
Scott, W., 145, 148
Scudder, S. H., 77
Seitz, A., 118
Semper, K., 96
Seton, Ernest Thompson, 118
Severin, H. C., 118
Severin, H. H. P., 118
Seward, A. C., 89
Shelford, V. E., 21, 90, 94, 101, 112, 118, 133, 138
Sherrington, C. S., 98
Simpson, C. B., 64
Simpson, C. T., 119
Simroth, H., 148
Sladen, F. W. L., 119
Smallwood, M. E., 119
Smith, B. G., 119
Soule, C. G., 106
Spence, W., 19, 128
Spencer, Herbert, 92
Sprengel, 19
Stahl, E., 125
Stenroos, K. E., 139
Steuer, A., 148
Stiles, C. W., 129
Stockard, C. R., 119
Straton, C. R., 143
Strong, 20
Sumner, F. B., 64
Surface, H. A., 129
Thomas, C., 76, 77
Thompson, D. W., 142
Tower, W. L., 119
Townsend, C. H. T., 78
Transeau, E. N., 64, 90
Trelease, W., 142
Turner, 107
Tutt, J. W., 119
Uexkuell, J. von, 107
Vandervelde, E., 126
Van Hise, C. R., 40, 43, 55, 56, 86
Varigny, H. de, 96
Vaughan, T. W., 89
Vaux, C. B., 68
Vergil, 19
Vernon, H. M., 96
Verrill, A. E., 136
Verworn, M., 95
Vestal, A. G., 139
Vire, A., 101
Voigt, W., 119
Von Marten, 138
Vosseler, J., 101
Wagner, W., 120
Wainwright, D. B., 64
Wallace, 19, 23, 41
Walter, H. E., 105, 120
Walther, J., 22
Ward, H. B., 78, 129
Warman, P. C., 67
Warming, E., 89, 136
Washburn, M. F., 106, 107
Wasmann, E., 18, 120, 130
Watson, J. B., 107, 120
Watson, J. R., 148
Waxweiler, E., 132
Webster, F. M., 130
Weed, C. M., 130
Weiss, F. E., 90
Wendell, B., 66
Wesenberg-Lund, C., 134, 136, 140
Wheeler, W. M., 18, 19, 22, 107, 111, 120, 126, 130, 131, 149
Whipple, G. C., 78
White, C. A., 22
Whitman, C. O., 103, 121
Wickham, H. F., 121, 149
Wilson, E. B., 98
Wilson, H. M., 65
Winterstein, H., 95
Wood, G. M., 68
Wood, J. G., 140
Wood, T., 140
Woodman, J. E., 146
Woodworth, J. B., 86
Woolley, E. C., 69
Wright, A. H., 64
Yearsley, M., 111
Yerkes, A. W., 106
Yerkes, R. M., 105, 106, 107, 121
Yoakum, C. S., 121
Zacharias, O., 130
Zoethout, W. D., 99
Zon, Raphael, 89
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