ACCURACY
Let us be quite sure we understand what we mean by the term ‘accuracy.’
There is, of course, no such thing as intrinsic or unconditioned
accuracy; the term is a relative and not an absolute one; this word,
and its synonyms ‘correctness,’ ‘rightness,’ and the adjectives
‘accurate,’ ‘correct,’ ‘right,’ ‘good,’ ‘proper,’ etc., all imply
_conformity with a given standard or model_. If the dialect we are
learning is an unclassical one, differing appreciably from the literary
form, then accuracy will consist, among other things, in not using the
literary or traditionally correct forms. Therefore, if we are learning
colloquial French we shall be guilty of inaccuracies every time we use
_cela_ instead of _ça_ and every time we use the _passé défini_ (or
whatever the present name of this tense may be) or the _imparfait du
subjonctif_. Whether the French Academician approves of the colloquial
forms does not concern us from the moment that we have set out to
learn the colloquial forms. _Du bon pain_, _c’est pas ça_, _i’ m’a dit
que’qu’chose_ may or may not be typical of educated speech, but if,
for reasons of our own, we have decided to acquire the type of speech
exemplified, then _de bon pain_, _ce n’est pas cela_, _il m’a dit
quelque chose_ will be inaccurate as not being in conformity with the
standard we have chosen.
_Who do you give it to?_ _What have you got?_ _It’s me_, _Under the
circumstances_, etc., etc., may or may not represent an atrocious
English dialect; but we may decide to teach this dialect to our foreign
students, if only because this is the dialect most often used by the
average educated speaker. Once we have made this decision we shall
consider as inaccuracies such forms as _To whom did you give it?_ _What
have you?_ _It is I_, _In the circumstances_.
When, therefore, we use the terms _inaccuracy_, _mistake_, _fault_,
_wrong form_, _error_, etc., we shall always mean _something not in
conformity with the type of speech chosen as a convenient standard_.
One of the duties of the language-teacher and method-writer is to
react against the tendency of the student towards inaccuracy. We
shall generally find two types of inaccuracy: (_a_) that which
consists in using the wrong dialect (literary instead of colloquial,
or _vice versa_), and (_b_) that which consists in using pidgin.
Pidgin or pidgin-speech may be defined as that variety of a language
which is used exclusively by foreigners.[4] Some kinds of pidgin
(_e.g._ pidgin-English of the China ports, the Chinook jargon of
British Columbia) have become so standardized that they may almost be
considered as normal languages; many people deliberately set out to
learn such pidgin-languages, and we may conceive of the possibility of
these possessing sub-pidgin forms.
[4] Or, in some cases, by natives when speaking to foreigners.
In connexion with the first type of inaccuracy (wrong dialect), we
should here note that the uneducated native tends to make too extensive
a use of the popular dialect, whereas the tendency of the student
to whom the language is foreign is the contrary one: he makes too
extensive a use of the classical or traditionally correct form. The
uneducated native will tend to use the colloquial form when writing;
the foreigner will tend to use the literary when speaking. In both
cases it is part of the functions of the teacher to react against these
tendencies: to the schoolchild he will say, “Don’t use a preposition
to finish a sentence with!”; to the foreign speaker he will give the
contrary advice.
Having defined the terms _accuracy_ and _inaccuracy_, let us now see to
how many branches of language-study these terms (and their synonyms)
may be applied.
(_a_) There may be accuracy or inaccuracy in _sounds_. The student must
be taught, by means of appropriate drills and exercises, to make and to
use the sounds of the language he is studying; if he uses an English
sound in place of a French one, or if he uses a right French sound in
the wrong place, he will be doing inaccurate work. Ear-training and
articulation exercises (as described in Chapter VII) will tend to make
him accurate in this respect.
(_b_) There may be accuracy or inaccuracy in the use of _stress_ and
_intonation_. To use one language with the stress and intonation system
of another results in a form of pidgin. The student must be taught, by
means of appropriate drills and exercises, to observe and to imitate
the system used by the natives.
(_c_) There may be accuracy or inaccuracy in fluency. Most languages
are spoken at the rate of five syllables per second. Nothing is to be
gained by speaking at a slower rate; indeed, it will often be found
that rapid speech is easier of acquisition than slow speech. Correct
fluency includes correct assimilation or absence of assimilation, and
the requisite degree of smoothness or grace of utterance; we may often
note the harsh and halting effect of the speech of foreigners who when
speaking their native tongue are masters of the art of elocution. By
means of appropriate exercises, the student can be made to observe
accuracy in fluency.
(_d_) When the student uses the traditional spelling of the language
he should be encouraged to avoid orthographic inaccuracy. Generally,
however, few mistakes of this sort are made, and these tend to be
eliminated more or less spontaneously. If this is not the case,
appropriate exercises may be devised in order to ensure accuracy in
this respect. Let us note here, with all the emphasis which is due to
such an important point, that the exclusive use of a phonetic script
in the early stages generally leads to a greater accuracy in the
traditional spelling which is learnt subsequently. We make no attempt
here to furnish an explanation of why and how this is so, but leave it
to psychologists to investigate the subject and to ascertain the causes
of what may seem paradoxical and even incredible to those who have not
had sufficient teaching experience.
(_e_) There may be accuracy or inaccuracy in _combining words_; the
laws of sentence-building are not the same for all languages, and the
student must be trained to observe the right laws; he must be taught
to be accurate in concord, in compounding, and in word-order. Some of
the most interesting methods and devices are designed specifically to
react against inaccurate tendencies in this respect. It is as easy
and as natural to say _la table_ (and not _le table_) as it is to say
_latitude_ (and not _letitude_); it is as easy to learn _je ne le lui
ai pas donné_ as any of the inaccurate examples of word-order by which
the average English student tends to replace it.
(_f_) There may be accuracy or inaccuracy in the use of _inflexions_.
It is as important to learn the right inflected forms of a word as to
learn the uninflected word. If our methods are right, it is as easy
to learn the word _enverrai_ as it is to learn the word _envoyer_, and
far easier to learn _enverrai_ than _envoyerai_. The habit of using
the right inflexions is one that must be acquired at as early a stage
as possible and as unconsciously as possible. Many methods and devices
exist which have been designed to combat inaccuracy in this respect.
(_g_) There may be accuracy or inaccuracy in _meanings_. The meaning
of a word may vary considerably according to its context. _Open_ in
the sense of _open the door_ has not the same meaning as _open_ in the
sense of _open the box_. Most English words have two or more meanings;
the foreign words which are assumed to be their equivalents may also
have two or more meanings, but the foreign word does not necessarily
have all the meanings of the English word, and _vice versa_. The branch
of linguistics which deals with meanings, synonyms, translations,
definitions, etc., is called ‘semantics’; special forms of work have
been devised to ensure semantic accuracy on the part of the student.
The principle of accuracy may be expressed as follows: _Do not allow
the student to have opportunities for inaccurate work until he has
arrived at the stage at which accurate work is to be reasonably
expected_.
If we force him to speak French before he has been sufficiently drilled
in French sounds, we are forcing him to pronounce inaccurately. If we
tell him to do French composition before he has acquired the necessary
habits of inflexion, compounding, and sentence-building, we are
inviting him to do inaccurate work. If we compel him to talk to us
in French before he has become proficient in conversion and similar
drills, we are virtually compelling him to speak pidgin-French and,
incidentally, to form the habit of doing so. In opposition to the
principle of accuracy, we are frequently told that “It is only by
making mistakes that we learn not to make them,” and that “Only by
going into the water can we learn to swim.” These are cheap proverbs,
and we may as easily coin others such as: “It is by making mistakes
that we form the habit of making them”; or, “He who has not learnt to
swim will drown when thrown into deep water.”
The method of _trial and error_, to which we have already
alluded, is in direct opposition to the principles of accuracy;
it is the method of sink-or-swim, of die-or-survive, of
flounder-and-grope-until-you-hit-on-the-right-way. To replace this
method by something less cruel is the function of such things as
guides, teachers, and pedagogic devices. For let us remark that the
environment of the young child who acquires language spontaneously, as
explained in Chapter I, is such that error has little or no chance of
surviving; the persons with whom he is in contact are providing him
continually with accurate models of whatever the dialect may happen
to be; he is given no chance of imitating wrong models, and he is not
intelligent enough to create them himself in any appreciable degree.
Furthermore, the young child as a matter of fact does not begin to use
language until he is fairly proficient in the important speech-habits;
he rarely or never uses a form of speech until he has memorized it by
hearing it used by others.
One of the most important advances in the art of language-teaching will
have been made when the principle of accuracy is understood, accepted,
and adopted by all who are engaged in this work either as teachers or
as trainers of teachers.
We have seen, then, that there are seven branches of language-study
in which accuracy (or inaccuracy) may be developed. In connexion with
each of these there exist methods, exercises, and devices designed
to inculcate right habits and to prevent the formation of wrong ones.
There exist also sciences upon which most of these are based. The
methods dealing with sounds, stress, intonation, and fluency are
based on the data furnished by phonetics, and without a knowledge
of this science the teacher is unlikely to secure accuracy in these
branches. The (so far empirical) science of grammar is the basis of
those methods and exercises calculated to ensure accuracy in inflexions
and sentence-building. Orthography (possibly a science, though this
is doubtful) is the basis of spelling work, and the new (and so far
empirical) science of semantics will furnish the necessary data for all
methods, exercises, and devices concerned with meanings.
In addition to these specific sciences, methods, exercises, and
devices, there are general forms of method of the strategical order,
the effect of which is to ensure general accuracy. As these are
practically identical with gradation, we reserve their consideration
for the next chapter.