Historical events connected with Manipur and the Naga
Hills--Different tribes--Their religion--Food and customs.
Shortly after my arrival at Samagudting, I received a cheering letter,
just when I most needed it, from my old friend Wynne, then Acting
Foreign Secretary, saying, "Don't be too disappointed at not receiving
a better appointment than the Naga Hills. You will have plenty of
good work to do, and you will increase your already very extensive
knowledge of wild tribes." It was the last letter I ever received
from him, as cholera quickly carried him off, and I lost in him one
of the kindest friends I ever had, one who had constantly interested
himself in my work, and given me advice. Such a friend would have been
invaluable now. Our position in the Naga Hills was an anxious one, and
can only be properly realised by knowing the course of previous events.
Our first acquaintance with the Nagas practically began in 1832, when
Captain Jenkins and Lieutenant Pemberton escorted by Rajah Ghumbeer
Singh's Manipur troops, forced a passage through the hills with a view
to ascertaining if there were a practicable route into Assam. They
came via Paptongmai and Samagudting to Mohong Deejood. There is every
reason to believe that the Manipuris in former days did penetrate
into the Naga Hills, and exacted tribute when they felt strong enough
to do so. All the villages have Manipur names in addition to their
own. But during the period of her decadence, just before and during
the Burmese War of 1819-25, any influence Manipur may have possessed
fell into abeyance. At that time it was re-asserted, and Ghumbeer Singh
reduced several villages to submission, including the largest of all,
Kohima, at which place he stood upon a stone and had his footprints
sculptured on it, in token of conquest. This was set up in a prominent
position, together with an upright stone bearing carved figures and
an inscription.
The Nagas greatly respected this stone and cleaned it from time to
time. They opened a large trade with Manipur, and whenever a Manipuri
visited a Naga village he was treated as an honoured guest, at a time
when a British subject could not venture into the interior without
risk of being murdered.
Even up to the Naga Hills campaign of 1879-80, the Nagas regarded
Manipur as the greater power of the two, because her conduct was
consistent; if she threatened, she acted. One British subject after
another might be murdered with impunity, but woe betide the village
that murdered a subject of Manipur. A force of Manipuris was instantly
despatched, the village was attacked, destroyed, and ample compensation
exacted. The system answered well for Manipur; many of the Nagas began
to speak Manipuri, and several villages paid an annual tribute. Still,
up to 1851, we considered that we had some shadowy claim to the hills,
though we never openly asserted it.
I may as well give a short account of the different tribes inhabiting
the Naga Hills district when I took charge. The oldest were--
CACHAREES.
Their origin is obscure. They are first met with in the north-east
portion of the Assam Valley between the Muttuk country and Sudya. Round
the last in the vast forests, there are numerous ruins ascribed by the
people to the Cacharee Rajahs, built of substantial brickwork. I have
not seen any sculptured stonework, but it may exist. The traditions
give no clue to their original home, which was probably in Thibet. From
the neighbourhood of Sudya they penetrated down the valley, leaving
buildings and remnants of their tribes here and there, notably in
the Durrung district. The main body were, for a time settled in the
neighbourhood of Dimapur, and the country lying between it and Doboka,
the Cachar district, but when they arrived or how long they stayed we
have no means of ascertaining. They occupied the first two or three
ranges of the Burrails and stoutly contested possession with the
Naga invaders, and after they had been dispossessed made a gallant
attempt to retrieve their affairs by an attack on Sephema. They
entered the hills by the Diphoo gorge and constructed a paved road
up to the neighbourhood of Sephema where they would probably have
succeeded in their operations, but that the Sephema Nagas, skilful
then as now, in the use of poison, poisoned the waters and destroyed
a large portion of the invaders; the rest retreated to Dimapur, and
eventually left the neighbourhood and settled in Cachar, to which they
gave their name. There are still a good many Cacharees on the banks
of the Kopiti, in the neighbourhood of Mohung-dee-jood. They are a
fine hardy race, and in my time the Naga Hills police was largely
recruited from them. Under Captain Butler they did good service,
and would have gone anywhere when led by him. [10] The Cacharees were
governed formerly by a race of despotic chiefs.
KUKIS.
The Kukis are a wandering race consisting of several tribes who
have long been working up from the South. They were first heard
of as Kukis, in Manipur, between 1830 and 1840; though tribes of
the same race had long been subject to the Rajah of Manipur. The
new immigrants began to cause anxiety about the year 1845, and
soon poured into the hill tracts of Manipur in such numbers, as to
drive away many of the older inhabitants. Fortunately, the political
agent (at this time Lieutenant afterwards Colonel McCulloch) [11]
was a man well able to cope with the situation. Cool and resolute,
he at once realised and faced the difficulty. Manipur in those days,
owing to intestine quarrels, could have done nothing, and the Rajah
Nur Singh gladly handed over the management of the new arrivals to him.
Seeing that the Kukis had been driven north by kindred but more
powerful tribes, and that their first object was to secure land for
cultivation; McCulloch, as they arrived, settled them down, allotting
to them lands in different places according to their numbers, and where
their presence would be useful on exposed frontiers. He advanced them
large sums from his own pocket, assigning different duties to each
chief's followers. Some were made into irregular troops, others were
told off to carry loads according to the customs of the state. Thus
in time many thousands of fierce Kukis were settled down as peaceful
subjects of Manipur, and Colonel McCulloch retained supreme control
over them to the last. So great was his influence, that he had only
to send round his silver mounted dao (Burmese sword) as a kind of
fiery cross, when all able-bodied men at once assembled at his summons.
Colonel McCulloch's policy of planting Kuki settlements on exposed
frontiers, induced the Government of Bengal to try a similar
experiment, and a large colony of Kukis were settled in 1855 in
the neighbourhood of Langting, to act as a barrier for North Cachar
against the raids of the Angami Nagas. The experiment answered well
to a certain extent, and would have answered better, had we been
a little less timid. The Kukis are strictly monarchical, and their
chiefs are absolutely despotic, and may murder or sell their subjects
into slavery without a murmur of dissent. Their original home cannot
be correctly ascertained, but there seem to be traces of them as
far south as the Malay peninsula. They are readily distinguishable
from the Nagas, and are braver men. Their women are often very fair,
and wear their hair in a long thick plait down the back. The men are
mostly copper coloured, and have often good features.
KUTCHA NAGAS.
The tribe we call Kutcha Nagas, very much resemble the Angamis,
though of inferior physique. They are closely allied to the Nagas
in Manipur, as well as to the Angamis, and probably were pushed in
front of the latter from the Northern North-East, as the Kukis were
forced in by the pressure of stronger tribes to their South. They
have always been less warlike than their powerful neighbours, though
they could be troublesome at times.
ANGAMI NAGAS.
A strong built, hardy, active race, the men averaging 5 feet 8 inches
to 6 feet in height, and the women tall in proportion. In colour they
vary from a rich brown to a yellowish or light brown. They have a
manly independent bearing, and are bred up to war from their earliest
years. While the Kukis are monarchists, the Nagas are republicans,
and their Peumahs, or chiefs, are elected, and though they often
have great influence, they are in theory, only primus inter pares,
and are liable at any time to be displaced. Practically they often
remain in office for years, and are greatly respected.
Where the Angamis came from must be uncertain till the languages
of our Eastern frontier are scientifically analysed. The late
Mr. Damant, a man of great talent and powers of research, had
a valuable paper regarding them in hand, but it perished in the
insurrection of 1879. The probability is, that they came originally
from the south-eastern corner of Thibet.
Some of the Maories of New Zealand reminded me of the Angamis. The
well-defined nose is a prominent characteristic of the last,
as it is of some of the inhabitants of Polynesia. The people of
Samagudting--that is, the adults in 1874--told me that they had come
from the north-east, and were the seventh generation that had been
there. When they first occupied their village, the site was, they
said, covered with the bones and tusks of elephants which had come
there to die.
Had I lived longer among the Nagas, I should have liked to have made
deeper researches into their language and past history; as it was,
all my time was taken up with my active duties, and I had not a moment
to spare.
Their dress is a short kilt of black cotton cloth, ornamented, in
the case of warriors, with rows of cowrie shells. They have handsome
cloths of dark blue and yellow thrown over their shoulders in cold
weather. Their arms are spears and heavy short swords, called by the
Assamese name of dao; helmets and shields of wicker work (used chiefly
to cover the more vulnerable parts of the body) and sometimes clothed
with skins of tigers or bears. They have also tails of wood decorated
with goats' hair dyed red. The warspears are plain; the ornamental
ones are covered with goats' hair dyed red, and are sometimes used in
battle. Their drill is of a most complicated style, and requires much
practice. An Angami in full war paint is a very formidable-looking
individual. They are divided into many clans. Several clans often
inhabit one village, and it frequently happened that two clans thus
situated were at deadly feud with each other.
Blood feuds were common among all the hill-tribes, but the system
was carried to excess among the Angamis. Life for life was the rule,
and until each of the opposing parties had lost an equal number,
peace was impossible, and whenever members of one village met any
belonging to the other, hostilities were sure to result. Sometimes
an attempt was made to bring about a reconciliation, but then it
frequently happened that the number of slain to the credit of each
were unequal. Mozuma and Sephema might be at war, and Mozuma killed
five, whereas Sephema had killed only four. Sephema says, "I must
kill one more to make the balance, then I will treat for peace,"
so war continues. Some day Sephema has a chance, but kills two
instead of the one that was required; this gives her the advantage,
and Mozuma refuses to treat. So it goes on interminably. The position
of a small village at war with a large one, was often deplorable as
no one dared to leave the village except under a strong escort. I
once knew a case of some Sephema men at feud with Mozuma, hiring two
women of the powerful village of Konoma to escort them along the road
as thus accompanied no one dare touch them.
Once at Piphima, when my assistant Mr. Needham was encamped there,
parties from two hostile villages suddenly met each other and rushed
to arms. He was equal to the occasion and stopped the combat. I made
it a criminal offence to fight on our road called the "Political Path,"
and it was generally respected as neutral ground.
No Angami could assume the "toga virilis," in this case the kilt
ornamented with cowrie shells, already described, until he had slain
an enemy, and in the more powerful villages no girl could marry a man
unless he was so decorated. The cowrie ornaments were taken off when
a man was mourning the death of a relation.
To kill a baby in arms, or a woman, was accounted a greater feat
than killing a man, as it implied having penetrated to the innermost
recesses of an enemy's country, whereas a man might be killed anywhere
by a successful ambush. I knew a man who had killed sixty women and
children, when on one occasion he happened to come upon them after
all the men had left the village on a hunting expedition.
Every Naga who was able to murder an enemy did so, and received great
commendation for it by all his friends. Later, when I was in Manipur,
I had a pleasant young fellow as interpreter. He often took my boys
out for a walk when he had nothing else to do, and was a careful,
trustworthy man. Once I asked him how many people he had killed (he
wore the cowrie kilt, a sure sign he had killed some one). A modest
blush suffused his face as if he did not like to boast of such a good
deed, and he mildly said, "Two, a woman and a girl!"
The Angamis when on friendly terms are an agreeable people to deal
with, polite, courteous, and hospitable. I never knew any one take
more pains or more successfully not to hurt the susceptibilities of
those they are talking to, indeed they show a tact and good feeling
worthy of imitation. My wife and I soon knew all the villagers well,
and often visited them, when we were always offered beer, and asked to
come into their verandahs and sit down, and just as we were leaving,
our host would search the hen's nests to give us a few eggs. The beer
we never took, but many Europeans like it and find it wholesome. It
is made of rice and has rather a sharp taste. Their houses are large
substantial structures built of wood and bamboo thatched with grass,
and the eaves come low down. Houses with any pretensions always
have verandahs. Besides the houses, there are granaries, often at
a distance for fear of fire. The Angamis bury their dead in and
about their villages, and for a time, decorate them with some of the
belongings of the deceased. Naturally they strongly object to the
graves being disturbed, and in making alterations I was careful not
to hurt their feelings.
The more powerful villages in the interior of the hills have a large
area of cultivation on terraces cut out of the hillside, and carefully
irrigated. Some of the terraces go up the hillsides to a great height,
and show considerable skill in their formation. On these terraces
lowland rice is grown and is very productive. Some of the smaller
outlying villages like Samagudting have only ordinary hill cultivation,
where upland rice is grown. The terrace land used to be greatly valued,
and was often sold at prices equal to L22 to L25 per acre!
The Angamis, in common with most hill-tribes that I have come across,
have a vague indefinite belief in a supreme being, but look on him as
too great and good to injure them. They believe themselves also to be
subject to the influence of evil spirits, whom it is their constant
endeavour to appease by sacrifices. Every misfortune is, as a rule,
ascribed to evil spirits, and much money is spent on appeasing them,
the usual way being to offer fowls, of which the head, feet, and
entrails are offered to the demon, with many incantations. The other
parts are eaten by the sacrificer.
All kinds of animals are readily eaten by the Angamis, and those dying
a natural death are not rejected. Dogs' flesh is highly esteemed. When
a man wants to have a delicate dish, he starves his dog for a day to
make him unusually voracious, and then cooks a huge dish of rice on
which he feeds the hungry beast. As soon as the dog has eaten his
fill, he is knocked on the head and roasted, cut up and divided,
and the rice being taken out, is considered the bonne bouche. The
Manipur dogs are regularly bred for sale to the hill-tribes, Nagas
included, and a portion of the bazaar, or market, used to be allotted
to them. I have seen a string of nineteen dogs being led away to be
strangled. Poor things, they seemed to realise that all was not well.
The Naga women are not handsome but very pleasant-looking, and
many of the girls are pretty, but soon age with the hard toil they
have to perform; working in the fields and carrying heavy loads up
endless hills. They have plenty of spirit and can generally hold
their own. They do not marry till they are nearly or quite grown
up. Divorce can be easily obtained when there is an equal division of
goods. Often a young man takes advantage of this, and marries a rich
old widow, and soon divorces her, receiving half her property, when he
is in a position to marry a nice young girl. The tribal name of the
Angami Nagas is "Tengima." Naga is a name given by the inhabitants
of the plains, and in the Assamese language means "naked." As some
of the Naga tribes are seen habitually in that state, the name was
arbitrarily applied to them all. It is the greatest mistake to connect
them with the snake worshippers, "Nag Bungsees" of India. Neither Nagas
or Manipuris, or any tribes on the eastern frontier, are addicted to
this worship, or have any traditions connected with it, and any snake,
cobra (Nag) or otherwise, would receive small mercy at their hands. The
slightest personal acquaintance with the Assamese and their language,
would have dispelled this myth for ever.
The Nagas are skilful iron-workers and turn out very handsome
spears. Their women weave substantial and pretty coloured cloths,
and every man knows enough of rough carpentering to enable him to
build his house, and make pestles and mortars for husking rice. They
make rough pottery, but without the potter's wheel.
After Ghumbeer Singh's Expedition, our next dealings with the Angamis
were in 1833, when Lieut. Gordon, adjutant of the Manipur Levy,
accompanied the Rajah of Manipur with a large force of Manipuris into
the Angami hills. On this occasion, Kohima and other villages were
subdued, as already stated, and an annual tribute exacted by Manipur.
So far as the British territories were concerned, Naga raids went
on as usual, but nothing was done till early in January 1839, when
Mr. Grange, sub-Assistant Commissioner of the Nowgong District,
was despatched with a detachment of the First Assam Sebundies (now
43rd Goorkha Light Infantry), fifty men of the Cachar Infantry,
and some Shan Militia, with orders to try and repress these annual
outrages. His expedition was ill supplied, but fortunately returned
without any severe losses. His route lay through North Cachar to
Berrimeh; thence, via Razepima to Samagudting and Mohung Deejood;
beyond gaining local knowledge there was no result, except perhaps
to show that a well-armed party could march where it liked through
the hills.
In December 1839, Mr. Grange again visited the hills, and, excepting
1843, an expedition was sent into the hills every year till 1846
when a post was permanently established at Samagudting. None of these
expeditions had any really satisfactory result. The Angamis submitted
to our troops at the time, and directly we retreated, murder and the
carrying off of slaves re-commenced. The establishment of the post
at Samagudting had the effect of improving our relations with the
people of that village; and Mozuma was always inclined to be friendly;
beyond this nothing was accomplished.
In August 1849, Bog Chand Darogal, a brave Assamese who was in charge
of Samagudting, was murdered by one of the clans of Mozuma, owing
to the rash way in which he interfered in a dispute with another
clan, which latter remained faithful to us, and thus led to another
expedition on a large scale. Finally, in December 1850, a large force
was sent up with artillery. Kohima, which had sent a challenge, was
destroyed on February 11th, 1851. In this last engagement over three
hundred Nagas were killed, and our prestige thoroughly established. We
might then, with great advantage to the people and our own districts,
have occupied a permanent post, and while protecting our districts
that had suffered so sorely from Naga raids, have spread civilisation
far and wide among the hill-tribes. Of course we did nothing of the
kind; on such occasions the Government of India always does the wrong
thing; it was done now, and, instead of occupying a new position,
we retreated, even abandoning our old post at Samagudting, and only
maintaining a small body of Shan Militia at Dimapur. The Nagas ascribed
our retreat to fear, the periodical raids on our unfortunate villages
were renewed, and unheeded by us; and finally, in 1856, we withdrew
the detachment from Dimapur and abandoned the post.
After that, the Nagas ran riot, and one outrage after another was
committed. In 1862 the guard and village of Borpathar were attacked
and, one Sepoy and thirteen villagers killed and two children carried
off as slaves, but no notice was taken; it was not till 1866 that,
wearied out by repeated outrages and insults, we determined to
establish ourselves in the hills, and once for all put down raiding.
A kind of vague boundary between Manipur and the Naga Hills had been
laid down in 1842, by Lieutenant Biggs on our part, and Captain Gordon
on the part of the Durbar, but in 1851, when utterly sick of Naga
affairs, we determined on a policy of non-intervention, permission in
writing was given to the Durbar to extend its authority over the Naga
villages on our side of the border. This must be remembered later
on. Failing any intention on our part to annex the hills, it would
have been good policy to have re-organised the Manipur territory,
and to have aided the Maharajah to annex and subdue as much as he
could under certain restrictions. Had this been done we should have
saved ourselves much trouble. Personally, I would rather see the
Naga Hills properly administered by ourselves, but the strong rule
of Manipur would have been far better than the state of things that
prevailed for many years after 1851.