After the death of Kaï Khosrew, the empire was divided between his three

sons, who, however, seemed to rule in common as vassals of the Mongols,

for their names were asserted to appear together on coins in 1249.[699]

During the decade after the conquest, the Mongols overran western Asia

Minor. We read that Sultan Rokneddin went with the Mongol general,

Baïchu, into winter quarters _in Bithynia_,[700] and that Baïchu

received orders from Khulagu Khan in 1257 to pillage the entire Seljuk

dominions. In 1264, Abulfeda gives Rum, with its capital as Konia, among

the provinces ruled by Khulagu.[701] Bibars, Sultan of Egypt, succeeded

in occupying Konia for a brief time in 1276.[702] In 1278, Abaka Khan

opened negotiations with Haython, king of Little Armenia, with the view

of making him Sultan of Rum. In 1282, Bibars, writing to Ahmed Khan,

says: ‘At this moment Konghurataï’ (a Mongol general) ‘is in the land of

Rum, _which is subject to you and pays you taxes_.’[703] In 1283,

Ghizatheddin, who was ruling with the merest semblance of royalty in

Konia, was deposed by Ahmed Khan, exiled to Erzindjian, and replaced by

Masud. There was anarchy everywhere in Asia Minor at this time.[704] The

distinguished French Orientalist, M. Huart, who studied in Konia itself

the inscriptions of the Seljuk Sultans, could find nothing after this

period to indicate that the two final sultans who followed Ghizatheddin

were more than playthings of the Mongols.[705]

The testimony of Marco Polo is most precious to us here. When he passed

through this country in 1271 he says that Konia, Sivas, Caesarea and

many other cities of ‘Turquemanie’ were subject to the Tartars, who

imposed their rule there.[706] It was his impression that the Turcomans

were subject to local rulers, and responded to no central authority.

The last days of the Seljuks are most obscure. Masud ruled until 1296,

when he was deposed by Ahmed Khan. For two years there was no ruler.

Whether Firamurs ever ruled is a matter of doubt.[707] The last Sultan

is generally given as Kaï Kobad, who remained Sultan for four or ten

years.[708] However, there was no Sultan actually ruling as sovereign in

Konia either in 1290 or in 1300. Neither Masud nor Kaï Kobad could have

given Osman feudal rights or a charter of independence. There was no

dissolution of the Seljuk Empire in 1300. In all except mere name, it

had become extinct before Osman was born.

The Mongol conquerors never extended their political system to western

Asia Minor. But, from 1246 to 1278, the Anatolians, Moslem and Christian

alike, were in constant terror of the Mongol hordes. After 1276, the

Mongols were too occupied with the Mamelukes of Egypt, and with the

dissensions arising in the eastern part of their great empire, to pay

much attention to the remote Turkish tribes of Rum. During the last

quarter of the thirteenth century, there was no change in the _status

quo_ of the Seljuks at Konia that affected in any way the fortunes of

these tribes. We can explain their rise into independent principalities,

not by the disappearance of the Seljuk Sultans, but by the diversion of

Mongol energy to other quarters.

Among early western writers there was great divergency of opinion about

the number of the ‘Seljuk heirs’. I have found them represented as

one,[709] three,[710] four,[711] five,[712] and seven.[713] Pachymeres,

if we can trust the text of the Bonn edition,[714] is the earliest

writer to mention the traditional number of ten.[715] When the Seljuk

Empire fell before the Mongols, it had no heirs in Asia Minor. During

the latter half of the thirteenth century and the first quarter of the

fourteenth century (1250-1325) an innumerable number of village

chieftains endeavoured to form states. There were many more than ten.

The states which existed at the beginning of the reign of Orkhan I have

put into another appendix.[716]

There is no record of Osman having attacked his Turkish neighbours. The

testimony of the best Ottoman authorities is categorical on this point.

Orkhan extended his father’s dominions very little to the south: not at

all towards the east. Murad’s activities in Asia Minor were the least

successful part of his career, and were by no means permanent.

Sherefeddin Ali, whom we may regard as the best contemporary source for

the end of the fourteenth century, states explicitly: ‘Bayezid reduced

under his dominion a large portion of the country of Rum, that is to

say, the provinces of Aïdin, of Menteshe, of Kermian and of Karamania, a

thing which his ancestors had never been able to bring to an end.’[717]

In view of the facts of the case, it is strange that the idea of Osman

as the powerful heir of the Seljuks, who mastered the other aspirants to

that honour, has had such a long lease of life through centuries. Many

of the early writers made Osman master of all Asia Minor.[718] It is

commonly recorded that he captured Sivas.[719] One writer placed in that

city his capital.[720] Another credited him with the capture of

Konia.[721] Misinformation of this sort was given to Charles VI of

France by returning pilgrims,[722] and, a century and a quarter later,

to Frances I.[723] The early idea of the Osmanlis as an Asiatic people,

of large numbers,[724] who conquered Asia Minor and then overthrew the

Byzantine Empire,[725] has persisted to this day. One of the sanest

Ottoman writers of modern times, who has brought wide knowledge and

judgement to bear upon the history of the Ottoman army, is led astray by

this misconception. He says, ‘It was the Arabic and Persian states that

the Ottoman Empire had to fight _before_ _any other_’. So it is natural

that he should be puzzled by finding in the military museum at

Constantinople early Ottoman weapons on Byzantine and European models.

He explains this by saying that these weapons were not used by the

Osmanlis, but must have been captured, for the Osmanlis, naturally,

would use Persian and Arabic models![726]

But Colonel Djevad is not more in error than the two greatest French

authorities on Ottoman architecture. Saladin, in his summary of Ottoman

history, instructs his readers as follows: ‘Alaeddin III, conquered by

the Mongols, abandoned the sovereignty to Osman.... When the Osmanlis

penetrated into Anatolia ... in proportion to the extension westward of

the Ottoman Empire, we shall see the influence of Byzantine architecture

increase.... Little by little, as the Turks approached Constantinople,

this impregnation of the influence of Byzantium had an increasingly

greater importance in the development of Ottoman art.’[727] This

misconception of the origin of the Osmanlis leads him to state: ‘It is

then indispensable to study the Seljuk monuments of Konia, which have

_necessarily_ served as models to the first Ottoman monuments.’[728]

From his premisses, Saladin has argued rightly. But his historical facts

are wrong. Even if they were not, his conclusion could still be proved

wrong. The refutation of his statement exists in the two earliest

Ottoman buildings, the school and the kitchen for the poor at Nicaea,

the date of whose construction Seadeddin places in 1331.[729] Both of

these are typically Byzantine. In Brusa there is no Ottoman building of

the Seljuk type which can be proved to have been constructed prior to

Mohammed I (1413-21).[730] Parvillée, to whom the whole world owes a

debt of gratitude for his able reconstruction of the precious historic

monuments of Brusa, starts his scholarly work on Ottoman architecture in

the fifteenth century with these words: ‘Towards the end of the

thirteenth century the Seljuk Empire disappeared. On its ruins arose

that of Osman.’ He not only follows Hammer: he uses his very words![731]

From the historical point of view, I maintain that the Byzantine

influence was an indissoluble factor in the evolution of Ottoman

architecture from the very beginning. In this I am supported, from the

expert architect’s point of view, by the two German authorities on this

subject.[732] The Seljuk, Arab, and Persian influences entered in at a

considerably later period.

There exists in tradition and in law an intimate connexion between the

House of Osman and the Grand Tchelebi of Konia. This has been pointed to

as a confirmation of the hypothesis that the Ottoman sovereigns derived

their authority originally from the Seljuks of Rum. I do not deny the

force of tradition. In the absence of early records, the beginning of

this connexion must remain a moot question. But the evidence from

outside sources makes reasonable my doubt as to the existence of this

connexion before the reign of Mohammed I or Murad I.

There are two other arguments which might be adduced in this appendix,

the questions of Osman’s title as an independent ruler, and of the

chieftainship as an elective office among the Turkish tribes. But both

of these have already been discussed in the text and the foot-notes of

the chapter on Orkhan.

APPENDIX B

THE EMIRATES OF ASIA MINOR DURING THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

In order to support the contention of this book, that the Ottoman Empire

was founded (in the durable sense of that word) upon the ruins of the

Byzantine Empire _as it existed at the time of Osman_ (1300), and gained

its power and prestige in the Balkan peninsula rather than in Asia

Minor, there must be set forth, as far as it is possible to do so within

the limits of an appendix, an _exposé_ of the extent and power of the

other emirates of Asia Minor during the fourteenth century. Such a

review is useful, not only to prove the argument, but also to enable the

reader to follow intelligently the development of Ottoman power; for

there are difficulties attendant upon the writing and the reading of a

history where the geographical names are unfamiliar. The writer is faced

with the dilemma of making his work meaningless or uninteresting:

meaningless if he fails to enlighten his readers as to the places and

peoples whom he mentions; uninteresting if he interrupts his narrative

with technical, encyclopaedic explanations.

A special map accompanies this appendix. The list of emirates contains

after each name a number in brackets, which refers to the map. As in

almost all cases the geographical limits are vague, the general position

only of each emirate can be given. To put in definite boundary lines

would be mere conjecture. Then, too, at different times during the

fourteenth century, independent emirates overlapped each other.

Sometimes they were confined to single cities or villages.

In preparing this appendix, I am indebted to several modern scholars

whose work is most suggestive.[733] But I believe that this

[Illustration: THE EMIRATES OF ASIA MINOR IN THE 14^{TH} CENTURY]

is the first attempt to compare the Asiatic possessions of Osman,

Orkhan, Murad, and Bayezid with those of their Turkish rivals for the

purpose of illustrating the slow growth of the Ottoman Empire in Asia

Minor, and the first time that contemporary sources have been drawn upon

for this purpose.

From the eleventh to the thirteenth century, we are able to reconstruct

the political status of Asia Minor, in a general way, from the

narratives of pilgrims and the experiences of the Crusaders. From the

beginning of the fifteenth century on to the present day, we have a

wealth of sources for the history of Asia Minor in the writings of

European travellers, which are valuable not only for their geographical

indications and their observations on the life of the people, but also

for their testimony in corroborating or disproving the statements of

Oriental historians, who are so often lacking in precision and

verisimilitude. For the fourteenth century, however, reliable European

sources are lacking.

This lacuna is filled by the travel records of two Moslems of more than

ordinary intelligence and powers of observation.

The long-lost manuscript of the travels of Ibn Batutah was one of those

important finds that made the French occupation of Algeria so memorable

an event in the annals of the advancement of learning. Its translation

into French in 1843 made accessible for the first time a contemporary

source of the highest value for the political and social life of the

whole Moslem world during the first half of the fourteenth century. For

Ibn Batutah travelled from his home in Morocco to the confines of China.

He lived a while in each country that he visited, and wrote from the

sympathetic and understanding point of view of a member of the Moslem

clergy. Ibn Batutah visited Asia Minor between 1330 and 1340.[734]

Shehabeddin was an Arabic writer from Damascus,[735] who died in 1349.

He wrote a voluminous work of twenty volumes, called _Footpaths of the

Eyes in the Kingdoms of Different Countries_.[736] He was a contemporary

of Ibn Batutah. Shehabeddin did not enjoy the advantage of visiting

personally the many emirates of western Asia Minor, as did Ibn Batutah;

but he states that he has based his record of these countries upon the

eye-witness information furnished to him by word of mouth by Sheik

Haïdar of Sir Hissar.[737] The agreement between Ibn Batutah and

Shehabeddin on the state of affairs in Asia Minor during the first half

of the fourteenth century is so general that one can claim for their

statements, which are, in large part, the basis of this appendix, most

substantial grounding.

The other sources are the Byzantine historians, the chronicler of the

Catalans, the Catalan Map of 1375,[738] the annalist of Trebizond, the

points of contact with the Cypriotes, the chevaliers of Rhodes, the

Italian traders, the Osmanlis and the Mongols and Tartars. For a few of

the emirates there are coins extant. Inscriptions on public edifices,

such as mosques, pious foundations, baths and fountains, are

unfortunately lacking, not only for the history of the Turkish emirates

but for the Osmanlis as well.[739]

In the list that follows, twenty-six of the emirates existed during the

reign of Orkhan, between the years 1330 and 1350. They are mentioned

either by Ibn Batutah or by Shehabeddin, in most cases by _both_, as

independent in their day. The others are either earlier or later than

Orkhan’s reign, and comprise a portion of earlier emirates, from which

they had become detached. After the Turkish emirates, given

alphabetically, are placed the non-Turkish independent states in Asia

Minor.

Adalia: _see_ Satalia

Adana (1)

Afion Kara Hissar: _see_ Karasar

Aïdin (2)

Akbara (3)

Akridur (4)

Akseraï (5)

Aksheïr (6)

Alaïa (7)

Altoluogo: _see_ Ayasoluk

Angora (8)

Armenia: _see_ Little Armenia (44)

Arzendjian: _see_ Erzindjian

Attaleia: _see_ Satalia

Ayasoluk (9)

Balikesri (10)

Berkeri (Birgui, Berki): _see_ Aïdin

Borlu (11)

Brusa (12)

Caesarea (13)

Cilicia: _see_ Little Armenia (44) and Adana (1)

Daouas: _see_ Tawas

Denizli (14)

Djanik: _see_ Kaouïa

Egherdir: _see_ Akridur

Ephesus: _see_ Ayasoluk

Erzindjian (15)

Fukeh (16)

Germian: _see_ Kermian

Gul Hissar (17)

Guzel Hissar: _see_ Aïdin

Halik (Halicarnassus): _see_ Fukeh

Hamid (18)

Iakshi(19)

Ionia: _see_ Aïdin

Kaïseriya: _see_ Caesarea

Kandelore: _see_ Alaïa

Kaouïa (20)

Karamania (21)

Karasar (22)

Karasi (23)

Kastemuni (24)

Keredeh (25)

Kermasti (26)

Kermian (27)

Konia: _see_ Karamania

Kul Hissar: _see_ Gul Hissar

Kutayia: _see_ Kermian

Ladik (Laodicea): _see_ Denizli

Larenda: _see_ Karamania

Limnia (28)

Lydia: _see_ Sarukhan

Magnesia: _see_ Sarukhan

Marash (29)

Marmora (30)

Menteshe (31)

Milas: _see_ Fukeh

Miletus: _see_ Palatchia

Mikhalitch (32)

Nazlu (33)

Nicaea (34)

Palatchia (35)

Pamphylia: _see_ Tekke

Pergama: _see_ Karasi

Sarukhan (36)

Satalia (37)

Sinope (38)

Sis: _see_ Adana

Sivas (39)

Sulkadir: _see_ Marash

Tawas (40)

Tekke (41)

Theologos: _see_ Ayasoluk

Tokat (42)

Tralles: _see_ Aïdin

Ulubad (Lopadion) (43)

Little Armenia (44)

Trebizond (45)

Phocaea (46)

Smyrna (47)

Byzantine possessions (48)

Cypriote possessions (49)

Mongol and Tartar possessions (50)

Rhodian possessions (51)

Egyptian possessions (52)

Catalan possessions (53)

The material that can be gathered about these Turkish emirates, the two

independent Christian states, and the spheres of influence of outside

Christian and Moslem states in Asia Minor in the fourteenth century,

would make a book in itself. In this appendix I desire to give only

enough to indicate the relative strength and vitality of each state. It

must be borne in mind that my object is not to write the history of

these emirates, or of Asia Minor as a whole, during the fourteenth

century, but _to demonstrate how little of Asia Minor was really

incorporated in the Ottoman possessions at the time that, and during the

thirty years after, the capital of the new empire was established in

Adrianople_.

ADANA (1)

In the Taurus Mountains, on the northern limits of Lesser Armenia, and

to the south-east of Karamania, the Turcoman tribes through whom Marco

Polo passed seemed to him to enjoy an independent existence. Up to the

time of Murad I, they formed no state, but between 1373 and 1375 the

family of Ramazan took the chieftainship. When the Mamelukes destroyed

the Armenian kingdom (1375), the Ben-Ramazan dynasty established itself

at Adana, on the Sarus, in the fertile Cilician plain.[740] The

Ben-Ramazan emirs managed to keep from being absorbed either by the

Karamanians or the Egyptians. After the complete subjugation of

Karamania by the Osmanlis, they submitted to Selim I about 1510, under

the stipulation, however, that the emir, Piri pasha, should hold office

for life as vali of Adana and Sis. Sis was frequently coupled with Adana

in the title of the Ben-Ramazan.

AÏDIN (2)

Aïdin comprised the greater part of Ionia, with a portion of Lydia, if

we take its boundaries to be those of the present vilayet of the same

name. It comprised, at the time of its greatest extent, Smyrna, Ephesus,

and Tralles. Smyrna was captured by the crusaders in 1344. Ephesus was

at times independent under the name of Ayasoluk. Tralles, called Guzel

Hissar, and sometimes also Birgui or Berki, was the capital of Aïdin in

the time of Orkhan. Later, Ayasoluk, and, last of all, Tira, were the

successive capitals.

The emirate was founded by Aïdin, a contemporary of Osman, who was

succeeded by his son Mohammed about 1330. Ibn Batutah regarded Mohammed

as a very powerful prince, who was especially strong on the sea. His

eldest son, Omar, who succeeded him in 1341, met death in an

unsuccessful attempt to recapture Smyrna in 1348. His relations with

Cantacuzenos are given in the chapter on Orkhan. Isaac, fourth of the

line, reigned from 1348, until he was dispossessed by Bayezid in 1390.

He died in exile at Nicaea. His sons, Isaac II and Omar II, were placed

again on the throne in 1403. The line of Aïdin became extinct soon

after. A usurper, Djuneïd, Ottoman governor of Smyrna, managed to keep

the power until he was assassinated in 1425. It was not until then that

Aïdin definitely passed into the hands of the Osmanlis.

After the death of Aïdin, the founder of the dynasty, the territory of

the emirate seems to have suffered some diminution, aside from the loss

of Smyrna. One of the sons, Soleiman, married a daughter of Orkhan,

while another, Khidr, ruled independently at Ayasoluk, which was lost

for a time to Rhodes twenty years later. Under Omar, the Turks of Aïdin

were very active in the Aegaean Sea, and made large invasions of Thrace

and Macedonia in 1333 and 1334. They co-operated with the Genoese of

Phocaea against the Greeks and the Osmanlis, and were at times allied

with the emirates of Sarukhan and Menteshe, with whom they are

frequently mixed by the Byzantine historians. The western historians

almost invariably gave credit to the Osmanlis for the maritime exploits

of these emirates during the fourteenth century.[741]

AKBARA (3)

At some time before 1340, a certain Demir Khan, son of Karasai, emir of

Pergama, ruled in Akbara, whose location is given by Shehabeddin as

‘south of Brusa and Sinope, and north of Mount Kasis’. This emirate was

probably destroyed by Orkhan in the expedition of 1339-40. It was a

region along the borders of Mysia and Phrygia, which had been able to

resist the encroachments of Kermian owing to the mountainous character

of the country.[742]

AKRIDUR (4)

This city was at the south end of the lake of the same name (to-day

called Egherdir), and was within the limits of the emirate of Hamid.

But, like Nazlu, it had frequently a wholly independent existence, and

both Shehabeddin and Ibn Batutah, as well as other writers, mention its

emirs as if independent of the emir of Hamid, and these rulers are given

from the families of Tekke and Hamid. The Osmanlis first reached the

northern end of Lake Egherdir in 1379, and incorporated Akridur about

1390.[743]

AKSERAÏ (5)

This is the ancient Archelaïs, and is three days north-east of Konia on

the road to Kaïsariya (Caesarea). In the time of Ibn Batutah, it was one

of the most beautiful and most solidly built cities of Asia Minor, and

was ruled by the emir Artin, possibly an Armenian, who was vassal of the

Mongol ruler of Persia. Later, Ak Seraï was incorporated in Karamania,

to which it belonged at the time that the Osmanlis, under Bayezid, first

entered it.[744]

AKSHEÏR (6)

Aksheïr, between Kutayia and Konia, belonged alternately to Kermian and

Karamania--perhaps at times it recognized the suzerainty of the emir of

Hamid. Its position made it a border city, prey to the changing

fortunes of the Osmanlis and Karamanlis for thirty years. In 1377, when

Murad compelled the emir of Hamid to sell a portion of his dominions, he

regarded Aksheïr as having been in Hamid. It was, however, at that time

practically independent, using the rival pretensions of the emirs to the

east, west, and south as a means of preserving a precarious

autonomy.[745]

ALAÏA (7)

This city was sometimes called Kandelore, a corruption of its ancient

name Coracesium. Its fortunate position at the east side of the Gulf of

Adalia enabled it to play an important part in the commercial history of

the eastern Mediterranean for a century and a half. In the time of Ibn

Batutah and Shehabeddin, Yussuf, brother of the emir of Karamania, was

its ruler. During the fourteenth century Alaïa was more or less

dependent upon Karamania, but sometimes upon Tekke. For many years it

paid tribute to Cyprus, and negotiated its affairs independently of both

Karamania and Tekke. In 1444 its prince, Latif, meditated a raid upon

Cyprus, from which he was deterred only by the defeat of the Egyptians

before Rhodes. In 1450 Latif concluded a treaty of peace with the

Cypriotes through the medium of Rhodes. His successor, Arslan bey, got

help from Cyprus against Mohammed II. Alaïa was subdued by the Osmanlis

only in 1472.[746]

ANGORA (8)

The history of Angora during the first half of the fourteenth century is

obscure. It depended upon none of the emirates which arose after the

break-up of the Seljuk Empire of Konia. Throughout Phrygia there were

small village chieftains, such as Osman had been at Sugut. Angora may

have acknowledged Kermian for a short period, but the proprietors of

that region resisted the efforts of Karamania to incorporate them. The

fortress of Angora was captured at the beginning of the reign of Murad,

but it was not until Bayezid broke the power of Kermian and Karamania

that the country round about the city became ottomanized.[747]

AYASOLUK (9)

This is the Ottoman corruption of Altoluogo, the Genoese name for the

Byzantine Theologos (ἅγιος θεολόγος--St. John) which occupied nearly the

same site as the ancient Ephesus. This city has caused much confusion to

writers. It was captured from the Greeks by Sasan, who ruled there as

its first Turkish emir in 1308.[748] Later it seems to have fallen into

the hands of Aïdin, and became the principal commercial city of his

flourishing emirate. The emir’s coins were for a time struck there, but

later when Guzel Hissar (Tralles) was capital of Aïdin, Ayasoluk was

practically independent under a younger brother of Mohammed, and uncle

of Omar. In 1365 the chevaliers of Rhodes had evidently made a serious

attempt to cut into the hinterland of Aïdin from Smyrna, for they struck

coins at Ayasoluk. Its later history is that of Aïdin and Palatchia.

Timur directed the operations against Smyrna from Ephesus in December

1402.[749]

BALIKESRI (10)

This city is to the south-west of Brusa, on the road to Pergama. It

would naturally be included in the emirate of Karasi, but had an

independent sovereign, Demir-Khan, when Ibn Batutah visited it. It was

annexed by the Osmanlis after the deposition of the emir of Balikesri.

The exact date of this acquisition cannot be determined.[750]

BORLU (11)

An inland district south-west of Kastemuni and north of Angora, possibly

the same as Boli, where Ali, a son of Soleiman padishah, of Kastemuni

and Sinope, ruled as independent sovereign between 1330 and 1340.[751]

BRUSA (12)

The descriptions of Orkhan’s realm, which to Ibn Batutah and Shehabeddin

was the emirate of Brusa, as it was seen through the eyes of his

contemporaries, have been cited in the text of this book. Until the end

of the reign of Murad, the Ottoman possessions were small enough to be

distinguished under the name of Brusa, where the Osmanlis established an

emirate at the death of Osman.

CAESAREA (13)

This important city, in the east of Asia Minor, on the confines of

Armenia, was during the first half of the fourteenth century under the

control of the Mongols, and, for a very few years, acknowledged the

overlordship of Karamania. But, for the thirty years coincident with the

reign of Murad, it had emirs of its own, as had Tokat and Sivas. For we

know that Burhaneddin, through whose misfortunes Bayezid became involved

with Timur, had been kadi of the emir of Caesarea, on whose death he

divided ‘with two other emirs’ his dominions. Caesarea fell into the

power of the Osmanlis between 1392 and 1398.[752]

DENIZLI (14)

This emirate was on the site of Laodicea on the Lycus, and was called

Ladik by the Arabs, and Denizli, or Denizlu, by the Turks. Mount Cadmus

and Hieropolis were also within its limits. It was at the upper end of

the Maeander Valley, bounded on the west and north by Aïdin, and on the

south by Menteshe and Tawas. In the fourteenth century, the city of its

emir was probably on the Maeander and not on the Lycus. Shehabeddin

compared the gardens of Ladik, or Denizli, to those of Damascus. No

higher praise could have come from his lips. We know nothing of its

later history. About 1350 it was probably absorbed by Aïdin or

Menteshe.[753]

ERZINDJIAN (15)

Erzindjian, like Erzerum, was subject to the Mongols in the early part

of the reign of Orkhan. There was a prince named Aïnabey ruling there in

1348, however, who, with two generals of Hamid, attacked Trebizond.[754]

Coins were struck in the name of Alaeddin of Karamania in Erzindjian in

the decade following 1350. But coins of Mohammed Artin, emir of

Erzindjian, were struck there about 1360.[755] Bayezid pushed his

conquests a day beyond Erzindjian to the castle of Kemath. He did not,

however, conquer Erzindjian; for we have its emir, a vassal of Timur,

appealing to his overlord for aid, when Bayezid summoned him to appear

at Angora, bringing the treasures of his dependencies with him. His

authority extended to and included Erzerum about 1400.[756]

FUKEH (16)

Ibn Batutah calls this country Milas. There were in fact two cities,

Fukeh and Milas, under one sovereign at the time of Ibn Batutah and

Shehabeddin. As Milas was near the site of Halicarnassus, or on that

site, and was sometimes called Halik, the geographical position of this

emirate, on the coast opposite Cos, is immediately grasped. It was

dependent, in a certain sense, upon Menteshe, and was later absorbed by

Menteshe. Orkhan was the emir about 1330. Some years later, Shehabeddin

estimated that the emir of Fukeh had fifty cities and ten thousand

horsemen. The last vestige of the independence of Fukeh was destroyed by

the Rhodians with whom they were continually in conflict, and who got a

foothold on the mainland and built a castle at Halik in 1399.[757]

GUL HISSAR (17)

At the time of Ibn Batutah, Mohammed Tchelebi, brother of the emir of

Akridur, was established here on the border of Pamphylia and Caria,

between Satalia and the Maeander River.[758] The fact that in such a

position an independent prince could maintain himself as late as

1330--perhaps later--demonstrates that the emirates of Tekke, Menteshe,

and Hamid must have been of very slow growth, like that of Brusa, and

that these Turkish emirs who were rivals of the house of Osman evolved

slowly, just as the Osmanlis did. The fiction of a tenfold division of

the Seljuk dominions becomes very apparent when we consider the position

of Gul Hissar (often called Kul Hissar), Alaïa, Tawas, and Fukeh--to

cite instances only from the south-western corner of Asia Minor.

HAMID (18)

This emirate, of very late development in comparison with those of

Sarukhan and Aïdin, was formed by the absorption of a number of little

states--each hardly more than a village. The emir of Hamid started by

incorporating Akridur and Nazlu. During the last decade of the reign of

Orkhan, Hamid grew rapidly, until it extended from Aksheïr to the

western end of the Taurus. It was entirely an inland emirate, and had

little chance of resisting the Osmanlis under Murad. The last emir

willed his dominions to Murad in 1381, but the country had to be

conquered step by step. Bayezid made it an Ottoman province in

1391.[759]

IAKSHI (19)

A small emirate north-west of Sarukhan, on the sea-coast opposite

Mitylene. It is mentioned only by Shehabeddin, and for the purpose of

fixing the boundaries of Sarukhan.[760]

KAOUÏA (20)

This is the modern Djanik, on the Black Sea between Samsun and Sinope.

It had an independent line of four emirs, and probably maintained its

independence until after the Ottoman conquest of Kastemuni.[761]

KARAMANIA (21)

Until after the campaign of 1386, Karamania was a far more powerful

emirate in Asia Minor than that of the Osmanlis. The Karamanlis were

the actual successors of the Seljuks, and maintained themselves in

Konia. While the Osmanlis were confined to a very small corner of

Anatolia, the Karamanian dominions extended from the Euphrates and the

Amanus to the Gulf of Adalia, on both slopes of the Taurus. Except in

the maritime emirates of the Aegaean Sea, the Karamanlis and their emir

were the great power in the peninsula of Asia Minor. Their independence

was not broken by Bayezid, for they recovered their former glory after

the intervention of Timur, and successfully withstood Mohammed I, Murad

II, and Mohammed II. As in the latter half of the fourteenth century,

the Karamanian emirs of the first half of the fifteenth century were

allied by marriage with the house of Osman, but refused to do homage to

the Ottoman sovereigns.[762]

Limits of space prevent mentioning here the many grounds upon which the

Karamanians were able to and did keep their independence in the face of

both Constantinople and Cairo. It was only at the end of the fifteenth

century that we find the fiction of the Karamanian vassalage to the

Osmanlis and of the connexion between the Seljuks and the Osmanlis

appearing in the Ottoman chronicles, which on this count are, as I have

pointed out elsewhere, wholly unreliable. It is astonishing that their

version of the rise of the Osmanlis in Asia Minor has been accepted for

so many centuries by western historians.[763]

KARASAR (22)

An abbreviation of Kara Hissar. This is probably the modern Afion Kara

Hissar, a picturesque town between Eski Sheïr and Konia on southern

limit of the emirate of Kermian, of which its prince was a vassal. Its

importance was in its location at the junction point of the roads from

the north-west and west into Karamania.

KARASI (23)

The emirate which lay between the possessions of Orkhan and Sarukhan was

called, after the founder of its dynasty, Karasi. Its capital was

Pergama. There is a discrepancy between the accounts of Shehabeddin and

Ibn Batutah, the forming making Pergama subject to Balikesri, and the

latter giving Balikesri as independent. Ottoman historians make

Balikesri the northernmost city of the emirate of Karasi. The limits of

Karasi, outside of the immediate vicinity of Pergama, cannot be

determined. There were several small independent emirates in the

hinterland of the lower end of the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles.

The emir of Karasi was an ally of Aïdin and Sarukhan in the first

coalition formed to combat the growing power of the Osmanlis. Karasi was

the first emirate to be destroyed by the Osmanlis, and the only one of

importance incorporated under Orkhan. This was because it lay nearest to

the Ottoman emirate.[764]

KASTEMUNI (24)

This emirate, at its zenith, comprised practically all of the ancient

Roman province of Paphlagonia. It was formed by Ali Omar bey, who

started as lord of the inland city of Kastemuni, and whose son Abdullah,

in the lifetime of Osman, drove Ghazi Tchelebi from Sinope. The emirate

had many vicissitudes and changes in dynasty. In the time of Ibn

Batutah, Soleiman padishah was the sovereign, and had extended his rule

from Heraclea on the Black Sea coast almost to Trebizond. His son Ali

ruled at Borlu, and another son Ibrahim Shah, who succeeded Soleiman,

contested Samsun with the emperor of Trebizond. Ibrahim was the younger

son, and was designated as his successor by Soleiman. Under the third

dynasty of Kastemuni, the ben-Isfendiar, the emirate was at the height

of its power. Its fleets swept the Black Sea, and did much harm to the

Greeks of Trebizond and the Genoese of Kaffa. Kaouïa was absorbed, and

its eastern boundaries included Osmandjik. The emirs of Menteshe and

Aïdin took refuge here, and the refusal of the emir of Kastemuni,

Bayezid, to give them up, led to the invasion of 1392. Bayezid and the

fugitive princes fled to Timur, who restored them after the battle of

Angora. Isfendiar, son of Bayezid, managed to retain Sinope, and a large

portion of the interior, for thirty years. He was father-in-law of the

Ottoman sultan, Murad II. When Clavijo visited Sinope in 1404 Isfendiar

had forty thousand men to put in the field against the Osmanlis. It was

not until after the fall of Constantinople that Kastemuni finally lost

its independence.[765] As the history of this emirate is involved with

that of Sinope, see also below under Sinope.

KEREDEH (25)

This was a small emirate, sometimes called also Kerdeleh, between

Kastemuni and Boli, which was absorbed by the Osmanlis in the latter

part of the reign of Orkhan. It was already in danger of Ottoman

aggression when Ibn Batutah visited it on his way from Brusa to

Kastemuni.[766]

KERMASTI (26)

On the Adranos River, one day south of Mikhalitch, and two days west of

Brusa, this city was conquered by Orkhan in his first campaign after the

fall of Nicomedia.[767]

KERMIAN (27)

Kermian, or Guermian, took its name from a Turcoman chief who held

Kutayia about 1300. It was the earliest definite emirate which arose in

western Asia Minor after the dissolution of the Seljuk Empire.

Shehabeddin wrote: ‘Turkish tribes seized the greater part of the Seljuk

possessions. The Turks recognized the pre-eminence of the emir of

Kermian.’ The great fortress which still crowns the hill of Kutayia is

supposed to have been erected by Kermian.[768] Kermian’s son Ali became

master of all of Phrygia, possibly at one time including Angora in his

emirate. Orkhan wrote to Ali as equal to equal, and gave him the title

of ‘emir of Anatolia’.[769] Ali had forty thousand horsemen and seven

hundred castles and villages. He was the equal of the emir of Karamania

and more powerful than Orkhan.

Kermian was the first of the larger emirates to feel the change which

the successes in the Balkan peninsula had made in the fortune of the

Osmanlis. A granddaughter of the older Ali, and great-granddaughter of

Kermian, was married to Bayezid, and Murad compelled the emir of Kermian

to cede the north-western portion of his estates as his daughter’s

_dot_. When Bayezid made his first campaign against Karamania he annexed

the remainder of Kermian. The emir, his brother-in-law Yakub, fled to

Timur, and was restored. The Osmanlis definitely incorporated Kermian in

their empire in the second decade of the fifteenth century.[770]

LIMNIA (28)

A small emirate in the mountains between Trebizond and Erzindjian, whose

emir, Tasheddin, married the daughter of the emperor of Trebizond in

1379. In 1386, Tasheddin could put an army of twelve thousand men into

the field. There were several other very small Turkish emirates around

Trebizond. Not enough, however, is known of them to make it worth while

to mention them.[771]

MARASH (29)

An independent emirate was established here after the fall of the

Lusignans in Cilicia, which was also known by the name of the founder of

the dynasty, Sulkadir. It maintained its independence against the

Karamanians, Egyptians, and Osmanlis until 1515, when its last prince

fell in a battle with Selim.[772]

MARMORA (30)

An emirate on the borders of the Sea of Marmora, between Cyzicus and the

Dardanelles, which had struggles and alliances with the Catalans,

Byzantines, and Turks of Balikesri. It became a vassal state of Karasi,

and was ruled from Pergama. After the destruction of Karasi, its

territory was shared by the Catalans of Bigha and by Orkhan.[773]

MENTESHE (31)

Like Hamid, Menteshe was of late formation. The chief who gave his name

to this emirate was a contemporary of Orkhan, and was sometimes known by

the same name. He was allied by marriage to Soleiman, son of Aïdin,

through whom he gained the former possessions of Aïdin south of the

Maeander River. The emirate probably started at Mughla, and did not have

much importance until it had absorbed Tawas and most of Fukeh. The emir

of Menteshe possessed great influence during the latter part of Orkhan’s

reign and the reign of Murad, and, like Aïdin and Sarukhan, the Turks of

Menteshe, through their trading, were more in contact with the outside

world than were the Osmanlis. Their port, known to the Venetians as

Palatchia, was the ancient Miletus. The emirate of Menteshe suffered

decline in the latter days of Murad’s reign through the Venetian

usurpation at Palatchia. At the time of Bayezid’s invasion, the emir

fled to Sinope and then to Timur. The emirate was restored by Timur, and

was not definitely incorporated in the Ottoman empire until the reign of

Murad II.[774] (_See_ Fukeh, Palatchia, and Tawas.)

MIKHALITCH (32)

This was one day west of Brusa and a day south of Mudania. After the

fall of Brusa, Turkish or Byzantine rulers maintained themselves in

Mikhalitch until the expedition of Orkhan against Karasi. After that it

became Ottoman.[775] Some of the prisoners held for ransom after

Nicopolis were detained in Mikhalitch, and one of the most illustrious

of them died there.[776]

NAZLU (33)

This was a small emirate east of Denizli, which was absorbed by Hamid

about 1350.[777]

NICAEA (34)

Shehabeddin says that Nicaea was the centre of an emirate whose ruler

possessed eight cities, thirty fortresses and an army of eight thousand

horsemen. The emir was Ali, a brother and neighbour of Sarukhan. I have

been unable to identify this place.[778]

PALATCHIA (35)

Like Ayasoluk in relation to Aïdin, Palatchia, the ancient Miletus, in

relation to Menteshe was at times independent, and at times the capital

and seaport of the emirate. Clavijo confused Palatchia with Ayasoluk,

and claimed that Timur summered (he means wintered) there. In another

place he speaks of having travelled with a brother of Alamanoglu,

brother of the emir of Altoluogo _and_ Palatchia.[779] When Menteshe had

his capital at Mughla, there was undoubtedly another emir at Palatchia,

who might also have been the man spoken of above as emir of Fukeh. But

there can be no certainty on this point. Venice, from 1345 to 1405--and

later--was interested in Palatchia, and had a consul and large

commercial interests there. Different negotiations and treaties, in

which the Osmanlis do not figure, attest the interest of Venice, and the

independence--at least from the Osmanlis--of Palatchia throughout the

fourteenth century.[780] Cyprus and Rhodes at times tried to get the

supremacy of Palatchia.[781]

SARUKHAN (36)

Sarukhan was throughout the fourteenth century an emirate of far more

importance than its rather restricted territory would seem to indicate.

This was largely on account of the high qualities of its rulers and the

daring of its sailors. It extended from the Gulf of Smyrna on the south

to the Aegaean coast opposite Mitylene on the north, and was wedged in

between Aïdin and Karasi. The hinterland was indefinite, and did not

matter much as the Turks of Sarukhan were first and last mariners. They

were the most important factor in the triple alliance against Orkhan in

1329 and 1336. After the Ottoman occupation of Pergama, and the

disappearance of Karasi, they held the Osmanlis back for a hundred years

(with the exception of the few years of Bayezid’s invasion). They were

frequently in alliance with the Genoese of Phocaea and the Byzantines,

and hired out as mercenaries and for transporting troops and food to

Christian and Moslem alike. The long lease of life which Philadelphia

enjoyed as a city of the Byzantine Empire is witness of their friendly

relations with the Greeks throughout the reigns of Osman, Orkhan, and

Murad.[782] Magnesia was capital of this emirate. It was not destroyed

until Smyrna fell into the hands of the Osmanlis in 1425.[783]

SATALIA (37)

Satalia is listed as an emirate separately from Tekke for the same

reason that Ayasoluk is given separately from Aïdin, Palatchia

separately from Menteshe, and Sinope separately from Kastemuni. It began

and ended as a separate and independent emirate, with its own lord. Its

history is treated below under Tekke. The modern name of Satalia is

Adalia, from _Attaleia_, and gives its name to the gulf on the southern

coast of Asia Minor. Nicolay has confused Satalia with Ayas, the ancient

Issos.[784]

SINOPE (38)

An emirate was founded about 1307 in Sinope by the last descendant of

the Seljuks of Rum, who was known as Ghazi Tchelebi[785] who in 1313,

in co-operation with the Greeks of Trebizond, attacked Kaffa. But in

1318 we find the Turks of Sinope burning almost all of the city of

Trebizond, and in 1323 massacring the Genoese colony in their own city.

Soon after this the emir of Kastemuni conquered Sinope.[786] The Turks

of Sinope were to the Black Sea what those of Sarukhan were to the

Aegaean. In 1361 they nearly captured Kaffa.[787] Their later history is

that of Kastemuni.

SIVAS (39)

The history of Sivas between the time of the Mongol withdrawal and the

aggression of the Osmanlis is not known. But that it must have had

independent princes can be inferred from the story of how Kadi

Burhaneddin came to rule there (cf. above under Caesarea). Its

disastrous conquest by the Osmanlis, and then by Timur, has been told in

the chapter on Bayezid’s reign.

TAWAS (40)

This was a maritime emirate extending east into Lycia and west as far as

the mainland opposite Rhodes. It was the only one of the early emirates

to possess islands. Its pirates were true descendants of those whom

Pompey opposed, and were continually in conflict with the Rhodians and

Cypriotes. Tawas was absorbed by Tekke and Menteshe, but not before

1340.[788]

TEKKE (41)

Tekke grew up into a powerful emirate in Pamphylia and Lycia. Its

expansion to the north was stopped by the Taurus, and to the west by

Alaïa and Karamania. Tawas, which it later absorbed, Menteshe, Rhodes,

and Cyprus were its other great rivals. Its history is centred around

the city of Adalia, then called Satalia, in which there were merchants

of the larger Italian cities. Adalia was taken from the emirs of Tekke

in 1361, but they regained it when the Genoese were threatening

Famagusta in 1373. The Osmanlis, under Murad, crossed the Taurus by way

of Sparta, into Tekke, but failed to capture Adalia. It remained

independent until 1450.[789]

TOKAT (42)

This city was either under the Mongols or independent throughout the

fourteenth century. Its fortunes were similar to those of Caesarea and

Sivas.

ULUBAD (43)

This city, between Bithynia and Mysia, was conquered by Osman, and then

lost. It came again into the power of the Osmanlis in Orkhan’s campaign

of 1339. A relative or ally of Andronicus III lived there.[790]

INDEPENDENT CHRISTIAN STATES

There were two Christian states in Asia Minor during the fourteenth

century.

LITTLE ARMENIA (44), so called to distinguish it from the classical

Armenia of the upper Euphrates valley and the mountains between Asia

Minor and the Azerbaïdjan, was a portion of Cilicia in the south-eastern

corner of Anatolia, south of the Taurus mountains. A dynasty of Armenian

kings, who had successfully held off the Seljuks of Konia, and had

maintained its position in the fourteenth century by siding with the

Mongols and Tartars against the Egyptians, was overthrown between 1360

and 1374 in three invasions by the Egyptians, who made Tarsus their

frontier fortress.[791] Ahmed ben Ramazan, however, in 1379 established

a Turkish emirate at Adana, which survived throughout the fifteenth

century. The Osmanlis were masters of a portion of Hungary before their

power was felt in Cilicia.

TREBIZOND (45), in the north-eastern corner of the peninsula, in the

country where Mithridates in his kingdom of Pontus had defied the

Romans, came into no contact with the Osmanlis during the century. Nor

was it the object of aggression on the part of Timur.[792] It resisted

successfully, with its Greek and Laze population, on land and sea, the

attacks of the Turks of its hinterland and of Sinope.

TERRITORIES DEPENDING ON OUTSIDE STATES

At the mouth of the Gulf of Smyrna, on the northern promontory, was the

Genoese self-governing colony of PHOCAEA (46), of which much has been

said in the chapter on the reign of Orkhan. Phocaea had many

vicissitudes, but maintained its independence as a Latin colony

throughout the fourteenth century, and knew how to turn aside the

possible aggression of Timur. It was never even temporarily dependent

upon the Osmanlis.[793]

SMYRNA (47) was wrested from the emir of Aïdin by the crusaders of 1344,

and, for the rest of the fourteenth century was a Christian city,

independent of the Osmanlis and the Turkish emirs alike. It was Timur

who brought it again under Moslem control. But it did not pass to the

Osmanlis for many years after this reconquest.

The Byzantines, after they had been driven out of Bithynia and Mysia,

managed to maintain PHILADELPHIA (48), through their friendship with

Sarukhan, until the end of Murad’s reign.

The CYPRIOTES (49) exercised a powerful influence in the southern

portions of Asia Minor throughout the fourteenth century. As we have

seen, they held Adalia for some years. In 1360, the emirs of southern

Anatolia were so divided and opposed to each other, and needed so

greatly the help of Cyprus against the Karamanians, whom they feared

much more than the Osmanlis, that they became for many years tributary

to Cyprus.[794] The Cypriotes were also interested in Cilicia.

In 1327, the year after Osman’s death, the power of the MONGOLS (50)

reached for a few years the Mediterranean. After Bahadur Khan’s death,

in 1335, the Mongol Empire was divided up. Suzerainty in Asia Minor fell

to the Sultan of Irak (Persia), who, until Timur’s coming, fought with

the Karamanians for some of the most important cities of eastern

Anatolia. When Ibn Batutah went through the peninsula, Erzerum,

Erzindjian, Sivas, Caesarea, Amassia, Nigdeh, and Ak Seraï were ‘cities

of the Sultan’.[795]

The chevaliers of RHODES (51) did not come into Asia Minor until 1310,

when they won from the Turks and Greeks the island which was to give

them their most commonly used name. They were continually in conflict

with Tawas, Alaïa, Adalia, Tekke, Menteshe, Fukeh, and Aïdin. But they

never came into contact with the Osmanlis until after the fall of

Constantinople. On the mainland, the chevaliers helped to take Smyrna in

1344, and defended it against the Turks for sixty years. They wrested

Ayasoluk from Aïdin for a while about 1365. Several times they gained a

foothold in Fukeh and Menteshe, and in the last year of the century

established a fortress at Halik (Halicarnassus).[796]

The Mamelukes of EGYPT (52) were not only interested in Cilicia, and

held that country from 1360 to 1379, and at other times, but also

invaded Karamania on different occasions. They reached Konia at the end

of the thirteenth century, the beginning of the fifteenth century, and

again, under Ibrahim pasha, twice in the third decade of the nineteenth

century. During the reign of Murad I, the Egyptians called Cilicia up to

the Taurus _Bab-el-Mulk_, the Royal Gateway. Konia was entered by an

Egyptian Sultan in 1418. The Karamanians of that day, who, according to

the Ottoman historians, were vassals of the Osmanlis, had no interest in

or fear of Mohammed I. They were engaged in a civil war which led to

Egyptian intervention.[797] If Konia and the rest of Karamania was under

the Osmanlis, why was there not Ottoman intervention in the quarrel

between Mohammed and Ali for the Karamanian throne?

Last of all, the CATALANS (53), whose history is given in the chapter on

Osman, did not all leave Asia Minor with the ‘Grand Company’. Throughout

the reign of Orkhan the principality established at Cyzicus left its

traces in the Marmora and Dardanelles coast and hinterland. Nothing more

strikingly illustrates the lack of Ottoman activity in Asia Minor during

Orkhan’s day, even at the very threshold of Bithynia, than the fact that

he left the Catalans in possession of Bigha at his death. Murad, in

1363, although his presence was urgently needed on the Maritza to defend

his new conquest of Adrianople against a Serbian invasion, was compelled

to delay for months to eject the Catalans from Bigha.[798]

CONCLUSION

_Orkhan’s emirate, then, was but one of more than thirty independent

states which existed in Asia Minor during the decade from 1330 to 1340._

During his lifetime, and the lifetime of his father Osman, the other

better-known emirates had been slowly forming by the absorption of small

independent villages and cities. Although several of the emirates that

have been given above were ephemeral, and some of them duplicated

practically the same territory at different periods in the fourteenth

century, others, such as Aïdin, Kermian, Karamania, Sarukhan, and Tekke,

were far more powerful in Asia Minor than Orkhan or than Murad. That

Bayezid had not crushed the life out of the larger emirates is proved by

the ease with which they were revived by Timur, and by their survival

during the first half of the fifteenth century.

Karamania, for one, remained powerful and flourishing long after the

political life of the Balkan states had become extinct. Karamania

demanded one hundred years of strenuous effort on the part of the

conquerors of the Byzantine Empire before it could be subjugated. _The

Osmanlis crossed the Balkans more than a century before they crossed the

Taurus._

This exposé was written in order to show:

1. That Osman fell heir to no part of the Seljuk dominions;

2. That the Seljuks had many more heirs than the traditional ten;

3. That Osman and Orkhan carved their state out of the remnants of the

Byzantine possessions along the upper end of the Sea of Marmora and in

the Valley of the Sangarius--a very small portion indeed of Asia Minor;

4. That Murad, the wonderful conqueror of the Balkan peninsula, was only

one of several rulers in Asia Minor, and not the most powerful of these,

and that there were large portions of Asia Minor with which neither he

nor his successor Bayezid came into contact at all;

5. That neither Bayezid, with his tremendous prestige in Europe, nor his

brilliant successors of the fifteenth century, gained undisputed

possession of Asia Minor. The Osmanlis were not masters of Asia Minor

until long after their inheritance of the Byzantine Empire was regarded

in Europe as a _fait accompli_.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES

I. Approximate Dates in the Legendary Period.

II. Important Events in the First Century of Ottoman History.

III. Progress of Ottoman Congress under the First Four Sovereigns.

IV. Comparative Table of Rulers.

V. The Fourteenth Century in Byzantine History.

VI. Relations between Venice and Genoa and the Levant from 1300 to 1403.

VII. The Popes and the Moslem Menace in the Fourteenth Century.

I. THE LEGENDARY PERIOD

1219--Soleiman Shah, with 50,000 nomad Turkish families, settles in

neighbourhood of Erzindjian.

1224--Soleiman Shah is drowned in the Euphrates. Ertogrul and Dundar,

two of his sons, settle near Angora.

1230-40--Ertogrul establishes himself in the valley of the Kara Su,

north-west of Kutayia.

1259--Osman is born at Sugut.

1289--Ertogrul dies.

Osman captures Karadja Hissar and Biledjik.

1290--Osman kills his uncle Dundar.

1290-9--Osman, having extended his possessions westward, founds an

emirate, and takes up his residence at Yeni Sheïr.

II. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE FIRST CENTURY OF OTTOMAN HISTORY

1299--Osman, Turkish emir in the valley of the Kara Su, makes Yeni

Sheïr, between Brusa and Nicaea, his residence.

1301--Osman defeats the Byzantine heterarch Muzalon at Baphaeon, near

Nicomedia.

1308--Kalolimni, island in the Sea of Marmora, is occupied. Ak Hissar

and Tricocca are captured.

1317--Investment of Brusa begins.

1326--Brusa surrenders. Osman hears the news on his death-bed at Yeni

Sheïr.

1329--Byzantines under Andronicus III are defeated at Pelecanon

(Maltepé).

Nicaea surrenders.

1333--Alaeddin pasha, brother of Orkhan and first vizier, dies.

Death of Bahadur Khan removes the Mongol menace.

1337 or 1338--Nicomedia surrenders.

1338--Karasi, first of the Turkish emirates to be absorbed, is

incorporated in Orkhan’s state.

_c._ 1338--Osmanlis reach the Bosphorus at Haïdar Pasha.

1343--Empress Anna makes overtures to Orkhan for aid against

Cantacuzenos.

1345--Orkhan accepts proposal of alliance with Cantacuzenos.

First Osmanlis cross to Europe to fight for Cantacuzenos against Anna.

1346--Orkhan marries Theodora, granddaughter of the Bulgarian czar and

daughter of Cantacuzenos, who is besieging Constantinople with Ottoman

aid.

1348--The ‘Black Death’ ravages Europe.

1349--Cantacuzenos calls again upon Orkhan for aid. Twenty thousand

Ottoman horsemen are sent to help in preventing Salonika from falling

into Serbian hands.

_c._ 1351--First convention between Orkhan and the Genoese.

1353--Soleiman pasha, Orkhan’s elder son, in response to the third

appeal of Cantacuzenos for Ottoman aid, brings an army into Thrace,

helps in the recapture of Adrianople, and defeats the Serbians at

Demotika. For this aid, a fortress on the European shore of the

Dardanelles, probably Tzympe, is given to Orkhan.

1354--An earthquake, which damaged the walls of Gallipoli, enables the

Osmanlis of Soleiman pasha to capture the city. Orkhan refuses to give

up Gallipoli, breaks with Cantacuzenos, and orders the Osmanlis in the

Hellespont to extend their conquest in the direction of Constantinople.

_c_. 1357--Demotika and Tchorlu are captured for the first time by the

Osmanlis under Soleiman pasha.

1358--Soleiman pasha dies from the fall of a horse at Bulaïr.

1359--Orkhan dies, and is succeeded by Murad.

1360-1--Conquest of Thrace.

1361--Second serious ‘Black Death’ plague in Europe.

_c._ 1362--Murad creates corps of ‘janissaries’.

1362 (1363)--John V Palaeologos binds himself by treaty to recognize

Murad’s conquests in Thrace, and to give him military aid against the

Turkish emirs of Asia Minor.

1363--Serbian and Hungarian crusaders are defeated on the banks of the

Maritza.

Murad takes up his residence in Demotika.

1365--Ragusa makes commercial treaty with Osmanlis, promising tribute.

1366--Adrianople becomes the first capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Amadeo of Savoy’s crusade; captures Gallipoli, but soon abandons it

again.

1369--Capture of Yamboli forces Sisman of Bulgaria to become, like the

Byzantine Emperor, a vassal of Murad.

1371--Battle of Samakov gives the Osmanlis control of the passes into

the Plain of Sofia.

Battle of Cernomen opens up Macedonia to the Ottoman conquest.

1372--Moslem colonization of Macedonia, at Drama, Kavalla, Serres, and

Veles, gives the Osmanlis a position of preponderance in the Balkan

peninsula.

1373--John Palaeologos, failing to receive aid from the West, becomes

Ottoman vassal.

1374--Unsuccessful conspiracy of Manuel to recover Serres causes Ottoman

siege of Salonika.

1379--John and Manuel agree to increase their tribute of gold and

soldiers, and to surrender Philadelphia, the last Byzantine possession

in Asia, for Ottoman aid in ousting Andronicus IV from Constantinople.

1384--Osmanlis aid Thomas in besieging Janina.

1385--First Ottoman invasion of Albania.

Battle of Savra destroys Balsa’s power.

Osmanlis occupy Sofia.

1386--Osmanlis capture Croia and Scutari, but return these fortresses to

prince of Zenta.

The fall of Nish makes Lazar of Serbia Ottoman vassal.

1387--Genoa concludes formal treaty with Murad.

Murad, with army containing Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian contingents,

defeats Alaeddin of Karamania at Konia, but has to withdraw without

tangible results.

1388--Venice concludes commercial treaty with Murad.

1388--Osmanlis are defeated by Serbians and Bosnians at Plochnik, thus

preventing invasion of Bosnia.

League of Serbians, Bosnians, Bulgarians, Wallachians, and Albanians

formed against the Osmanlis.

First Ottoman army enters Greece upon invitation of Theodore Palaeologos

to fight against the Franks.

1389--Osmanlis destroy Serbian independence at Kossova.

Murad is assassinated on the battle-field. Bayezid succeeds to the

throne, and has his brother Yakub strangled.

BAYEZID (1389-1403).

1387--Bayezid marries sister of Stephen, son of Lazar, and makes

Serbians his allies.

1390--First Ottoman naval expedition makes raid on Chios, Negropont, and

Attika.

First Ottoman raids into Hungary.

1391--Second invasion of Karamania, followed by siege of Konia, results

in cession by Alaeddin of north-western portion of Karamania.

First Ottoman siege of Constantinople.

1392--First defensive campaign against Sigismund is fought in Bulgaria.

Hearing that Timurtash had been defeated by Karamanlis, Bayezid

transports army to Asia, and destroys Alaeddin’s army at Ak Tchaï. The

Osmanlis are now the dominant race in Asia Minor.

1394--Osmanlis first appear in the Adriatic at the mouth of the Boyana.

1395--Bayezid summons Ottoman vassals to his court at Serres.

Ottoman siege of Constantinople becomes pressing.

1396--Crusade of Western chivalry, co-operating with Sigismund of

Hungary, meets with disaster at Nicopolis in Bulgaria.

Ottoman invaders of Wallachia are defeated at Rovine, but in raids into

Hungary Peterwardein is burned, and sixteen thousand Styrians carried

off into captivity.

1397--First Ottoman invasion of Greece. In the Peloponnesus, Argos is

taken by assault.

After defeat at Megalopolis, Theodore becomes Ottoman vassal.

1397-9--Movement of Moslem Anatolian population into the Balkan

peninsula.

1398--Osmanlis and Serbians make destructive raid on Bosnia.

1400--Timur captures and destroys Sivas.

1402--Timur defeats and makes prisoner Bayezid at Angora, overruns Asia

Minor, occupies Brusa, and takes Smyrna from the Christians by storm.

1403--Timur withdraws to Samarkand.

Bayezid, still a prisoner, dies on the homeward march at Ak Sheïr. His

sons dispute the succession.

III. PROGRESS OF OTTOMAN CONQUEST UNDER THE FIRST FOUR SOVEREIGNS

OSMAN (1299-1326)

1299--Osman, local chieftain at Sugut, has extended his conquests from

the valley of the Kara Su westward to Yeni Sheïr.

1308--Kalolimni, island in the Sea of Marmora, becomes first Ottoman

maritime possession.

Ak Hissar, at the entrance to plain of Nicomedia, and Tricocca, which

ensured land communication between Nicaea and Nicomedia, are captured.

1308-16--Sovereignty is extended over the peninsula between the Gulf of

Nicomedia and the Black Sea, almost up to the Bosphorus.

1317--Fortresses are erected near gates of Brusa.

1326--Brusa surrenders.

ORKHAN (1326-59)

1329--Occupies Nicaea.

1330-8--Conquest of shores of Gulf of Nicomedia up to Scutari on the

Bosphorus.

1334-8--Conquest of emirate of Karasi.

1337-8--Occupies Nicomedia.

_c._ 1339--Acquires Mikhalitch, Ulubad, and Kermasti.

1353--Cantacuzenos cedes fortress on European shore of Hellespont.

1354--Gallipoli is occupied.

1354-8--The Osmanlis occupy the Thracian, Chersonese, and the European

shore of the Sea of Marmora as far as Rodosto. Demotika is captured, and

Constantinople cut off from Adrianople by the occupation of Tchorlu.

MURAD (1359-89)

1360--Captures Angora and suppresses independence of village chieftains

between Eski Sheïr and Angora.

1360-1--Conquers Thrace from the Maritza River to the Black Sea,

including Adrianople.

1361--Lalashahin captures Philippopolis.

_c._ 1362--Creation of the corps of janissaries.

1362 or 1363--John V Palaeologos binds himself by treaty to recognize

Murad’s conquest of Thrace, and to give him military aid against the

emirs of Asia Minor.

1366-9--Conquest of Maritza Valley up to the Rhodope Mountains, and of

Bulgaria, up to the main Balkan range.

1370-1--Occupies the fortresses and passes in the Rhodope and Rilo

ranges.

1371-2--Conquers Macedonia up to the Vardar River.

_c._ 1376--Portion of emirate of Kermian, including Kutayia is annexed

as _dot_ of the emir’s daughter, in marriage arranged with Bayezid.

1377--Emir of Hamid sells to Murad territories between Tekke, Kermian,

and Karamania. The acquisition of Ak Sheïr brings the Osmanlis to the

frontier of Karamania.

1378--Conquers Tekke, except Adalia and Alaya.

1380--Conquers Macedonia, west of the Vardar. Prilep and Monastir become

Ottoman frontier fortresses.

1385--Occupies Okhrida.

Plain of Sofia and upper valley of the Struma River are conquered.

1386--Valleys of the Morava and Nisava are conquered, and Nish falls.

1388--Invasion of northern Bulgaria reduces Sisman to more humiliating

vassalage. The Osmanlis retain the fortresses of Shuman and Nicopolis.

BAYEZID (1389-1403)

1391--Captures Adalia, first Ottoman seaport on the Mediterranean.

Ak Sheïr and Ak Seraï ceded by Karamania.

1393--Bulgaria, to the Danube, becomes Ottoman territory.

1393-5--Conquers Samsun, Caesarea, and Sivas, and annexes emirate of

Kastemuni.

1397--Conquers Thessaly, Doris, Locris, and the north-eastern corner of

the Peloponnesus.

1398-9--Gradually occupies Southern Albania and a part of Epirus.

IV. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF RULERS

BYZANTINE EMPIRE[799]

_The Palaeologi_

ANDRONICUS II (the Old), 1282-1328.

MICHAEL IX (co-emperor), 1295-1320.

ANDRONICUS III (the Young), 1328-41, by whose second wife, Anna of

Savoy, was born

JOHN V, 1341-01, whose three sons were:

ANDRONICUS IV (co-emperor), 1355-?

MANUEL II, 1391-1425.

Theodore, despot of the Morea, 1359-.

The son of Andronicus IV was

JOHN VII (co-emperor), 1399-1403.

_The Cantacuzeni_

JOHN VI, regent, 1341-7, co-emperor, 1347-55, two of whose daughters

married Orkhan and John V, and whose son was

MATTHEW, co-emperor, 1355-6.

HUNGARY

LOUIS THE GREAT, 1342-82 (King of Poland, 1370-82).

His two daughters were:

Hedwig, to whom fell the crown of Poland, and who married Jagello of

Lithuania, who became King of Poland under the Christian name of

Ladislas V.

Mary, to whom fell the crown of Hungary, 1382-92.

Mary married

SIGISMUND of Luxemburg in 1386, who became sole ruler of Hungary after

Mary’s death, and, later, Holy Roman Emperor.

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

_House of Luxemburg_

CHARLES IV (I as King of Bohemia), 1355-78.

His two sons were:

WENCESLAUS, who succeeded to the imperial crown on the death of his

father and was deposed in 1400;

and SIGISMUND, King of Hungary, who was elected emperor in 1410.

FRANCE

PHILIPPE IV, _le Bel_, 1285-1314, and his sons

LOUIS X, PHILIPPE V, and CHARLES IV, last of the Capetians. 1314-28.

PHILIPPE VI VALOIS, 1328-50.

JEAN, 1350-64.

CHARLES V, 1365-80.

CHARLES VI, 1380-1422.

Philippe de Bourgogne, son of King Jean, and father of Jean de Nevers,

and Louis d’Orléans, second son of Charles V, were vying with each other

for the control of their insane nephew and brother, Charles VI, during

the reign of Bayezid.

ENGLAND

EDWARD I, 1270-1307.

EDWARD II, 1307-27.

EDWARD III, 1327-77

(took the title of King of France in 1339).

RICHARD III, 1377-99.

Deposed in 1399, and succeeded by

HENRY IV (of Lancaster).

V. THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY IN BYZANTINE HISTORY

1300--The emir of Menteshe invades Rhodes.

1301--First Byzantine defeat at hands of Osmanlis at Baphaeon.

1302--Michael IX takes command of Slavic mercenaries in Asia Minor: they

force him to allow their return to Europe.

Roger de Flor arrives at Constantinople with eight thousand Catalans,

and is married to a niece of Andronicus.

1303--Catalans sack the island of Chios.

1305--Death of Ghazan Khan frustrates Byzantine hopes of a Mongol attack

upon the emirs of Asia Minor.

Catalans compel the emir of Karamania to lift the siege of Philadelphia,

but quarrel with Greeks and Slavic mercenaries. Roger exacts title of

‘Caesar’ from Andronicus, and is later assassinated by Michael IX at

Adrianople.

1306-9--Catalan ‘Grand Company’ forms state at Gallipoli.

1310--Catalans leave for Greece, and set up military democracy in

Athens.

The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem capture Rhodes.

1311--The emir of Menteshe fails in attempt to recapture Rhodes.

1311-14--Turkish freebooter Halil defies the Emperor in the Thracian

Chersonese, and is finally defeated with the help of the Serbians.

1317--Brusa, Nicaea, and Nicomaedia begin to be menaced.

1326--Brusa falls. Andronicus III, on his wedding trip from

Constantinople to Demotika, is set upon and wounded by raiding Turks.

1327-8--Andronicus III plots to oust his grandfather, who, in turn,

invites Serbians to attack young Andronicus in the rear; young

Andronicus besieges army of his grandfather and Serbians at Serres, and

captures Salonika. Old Andronicus calls upon Bulgarians, but before

their aid arrives, young Andronicus succeeds in entering Constantinople

and deposing his grandfather.

1329--Andronicus III is defeated at Pelecanon by Orkhan in an attempt to

relieve Nicaea. Nicaea surrenders.

Andronicus III, at Phocaea, tries to incite emirs of Aïdin and Sarukhan

to attack Orkhan.

1333--Turks of Sarukhan make a raid on Macedonia, while their vessels

enter the Sea of Marmora and seize Rodosto.

1334--Andronicus is compelled to send army to save Salonika from raiding

Turks.

1336--Andronicus asks Turkish emirs to help him in siege of Genoese at

Phocaea.

1337 or 1338--Nicomedia and the last Byzantine possessions in

north-western corner of Asia Minor are conquered by the Osmanlis.

1340--Stephen Dushan crosses the Vardar, captures Serres, and crowns

himself there as ‘master of almost all the Roman Empire’.

1341--After death of Andronicus III, Cantacuzenos crowns himself at

Demotika.

1342--Civil war between Cantacuzenos and widow and son of Andronicus

III, during which both sides make overtures to Osmanlis, Serbians, and

Bulgarians.

1345--Cantacuzenos receives aid from Orkhan, and pays for it by marrying

his daughter to the Ottoman emir.

1347--Dushan crowns himself Emperor of Constantinople. Agreement between

John Cantacuzenos and John Palaeologos to share Byzantine throne.

Black Death plague reaches Constantinople.

1349--Cantacuzenos calls Osmanlis into Europe again to save Salonika

from the Serbians.

1349-53--Civil war between Cantacuzenos and Palaeologos.

Palaeologos flees to Tenedos.

1353--The Osmanlis, who had been helping Cantacuzenos against

Palaeologos, capture Gallipoli, and invade Thrace.

1354--Cantacuzenos, having vainly appealed to the Pope, Venice,

Bulgaria, and Serbia to aid him against the Osmanlis, is deposed by

popular revolution in Constantinople, and becomes a monk.

John Palaeologos recalled from exile.

1355--Dushan dies on his way to attack Constantinople.

1354-8--Palaeologos succeeds finally in subduing Cantacuzenos’ son

Matthew.

1358--While Osmanlis are advancing in Thrace, John V, at command of

Orkhan, is besieging Phocaea.

1361--Adrianople and Philippopolis captured by the Osmanlis.

1363--John V signs treaty of vassalage to Murad.

1366--John V journeys to Buda to enlist aid of Louis of Hungary, and on

return journey is made prisoner by Sisman in Bulgaria.

1373--John V, seeing that his visit to Rome and his appeals to western

princes are of no avail, recognizes Murad as his suzerain, promises to

do military service in Murad’s army, and gives his son Manuel as

hostage.

Thrace and Macedonia are practically lost, and the Byzantine Empire has

become merely the city state of Constantinople.

1374--As the result of a rebellion undertaken by Andronicus together

with the son of Murad against the two fathers, John V consents to

deprive his son Andronicus of his sight, and shuts him up in the Tower

of Anemas.

1375-89--Civil war between John and Manuel and Andronicus, in which

Venice, Genoa, and Osmanlis play a decisive part. John and Manuel

purchase Ottoman aid at the price of giving up Philadelphia, the last

Byzantine possession in Asia Minor.

1391--Manuel, serving as vassal in Ottoman army, is threatened with loss

of eyes, if Emperor John does not demolish the towers on the walls of

Constantinople, which he has rebuilt. He obeys and dies soon after.

Manuel escapes from Brusa upon learning of his father’s death. His

flight is followed by the first Ottoman siege of Constantinople.

1396--Bayezid contemplates taking Constantinople by assault, but is

deterred by arrival of crusaders in Hungary.

1397--Siege of Constantinople is renewed, after Nicopolis.

1399--Crusade of Boucicaut helps Byzantines temporarily.

1400-2--Manuel, having made peace with his nephew John, sails for Italy

and spends two years in fruitless endeavour to get aid from western

princes.

1401--John makes treaty to give up Constantinople, if Bayezid should win

from Timur.

1402--After Bayezid’s defeat at Angora, Manuel returns to

Constantinople.

John is banished to Lemnos, and Ottoman colonists expelled from

Constantinople. Overtures are made to Timur.

1403--Manuel recognizes Soleiman as successor of Bayezid, and renews

treaty with him.

VI. RELATIONS BETWEEN VENICE AND GENOA AND THE LEVANT FROM 1300 TO 1403

1328--Venetian sovereignty of Negropont is menaced by Turkish pirates.

1344--Venice aids Cyprus and Rhodes in the capture of Smyrna.

1345-50--Dushan negotiates frequently with Venice for aid in capturing

Constantinople.

1351-3--War between Venice and Genoa. Sea power of Genoa is broken at

battle of Lojera. Genoese are assisted by Orkhan.

1355--Matteo Venier and Marino Faleri warn the Senate that the Byzantine

Empire must inevitably become the booty of the Osmanlis, unless Venice

gets ahead of them.

1361--Venetian Senate make overtures to John V for alliance against

Murad, but withdraw when they see the rapid success of Murad’s campaign

in Thrace.

1370-1--Venice and Greece are engaged in a struggle for economic

supremacy in Cyprus.

1375--John V gives Tenedos to the Venetians. The Genoese come into

conflict with the Venetians over economic privileges at Constantinople.

1379-81--Venice and Genoa go to war over the question of Tenedos and the

Byzantine succession to the throne. In the Peace of Turin, it is

provided that Tenedos remain unfortified, and that Andronicus IV be

recognized the heir to John V.

1386--Genoese make treaty with Byzantines.

1387--Genoese make commercial treaty with Osmanlis.

1388--Venetians make commercial treaty with Osmanlis.

1389--Venice and Genoa renew treaties with Bayezid.

1393--Venice decides to treat with Sigismund of Hungary for defensive

alliance against Osmanlis.

1396--Venetian aid in Nicopolis crusade is half-hearted.

1397--Venice urges Genoese of Pera not to treat with Bayezid, and makes

accord with Genoa to aid Byzantines.

1401--Venice and Genoa engaged in another sea struggle for supremacy in

the Levant.

1402--Both Venetians and Genoese aid Osmanlis, fleeing from Timur after

Angora, to cross into Europe. They renew their treaties with Osmanlis,

recognizing Soleiman as Bayezid’s successor.

VII. THE POPES AND THE MOSLEM MENACE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

1306--Clement V exhorts the Venetians to co-operate with Charles de

Valois in the reconquest of Constantinople.

1307--Clement V urges Charles II of Naples to re-conquer Constantinople,

but his interest is diverted by a project of a crusade to support Cyprus

and Cilician Armenia against the Egyptians.

1309--Papal court transferred from Rome to Avignon.

1310--Clement V encourages Knights of St. John to drive both Greeks and

Turks out of Rhodes.

1327--John XXII does not respond to appeal of Andronicus II to aid

Byzantium against the Turks.

1333--Similar unsuccessful overture is made by Andronicus III.

1334--Papal effort to form crusade against Turks results in the capture

of Smyrna.

1347--Marquis de Montferrat, heir to the Latin Emperors, makes agreement

with Clement VI to conquer Constantinople.

At the same time appeals are received at Rome from Cantacuzenos for

union of western princes against Osmanlis.

1349, 1350, 1353--Cantacuzenos makes three more overtures to Clement VI

and Innocent VI.

1352--Inhabitants of Philadelphia appeal to Pope for aid, promising

return to Roman communion.

1363--Urban V on Holy Friday gives the cross to several princes of the

Occident.

1366--Urged by Urban, Amadeo of Savoy sails for the crusade against the

Osmanlis. He spends his efforts in releasing John V from the Bulgarians,

and abandons the Byzantines when they refuse to return to the Roman

Church. Urban writes to Louis of Hungary to put off his crusade until

the union of the Churches is accomplished.

Urban V denounces the traffic of the Italian Republics with Moslems.

1369--Emperor John V, at Rome, abjures errors of Orthodox Church, and

receives from Pope letters, recommending that Christian princes come to

his aid.

1371--Gregory XI makes appeal to Christian nations to co-operate with

Genoa in saving the last Christians of the Holy Land.

1372--Gregory urges Louis of Hungary to resist the Osmanlis before they

advance farther into Europe, and orders a crusade to be preached in

Hungary, Poland, and Dalmatia.

1373--Gregory, receiving the last envoy from John V, bursts into tears,

and says that he will save Constantinople, if only the Byzantine Emperor

will cause his people to renounce their heresies and return to the Roman

Church.

1378--The Great Schism.

1388--Urban VI sends two armed galleys for the defence of

Constantinople, but is unsuccessful in raising crusade.

1391--Boniface IX stirs up trouble between Latin and Greek Christians in

the Balkan peninsula.

1398 and 1399--Boniface IX orders crusade to be preached throughout

Christendom for the defence of Constantinople.

1399--Boucicaut, the only one to respond, goes to the aid of

Constantinople.

1402--Smyrna is lost to Timur.

1403--The strife between rival Popes, Benedict XIII and Boniface IX,

makes impossible a papal effort to take advantage of the civil strife

between the sons of Bayezid, after Timur’s abandonment of his conquests

in Asia Minor.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. CLASSIFIED BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTE

The Classified Bibliography contains only the names of authors.

Following the classification, the books and editions are given in detail

under the authors’ names in alphabetical order.

I shall be grateful for corrections and amplifications. The work on this

bibliography has been done largely in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris,

and I have been handicapped by the lack of a complete catalogue.

No attempt whatever has been made to follow a definite system of

spelling of Oriental and Slavic names, for arbitrary changes in spelling

on my part would confuse the reader who desires to find in a library

catalogue the authors given. I have retained the spelling (except in

rare instances where there were divergencies in different editions of

the same book) of the author’s name as given by himself or by his editor

or publisher. As far as the letter ‘G’, I have made the spelling conform

to that of the General Catalogue of the Bibliothèque Nationale. Beyond

‘G’, there is, as yet, no norm.

=Bibliographers of Printed Books.=

Apponyi; Auboyneau; Boecler; Chevalier; Dherbelot de Molainville;

Eichhorn; Fabricius; Fevret; Fitzclarence; Fraehn; Franke; Hadji Khalfa;

Halle; Houtsma et al.; Oesterly; Omont; Pogodin; Potthast; Welter;

Zenker.

=Bibliographers of Oriental MSS.=

Ahlwardt; Ali Hilmi; Apponyi; Auboyneau; Blochet; Browne; Cusa; De

Goeje; De Jong; Derenbourg; Dorn; Dozy; Fevret; Flügel; Hadji Khalfa;

Karamianz; Lampros; Pertsch; Rieu; Rosen; Schéfer; Slane; Smirnow;

Sprenger; Welter.

=Numismatists.=

Blau; Djevdet; Engel; Friedländer; Ghalib; Karabacek; Lane-Poole;

Lavoix; Makrisi; Pinder; Schlumberger; Serrure; Stickel.

=Chronographers.=

Aladdin Ali; Arabantinos; Assemanus; Hadji Khalfa; Knaus; Loeb; Mas

Latrie; Mullach; Müller; Muralt; Rasmussen; Strzygowski; Wüstenfeld;

_Chronicon Breve_ (in Ducas).

=Collections of Contemporary Records.=

OTTOMAN: Feridun, Collection of.

The authenticity of the documents in this collection cannot be

definitely established.

BYZANTINE: Dieterich; Miklositch; Müller; Predelli; Sathas.

HUNGARIAN, SLAVIC, and RAGUSAN: Daničić; Fejér; Gelčić; Jorga; Ljubić;

Makusev; Miklositch; Miltitz; Müller; Noradounghian; Racki; Safařík

(Schaffarik); Sathas; Thallóczy; Theiner; Wenzel. (_See also under_

Kossova _and_ Nicopolis.)

VENETIAN: Alberi; Brown; Fejér; Jorga; Ljubić; Makusev; Miklositch;

Minotto; Müller; Noiret; Noradounghian; Predelli; Racki; Romanin; Rymer;

Safařík; Sathas; Testa; Thomas.

PAPAL (Avignon and Rome): Baluze; Bosquet; Dudik; Jorga; Romanin;

Theiner; Werunski.

The literature about the individual popes, and the collections of

documents published, registers, letters, etc., are so numerous, that I

cannot include even a selection here. The reader is referred to

Chevalier’s _Répertoire des sources historiques du Moyen Âge_, where,

under each pope, will be found the most complete and most recent

bibliographical references.

GENOESE (including Pera Colony): Belgrano; Jorga; Miklositch; Müller;

Noradounghian; Olivieri; Predelli; Testa.

OTHER ITALIAN CITIES: Jorga; Müller.

FRENCH: Boislisle; Bongars; Bouchon; Charrière; Delaville Leroulx;

Dorez; Garnier; Jorga; Kunstmann; Leuridan; Lot; Molinier; Moranvillé;

Potansque; Raimboult; Roncière; Tarbé.

ENGLISH: Rymer.

=Contemporary Chronicles.=

BYZANTINE: Cantacuzenos; Nicephoros Gregoras; Pachymeres; Panaretos (for

Trebizond).

CATALAN: Moncada; Muntaner. (_See also_ Frenzel.)

FRENCH: Enguerran de Monstrelet; Eustache des Champs; Froissart; Gilles;

Marche; Nangis; Ursins; Wavrin; Anon.: Cronicorum Karoli Sexti;

Chronique du duc Loys de Bourbon; Chronique du religieux de Saint-Denis;

Chronique des quatre premiers Valois; Livre des faicts de Jean le

Maingre, dit Bouciquaut; Relation de la Croisade de Nicopolis (serviteur

de Gui de Blois). (_See also under the Editors_: Bellaguet; Géraud;

Godefroy; Kervyn de Lettenhove; Lacabane; Lemaitre.)

HEBREW: Joseph ben Joshua.

MOREA: Chronique de Morée; Breve Chronicon (see Ducas).

ORIENTAL: Aboulpharadji; Hayton.

RUMANIAN: Urechi.

SAVOY: Anon. Anciennes Chroniques.

SERVIAN: Abbey of Tronosho; Chronicle of Pek.

VENICE: Bonincontrius; Caroldo; Guazzo; Villani (3).

=Venetian Archives (History and Guides to).=

Alberi; Baschet; Cecchetti; Mas Latrie; Toderini.

The archives for the fourteenth century are listed in the Alphabetical

Bibliography.

=Travellers and Geographers=. (Those in italics are contemporary or nearly

contemporary.)

ASIA MINOR: _Abulfeda_; Ainsworth; Baedeker; _Belon_; _Bergeron_;

_Bertrandon de la Broquière_; Bruun; Busbecq; Chardin; Cholet; Cuinet;

Edrisi; Evlia Tchelebi; Fresne-Canaye; Ghillebert de Launoy; Hadji

Khalfa; Hellert; Houzeau; Huart; Huber; _Ibn Batutah_; Macarius;

_Mandeville_; _Marco Polo_; Michelant; Mostras; Naumann; _Nicolay_;

Ortellius; Ramsay; Rennell; Sarre; _Schiltberger_; Seiff; _Shehabeddin_;

Sidi Ali Ibn Hussein; Tavernier; Tchihatcheff; Texeira; Texier;

Trémeaux; Vivien de St. Martin.

Ibn Batutah is the best contemporary authority.

CONSTANTINOPLE AND BALKAN PENINSULA: _Abulfeda_; Baedeker; Belgrano;

_Belon_; _Bergeron_; Boué; Bruun; Busbecq; _Clavijo_; Hadji Khalfa;

Hammer; Hellert; Huber; Jireček; Macarius; Manutio; Miklositch; Mostras;

_Nicolay_; Olivieri; Ortellius; Sathas; _Schiltberger_; Sefert; Sidi Ali

Ibn Hussein; Tafel; Tozer.

Clavijo is the best contemporary authority for Constantinople in the

latter part of the reign of Bayezid.

I have listed only those whose works I have referred to, or who seem to

me to have intimate, direct bearing on the subject. Many others,

however, could be consulted to advantage. _See_ Potthast, _Bibliotheca

Historica Medii Aevi_, ii. 1734-5.

=Seljuk Historians.=

Ahmed Ibn Yusuf; Houtsma (editor); Ibn-Bibi; Mirkhond (Mirkhwand).

=Early Arabic, Persian, and Armenian Historians.=

Ahmed Ibn Yusuf; Ahmed Ibn Yahia; Hayton; Ibn al Tiktaka; Ibn Khaldun;

Khondemir; Makrisi; Mirkhond (Mirkhwand); Mohammed-en-Nesawi;

Reshideddin; Texeira; Anon. _Derbend Namé_.

=Ottoman Historians and Chroniclers.=

Abdul Aziz; Ahmed Jaudat; Alaeddin Ali (Ibn Kadi Said); Ali (Mustafa Ibn

Ahmed); Ashik-pasha-zadé (Ahmed Ibn Yahia); Atha; Ayas Pasha;

Djelaleddin, Mustapha; Djemaleddin; Djemaleddin-al-Kifty; Djevad bey,

Ahmed; Fehmi; Feridun, Collection of; Geropoldi, Antonio (trans.);

Hadji Khalfa; Hezarfenn, Hussein; Ibn Ali Mohammed Al-Biwy; Idris,

Mevlana (of Bitlis); Kheirullah; Kourbaddinmakky; Mohammed Ferid bey;

Moukhlis Abderrahman; Mustafa; Nedim; Neshri; Nichandji pasha Mehmet;

Said; Seadeddin; Tahir-Zade; Anon. _Mira-ari-tarikh_.

No authenticated Ottoman records exist for the fourteenth century. The

nearest writers to events are Ashik-pasha-zadé, Idris, Mouklis

Abderrahman and Neshri. The historian enjoying the greatest reputation

for authority is Seadeddin.

=Western writers on Ottoman Empire before 1600.=

Adelman; Aenaeus Sylvius; Alhard; Aretinus (Leonardo Bruni); Augustinus

Caelius; Aventinus; Bertellus; Boecler; Bongars; Busbequius; Cambini;

Camerarius; Campana; Cervarius; Chytraeus; Clavijo; Corregiaio; Cousin

(Cognatus); Crusius; Cuspianus; Donado da Lezze; Drechsler; Egnatius;

Foglietta; Foscarini; Geuffraeus; Giorgievitz; Giovio; Gycaud (ed.);

Hoeniger; Konstantynowicz; Lonicerus; Menavino; Montalbanus; Pfeiffer;

Podesta; Postellus; Ramus; Reusner; Richer; Sabellicus; Sansovino;

Schiltberger; Secundinus; Spandugino; Traut; Anon. _Series Imp. Turc._

and _Tractatus de ritu et moribus Turc._

Most of the early western books are in Latin, but the authors are Greek,

Italian, French, German, Spanish, Austrian, and Polish. The majority of

them are as early as, if not earlier than, the first Ottoman

chroniclers.

Clavijo and Schiltberger are contemporary and eye-witness authorities

for the reign of Bayezid. Konstantynowicz’s book claims to be the

memoirs of a janissary in the reign of Murad II.

Busbequius, Donado da Lezze, Geuffraeus, Giorgievitz, Menavino,

Spandugino, and the author of _Tractatus de ritu_ gained their

information first-hand from living in Turkey.

=General Western Ottoman Historians= (seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries).

Cantemir (a Rumanian); De la Porte; Du Verdier; Febvre; Formanti;

Gibbon; Knolles; Mignot; Ohsson; Petits de la Croix; Ricaut; Sagredo;

Schulz; Servi; Vanel.

=General Western Ottoman Historians= (nineteenth century).

Castellan; Collas; Creasy; Dräseke; Ebeling; Errante; Fehmi (a Turk);

Ganem (a Syrian); Hammer; Hertzberg; Jonquière; Jorga; Jouannin; La

Garde de Dieu; Lamartine; Lane-Poole; Lavallée; Lüdemann; Rambaud;

Salaberry, de; Wirth; Wüstenfeld; Zinkeisen.

Hammer and Zinkeisen wrote the exhaustive and authoritative histories of

the nineteenth century. The splendid work of Professor Jorga, of the

University of Bucarest, belongs to our own twentieth century, and is the

most important contribution of contemporary scholarship to the history

of the Balkan peninsula under Ottoman domination. But none of these

three authoritative historians pays particular attention to the actual

foundation of the Ottoman Empire. Dräseke and Rambaud have only touched

upon the problems involved in reconstructing the fourteenth century

period.

=Mongol and Tartar History.=

Aboul-Ghazi-Bahadour; Bonaparte; Bretschneider; Cahun; Chavannes; Dorn;

Erdmann; Guignes; Hammer; Hirth; Howorth; Khondemir; Mohammed en Newasi;

Reshideddin; Vambéry; Wolff.

=Byzantine Empire and Frankish and Italian Greece.=

Ameilhon; Arabantinos; Berger de Xivrey; Byzantine Historians (_see

under_ Alphabetical Bibliography, on p. 367); Curtius; Djelal; Ducange;

Finlay; Florinsky; Gibbon; Gregorovius; Hammer; Hase; Hertzberg; Hody;

Hopf; Kampouroglou; Karamzin; Lampros; Lüdemann; Migne; Miller; Moncada;

Moniferratos; Mullach; Müller; Muntaner; Niebuhr; Paparregopoulos;

Parisot; Rodd; Sathas; Stritter; Tafel; Tozer. (_See also_ Slavs of

Balkan Peninsula.)

=Collections of Byzantine writers.=

Bonn (Niebuhr); Migne; Paris (Louvre) and Venice.

=Historians and Chroniclers of Rumania.=

Cantemir; Costin; Hasdeu; Miller; Picot; Urechi; Xénopol.

Costin and Urechi are nearest the events.

=Slavs of Balkan Peninsula.=

Borchgrave; Daničić; Dlugosz; Drinov; Engel; Florinsky; Guérin-Songeon;

Jireček; Kállay; Kanitz; Konstantynowicz; Miller; Orbini; Pray; Pučić;

Raić; Ranke; Safařík (Schaffarik); Thallóczy. (_See also under_ Kossova

_and_ Nicopolis.)

No contemporary writers.

=Hungary= (including biographers of Sigismund).

Acsady; Aschbach; Beckmann; Bonfinius; Engel; Fessler; Furnhaber;

Fvaknói; Kern; Kupelwieser; Levec; Maélath; Maurer; Pór; Pray; Sambucus;

Schoenherr; Schwandtner; Szálay; Szentkláráy; Szilagyi; Theiner;

Thurocz; Vambéry; Wenzel. (_See also under_ Kossova _and_ Nicopolis.)

=Venice.=

Agostini; Barbaro; Bembo; Berchet; Bonincontrius; Caresino; Caroldo;

Cicogna; Dandolo; Daru; Guazzo; Hazlitt; Hodgson; Mas Latrie; Romanin;

Sanuto; Sismondi; Villani; Anon. _Cronica Dolfina_.

=Genoa.=

Belgrano; Canale; Giustiniani; Sauli; Sismondi; Stella.

=Other Italian cities.=

Cambiano; Datta; Gattaro; Guichenon; Müller; Sismondi; Anon. _Anciennes

Chroniques de Savoye_ and _Monumenta Pisana_.

=Collections of Italian writers.=

Muratori; Tartini.

=Rhodes.=

Bosio; Caoursin; Vertot.

=Cyprus.=

Bustron; Macairas; Mas Latrie.

Papal Archives, Guide to Brom.

=Papal relations and Crusades against Turks.=

Baluze; Bernino; Boislisle; Bongars; Bosio; Bosquet; Caoursin;

Cribellus; Datta; Delaville Leroulx; Dozy; Dräseke; Eubel; Jorga;

Kunstmann; Lardito; Lot; Le Quien; Mas Latrie; Mézières; Molinier;

Paris; Petrarca; Postansque; Raimboult; Raynaldus; Sanudo; Stewart;

Theiner; Thomas; Torez; Wylie.

_See_ note above _under_ Collections of Contemporary Papal Records.

=Kossova.=

Avril; Mijatovitch; Novakovitch; Pavitch.

=Nicopolis.=

Brauner; Froissart; Kiss; Koehler; Rez; Schiltberger; Szentkláráy; Anon.

_Relation ... par un serviteur de Gui de Blois_.

=Relating to Timur.=

Abderrezzah; Arabshah; Clavijo; Hayton; Hussein Abu Halib; Langlès;

Mexia; Mezdob; Moranvillé; Nazmi Zadé; Perondino; Sherefeddin; Silvestre

de Sacy; White; Anon. Dominican Friar and Memoirs of Tamerlane.

Arabshah, Clavijo, Sherefeddin, the Dominican friar and the Memoirs

(possibly) are contemporary.

=Art and Architecture.=

Djelal; Franz; Karabacek; Kuhnel; Lavoix; Migeon; Parvillée; Saladin.

=Literature and Languages and Oriental Ethnology.=

Alberi; Aristov; Dethier; Dieterici; Donner; Dufresne; Fejér; Huart;

Jacob; Koelle; Krumbacher; Kúnos; Liliencron; Miklositch; Mordtmann;

Mullach; Nemeth; Pavitch; Rémusat; Toderini; Vambéry. (_See also under_

Kossova _and_ Nicopolis.)

=Commercial History.=

Charrière; Cornet; Delaville Leroulx; Depping; Heyd; Jorga; Mas Latrie;

Pigeonneau; Schanz; Tafel.

=Black Death.=

Covino; Hecker.

Covino is a contemporary.

II. ALPHABETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

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