§ 1. _Bos_, to be.
The verb _to be_ in Cornish, as in other Aryan languages, is made up of
more than one verb. In Cornish it may be divided in two parts. The
first of these consists of two tenses, a present and an imperfect, the
second of the usual five tenses, the imperative and the infinitive.
The first division, by means of reduplications and additions, takes a
variety of forms in the early literature, and there is a considerable
uncertainty about the exact force of these forms. Some of them evidently
mean little more than elongations and contractions for the sake of metre.
The second division is formed with greater regularity on a root _b_,
changing under certain conditions to _v_ (often written _f_) and _p_.
I. FIRST DIVISION. PRESENT TENSE, _I am_.
Sing. 1. _ov_ (old form _of_), _âthov_, _thov_, _oma_, _ăthoma_,
_thoma_.
2. _os_, _ăthos_, _thos_, _osta_, _ăthosta_, _thosta_.
3. _yu_, _ăthyu_, _thyu_, _yua_, _ăthyua_, _thyua_.
Plur. 1. _on_, _ăthon_, _thon_.
2. _ough_, _ăthough_, _though_.
3. _ens_, _ăthens_, _thens_.
There is little or no difference of meaning in these forms. The
lengthened form _ăthov_, or its apocopated _thov_, is generally found at
the beginning of an assertion. _Oma_, _osta_, _yua_ and their lengthened
forms are used interrogatively or after certain conjunctions. In the
early literature the lengthened forms were written _ythof_, _assof_,
_ossof_, _esof_, and even, with double lengthening, _ythesaf_, _ythesef_,
_ythesof_. The first vowel is probably the obscure vowel (as _u_ in
_until_), and the stress accent is on the syllable that follows the
verbal prefix, so that even the consonant of the prefix is a little
uncertain. Williams makes it _dh_, but _th_ seems more probable. In
late Cornish the vowel of the prefix was usually dropped. The personal
pronouns are generally added after this tense, so that it practically
becomes:—
_Thov vî_, _thos dî_, _yu ev_ (or _ev yu_), _thon ny_, _though why_,
_thens y_ (pronounced _thenŷ_).
Occasionally the impersonal form of this verb is used, _mî yu_, _tî yu_,
_ev yu_, _nŷ yu_, _whŷ yu_, _ŷ yu_. The negative is formed by adding
_nyns_ to the short form, _nynsov_ or _nynsoma_, _nynsos_ or _nynsosta_,
_nynsyu_, etc. Similarly this tense may be compounded with _mar_, if,
_ken_, though, _may_, that, into _marsov_, _kensov_, _maythov_. The _s_,
which is sometimes altered to _th_, is probably the _th_ of the verbal
prefix.
There are two other forms of the third person present, _ema_ (or _ma_),
plural _emons_ (or _mons_), and _es_ (older _us_), or _esy_ or _ejy_
(older _usy_, _ugy_).
(a). _ema_, _ma_, _emons_, _mons_ must, according to Lhuyd, always be
used narratively, never negatively, interrogatively (except after _ple_,
where), or with relatives. They must always precede their subject.
Thus:—
_Ema ’n levar en ow chŷ_, the book is in my house.
_Ema levar en ow chŷ_, there is a book in my house.
_Nynsyw levar en ow chŷ_, there is not a book in my house.
_Ple yu ’n levar_? / _Ple ma ’n levar_? } where is the book?
_’Yu ’n levar ŭbma_? is the book here?
(b). _emons_ is only used when the pronoun _they_ is the subject. When
a noun is the subject, whether singular or plural, a singular verb is
used.
_Emons ŷ en ow chŷ_, they are in my house.
_Ema ’n levrow en ow chŷ_, the books are in my house.
(c). _es_, _esy_, _ejy_, are chiefly used with relatives or
interrogatively in the sense of “is there,” “is there not.”
_An levar es en ow chŷ_, the book which is in my house (in this case
_es_=_a es_, which is).
_’Es levar en ow chŷ_? Is there a book in my house?
_Nag es levar en ow chŷ_? Is there not a book in my house?
In the first of these two interrogations the interrogative particle _a_
coalesces with _es_, in the second _nag_=_ni ag_, _ag_ being the same
interrogative particle, with a _g_ added before a vowel.
The ordinary interrogative of this tense is merely the form _’oma_,
_’osta_, _’yua_, _’on nŷ_, _’ough whŷ_, _’ens ŷ_ (pron. _enjŷ_), which
should be preceded by an apostrophe to show that the interrogative
particle _a_ is elided. The negative interrogative is the same preceded
by _nag_.
The difference between the use of _ema_, _yu_, and _es_ is not quite so
distinct in Cornish as between the corresponding _y mae_, _yw_, and _oes_
in Welsh, but if there is any difference in meaning between _ema_ and
_yu_, it is that _ema_ has more often the sense of _there is_, _it is_,
and _yu_ more commonly that of _is_ only; also _yu_ can be used
interrogatively and negatively, while _ema_, except after _ple_, where,
should not be used interrogatively, and is never used negatively at all.
Its negative and interrogative equivalent is _es_.
II. FIRST DIVISION. IMPERFECT TENSE, _I was_.
_Old form_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _esen_, _ythesen_, 1. _esen_, _ythesen_.
_en_.
2. _eses_, _ytheses_, 2. _eseugh_, _ytheseugh_.
_es_.
3. _esa_, _ytheses_. 3. _esens_, _ythesens_.
_Late form_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _erav_, _eram_, _erama_, _therav_, 1. _eron_, _theron_.
_theram_.
2. _eras_, _erasta_, _theras_. 2. _erough_, _therough_.
3. _era_, _thera_. 3. _erons_, _therons_.
The change from _s_ to _r_ in this tense, and the assimilation of the
inflections to the present, does not occur in the written language until
the middle of the seventeenth century. The personal pronouns were always
used with this tense in its late form, and the final consonants of the
personal inflections generally coalesced with the pronouns, and so were
omitted in writing, thus _therav vî_, _theron nŷ_, _therough whŷ_, were
written, though incorrectly, _thera vî_, _thera nŷ_, _thero whŷ_.
An alternative third person singular is _o_. It is used with relatives
as an equivalent of _a o_, who was, and with negatives as _nynso_=there
was not. It is in fact the past equivalent of _es_, but it is often used
in a simple assertion also. The simple interrogative is _’erama_, was I?
the negative interrogative is _nag erama_, was I not? and the simple
negative _nynseram_, I was not.
SECOND DIVISION. INFINITIVE, _bos_, to be, older form, used chiefly when
an extra syllable was required for a verse, _bones_.
I. FUTURE TENSE, _I shall be_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _bedhav_ (older _bydhaf_). 1. _bedhon_.
2. _bedheth_ (_bydhith_). 2. _bedhough_.
3. _bedh_ (_bydh_). 3. _bedhons_ (_bedhens_).
This tense is used more commonly in the impersonal form, _mî a vedh_, _tî
a vedh_, etc. Another common future is _mî a vedn bos_, formed with
_menny_, to will.
II. IMPERFECT OR SECONDARY PRESENT, _I was being_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _bedhen_, _ben_. 1. _bedhen_, _ben_.
2. _bedhes_, _bes_, 2. _bedheugh_, _beugh_.
_besta_.
3. _bedha_, _be_, _beva_. 3. _bedhens_, _bens_.
This tense is used rather as a conditional, _I should be_, or a
subjunctive after _pan_, when, _mar_, if, etc.
II. PRETERITE, _I was_, _I have been_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _bêv_ (older _buf_, _buef_). 1. _bên_ (older _buen_).
2. _bês_ (older _bus_, _bues_) _besta_. 2. _beugh_.
3. _bê_ (older _bue_). 3. _bons_.
This tense is more frequently used in the impersonal, _mî a vê_, _tî a
vê_, etc.
IV. PLUPERFECT, _I had been_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _bîen_ (older written 1. _bîen_ (_byen_).
_byen_).
2. _bîes_ (_byes_). 2. _bîeugh_ (_byeugh_).
3. _bîa_ (_bye_). 3. _bîens_ (_byens_).
Lhuyd gives a pluperfect _beazen_, _beazes_, etc. corresponding with the
Welsh _buaswn_, but it does not appear to be used.
V. SUBJUNCTIVE, _I may be_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _bev_ (older _byf_, 1. _ben_.
_beyf_).
2. _by_. 2. _beugh_.
3. _bo_. 3. _bons_.
This and the second tense are not very clearly distinguished.
IMPERATIVE.
Singular. Plural.
1. wanting. 1. _bedhon_, let us be.
2. _bedh_, be thou. 2. _bedhough_, be ye.
3. _bedhens_ (_bedhes_, _boes_, 3. _bedhens_, let them be.
_bes_), let him be.
A common variant of the imperative is formed with the auxiliary _gwîl_,
to do.
Singular. Plural.
1. wanting. 1. _gwren ny bos_.
2. _gwra bos_. 2. _gwreugh bos_.
3. _gwrens e bos_. 3. _gwrens y bos_.
§ 2. _Gwîl_ (older _guthil_, _gruthil_, _guil_, _gul_), to do.
I. PRESENT OR FUTURE TENSE, _I do_, or _I shall do_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwrav_, _gwrama_. 1. _gwren_, _gwron_.
2. _gwreth_, _gwrês_, 2. _gwreugh_, _gwrough_.
_gwresta_.
3. _gwra_. 3. _gwrons_.
_Gwrama_, _gwresta_, in the second mutation _wrama_, _wresta_, are used
in interrogative and negative sentences, and after _mar_, if, in the
fourth mutation _qwrama_, _qwresta_. The older form of _gwresta_ was
_gwreta_. Occasionally in late Cornish a form of this present is found
exactly like the imperfect of _bos_; _therama_, _thera_, etc. This is
probably _wrama_, _wra_, with the verbal particle _ăth_ (_yth_) prefixed.
It occurs in cases where it cannot possibly be the imperfect of _bos_.
Lhuyd (pp. 246, 253) was rather puzzled by it, but with his usual
clearness of sight was able to find out the real facts.
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a wra_, _tî a wra_, _ev a wra_, etc.
II. THE IMPERFECT TENSE, _I was doing_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwrellen_, _gwren_. 1. _gwrellen_, _gwren_.
2. _gwrelles_, _gwres_. 2. _gwrelleugh_.
3. _gwrella_, _gwre_. 3. _gwrellens_.
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a wrella_, _tî a wrella_, etc.
This tense is seldom used as an auxiliary, and is often confused with the
subjunctive.
III. THE PERFECT TENSE, _I did_.
(a). Inflected.
_Old form_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwrugaf_, _gwruge_. 1. _gwrussyn_.
2. _gwrussys_. 2. _gwrussough_.
3. _gwruk_. 3. _gwrussons_.
_Later form of old form_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwrîgaf_, _gwrîga_. 1. _gwressen_, _gwreithen_.
2. _gwresses_. 2. _gwressough_, _gwreithough_.
3. _gwrîg_. 3. _gwressons_, _gwreithons_.
_Modern form_.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwrîgav vi_. 1. _gwrîgon ny_.
2. _gwrîs_, _gwrîsta_, _gwrîges 2. _gwrîgough why_.
dî_.
3. _gwrîg_, _gwrîga_, _gwrês_. 3. _gwrîgans y_.
The last form seems to have completely superseded the other in late
Cornish. It seems to be formed by taking the irregular third person
singular as a root, and forming the rest of the persons from it on the
analogy of the present tense. Where it is found—and the first person
occurs as early as Jordan’s Drama of _The Creation_ (e.g. _ny wrugaf_, 1.
1662)—it is generally written without the final consonants of the verb,
which, as in the imperfect tense of the verb _to be_, seem to coalesce
with the initials of the pronouns. One finds the forms _rig a vee_,
_rigga vee_, _rigon ny_, _rigo why_, _rig an jy_, these being preceded by
adverbs, conjunctions, etc., such as _na_, _pan_, etc., which put the
initial in the second state, and the _w_ being almost silent is omitted.
The form _wruge_ (=_wrîga_), occurs in _Origo Mundi_, 2250, and _Passio
Christi_, 930, for the first person singular, preceded by _pan_, when.
The same word occurs for the third person in _O_. _M_. 423, and in the
form _wrega_ in Jordan’s _Creation_, 2216. This is _wrîg_ with the added
_a_ (see p. 120). A form of the third person singular of this tense,
_ros_ (for _wros_, second state of _gwros_), may possibly be found in the
_Ordinalia_ and in _St. Meriasek_, in the expression, _re Thu am ros_, by
God who made me. But it is more probably the preterite of _ry_, to give,
as it occurs also in the phrase _re’n arluth dhen beys am ros_, by the
Lord who gave me to the world. _Wraze_ (=_wrês_, cf. Breton, _greaz_)
occurs in Gen. iii. 7.
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a wrîg_, _tî a wrîg_, etc.
IV. THE PLUPERFECT OR CONDITIONAL TENSE, _I had or would have done_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwressen_ (older form _gwrussen_). 1. _gwressen_.
2. _gwresses_. 2. _gwresseugh_.
3. _gwressa_. 3. _gwressens_.
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a wressa_, _tî a wressa_, etc.
V. THE SUBJUNCTIVE, _I may do_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gwrellev_ (older 1. _gwrellon_, _gwrellen_.
_gwryllyf_).
2. _gwrelly_, _gwrelles_. 2. _gwrellough_, _gwrelleugh_.
3. _gwrello_, _gwreffa_. 3. _gwrellens_, _gwrons_.
There is rather a confusion of the subjunctive and imperfect, and the two
are used rather indiscriminately. The third person plural, _gwrons_, is
borrowed from the imperative.
(b). The Impersonal.
_Mî a wrello_, _tî a wrello_, etc.
_Mî a wreffa_, _tî a wreffa_, etc.
VI. THE IMPERATIVE.
Singular. Plural.
1. wanting. 1. _gwren_, let us do.
2. _gwra_, do thou. 2. _gwreugh_, do ye.
3. _gwrens_, let him do. 3. _gwrens_, _gwrons_, let them do.
INFINITIVE, _gîl_, _gwîl_, to do.
PRESENT OR ACTIVE PARTICIPLE, _ow kîl_, doing.
PAST OR PASSIVE PARTICIPLE, _gwrês_, done.
When this verb is used otherwise than as an auxiliary, the future is _mî
a vedn gwîl_, I will do, etc. It means, as a principal verb, to do or to
make, and tenses may be formed with its own tenses as auxiliaries to its
infinitive. Thus:—
_Mî a wra gwîl_, I do or I make.
_Tî a wrîg gwîl_, thou hast made.
_Mar qwressa ’n den e wîl_, if the man would make it.
§ 3. _Gally_, to be able.
I. PRESENT OR FUTURE, _I can_ or _I may_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gellam_, _gallam_, 1. _gellen_.
_gellav_.
2. _gallos_, _gelleth_. 2. _gellough_, _gallough_.
3. _gel_. 3. _gellons_.
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a el_ or _mî el_, etc.
II. PAST (mixed preterite and pluperfect), _I could_ or _I might_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _galjen_, _gelles_. 1. _galjen_, _gelsen_.
2. _galjes_. 2. _galjeugh_, _gelseugh_.
3. _galja_, _gallas_. 3. _galjens_, _gellens_.
(b). Impersonal. _Mî alja_, etc.
III. SUBJUNCTIVE, _I may be able_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _gellev_, _gallen_. 1. _gellen_.
2. _gelly_. 2. _gelleugh_, _gallough_.
3. _gallo_, _gelly_. 3. _gallons_.
This verb is chiefly used (as has been said) as an auxiliary in the
present and past tenses, in the sense of _can_, _could_, or _may_,
_might_. In direct sentences the impersonal form is most usual, in
negative, interrogative, and dependent sentences the inflected form in
the second state of the initial, which is influenced by the particle _a_,
generally, however, not expressed, or by _na_, not. When the inflected
form has been used in the question, the inflected form is often used
also, preceded by the personal pronoun, in affirmative answers. Thus:—
_’Ellough why clappya Kernûak_? Can you speak Cornish?
_Mî ellam_ (not _mî a el_). I can.
_’Aljesta scrifa a Sowsnak_? Couldst thou write English?
_Mî aljen_. I could.
_’Allosta môs dhô’n chŷ_? Canst thou go to the house?
_Mî ellam_. I can.
_Na orama dr ’el an Kembrîan gwîl rag dhô witha ’ga thavas_. {133} I
know not what the Welsh may do to preserve their language. (Boson’s
_Nebbaz Gerriau_.)
_Radn alja bos parres dhô lavarel_. {133} Some might be prepared to
say. (Boson’s _Nebbaz Gerriau_).
Sometimes the verb _gŏthvos_, to know (for which see Chapter XI.), is
used to express _can_, especially when mental capability is more or less
intended. _Mî ôr_ (or _mî wôr_) _cowsa Sowsnak_, I can speak English.
Compare a similar use of _savoir_ in French.
§ 4. _Menny_, to will, to wish.
I. PRESENT, _I will_.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _mennav_, _mednav_, 1. _mennon_, _mednon_.
_mednama_.
2. _menneth_, _medneth_, 2. _mennough_, _mednough_.
_menta_.
3. _medn_. 3. _mennons_, _mednons_.
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a vedn_, _tî a vedn_, etc.
II. PAST, _I would_. This is really the pluperfect.
(a). Inflected.
Singular. Plural.
1. _menjon_, _menjam_ (older 1. _menjon_ (_mensen_).
_mensen_).
2. _menjes_ (_menses_). 2. _menjough_ (_menseugh_).
3. _menja_ (_mensa_). 3. _menjons_ (_mensens_).
(b). Impersonal.
_Mî a venja_, _tî a venja_, etc.
These are the only two tenses in common use as auxiliaries. Lhuyd gives
another of mixed imperfect and preterite, _mennen_, _mennyz_, _mennaz_,
_mennen_, _menneh_, _mennenz_.