succeeding wars, the King requiring him to lead an army against the
Grecians, he suffered the greatest distress in the contest between
gratitude and patriotism; and neither of these virtues being able to
overcome the other, he ended the conflict by putting a period to his
existence. On his being banished, Aristides succeeded him in the charge
of the revenues, [Sidenote: A. A. C. 470.] and Cimon in the command of
the forces. The glorious exploits of this young hero almost eclipsed
even those of Miltiades, his father. He gained several great victories
over the Persians, by sea and land, and beautified the city with the
spoils of the enemy.
Aristides dying, Pericles succeeded him, and became the rival of Cimon,
who was banished on a suspicion of favoring the Lacedemonians,
[Sidenote: A. A. C. 455.] but recalled five years afterwards. He
settled, for a time, the differences between the rival cities, and led
them once more against the common enemy. And having ended a war of
fifty-one years, by an honorable peace with the Persians, he died on the
eve of returning to Athens. He was succeeded by Thucydides, his
brother-in-law, but who was soon banished by Pericles, who now exercised
alone the sovereign authority.
This illustrious patriot was equally attentive to the prosperity, and to
the beauty of the city. With one hand he enriched her with the wealth of
every nation, with the other he adorned her with the works of the most
celebrated masters. Phidias, the famous sculptor, flourished in his
administration, and it is to him we are indebted for the magnificent
Temple of Minerva.
But neither his refined genius, nor his political abilities, could
exempt his country from the envy which prosperity generally attracts.
The splendour she had attained, and the haughtiness it occasioned, drew
upon her the complaints of many of the Powers of Greece, and
particularly of all those within the Peloponnesus. Animated by Pericles,
Athens, although averse to hostile measures, was resolved not to submit
to the attacks of the Lacedemonians, but, conscious of her resources,
determined [Sidenote: A. A. C. 431.]to support her dignity; and thus,
undaunted by superior force, she sustained herself for twenty-seven
years, against the united efforts of all her enemies, in the famous
Peloponnesian war.
Pericles died at the close of the fourth campaign; but the war was
continued until the end of the tenth, when a truce was concluded, on
terms very advantageous to Athens. But the ambition of Alcibiades, who
now began to be distinguished at Athens, soon brought on a renewal of
hostilities. He opposed Nicias on every occasion, and, contrary to the
advice of that excellent General, persuaded the Athenians to send a
considerable part of their forces into Sicily, himself embarking on that
expedition: but, being soon recalled, he fled to Sparta, where he joined
the enemy, and became the scourge of Attica. In the mean while, Syracuse
was reduced to great [Sidenote: A. A. C. 413.] straights; but, a
reinforcement arriving from Peloponnesus, the Athenians were entirely
defeated, and Nicias, their General, most inhumanly put to death.
This blow dispirited the Athenians so much, that Alcibiades,
compassionating their distress, returned to his duty. At first he was
surprisingly successful; but the fleet suffering a defeat whilst he was
absent on an expedition, he was deprived of the command, for having left
it in unworthy hands.
The Athenians had soon reason to repent this act; for, notwithstanding
their fleet gained a considerable advantage under Conon, it was
afterwards attacked by surprise in the Hellespont, and entirely
[Sidenote: A. A. C. 404.] destroyed. Lysander, who gained this
celebrated victory, after subduing all the maritime places in his route,
arrived at Athens, and obliged her to surrender.
The city now suffered all the horrors of the most cruel tyranny and
oppression: but the Lacedemonians, exulting in their prosperity, as the
Athenians had done before, raised up a confederacy against them, by
which, after ten years slavery, Athens thoroughly recovered her liberty,
and regained her former consequence; and, although Thebes, under
Epaminondas, seemed for a time to rival her, she maintained her
superiority over the [Sidenote: A. A. C. 337.] rest of Greece, until
Philip of Macedon, having defeated the Grecians in the battle of
Chæronea, obliged them to nominate him Commander in Chief of their
forces.
Demosthenes had long observed the steps by which this Monarch aimed at
the subjection of Greece, and endeavoured, in his celebrated orations,
to rouse the spirit of his countrymen; but he did not succeed until it
was too late.
Philip left his authority to his son Alexander, the Conqueror, during
whose absence in Persia, the Athenians attempted to regain their
liberties, but were soon suppressed by his General Antipater. On the
death of Alexander, Athens again revolted, and at first obtained some
considerable advantages; but Antipater, being reinforced, put [Sidenote:
A. A. C. 322.] an end to her triumphs, and caused her principal citizens
to be put to death. Demosthenes fled; but, being detected in his
retreat, he poisoned himself.
From this time, Athens was almost constantly kept in subjection by one
or other of the successors of Alexander, until about two hundred years
before Christ, when, being attacked by Philip III. of Macedon, the
Athenians complained to the Romans, who had lately concluded a peace
with the King, but now again declared war against him; and being joined
by several of the Greek States, Philip was soon overcome. The only use
the [Sidenote: A. A. C. 196.] Romans made of their conquest, was to shew
their magnanimity, by restoring liberty to all the cities of Greece.
In the war between Rome and Antiochus, Greece was at first a principal
scene of action. In this, the Romans were again successful, and
confirmed their former generosity: but, at last, finding the different
States constantly at variance, and one or other of them [Sidenote: A. A.
C. 146.] ever imploring the assistance of Rome, they put an end to their
disputes, by forming them into a Roman province. They had previously
defeated and taken Perseus, the last King of Macedonia; after which, it
only remained to dispel the Achæan League, which had been so famous
under Philopœmen.
In the war between Mithridates and the Romans, the former got possession
of Athens; but, after a noble defence, it was retaken the year following
by Sylla, who carried its library to [Sidenote: A. A. C. 86.] Rome, with
many of its most valuable pieces of sculpture and painting. Attica
continued to share the fate of the Romans, until their great Empire was
divided into the Eastern and Western branches. Greece then appertained
to the former, and fell with it into the hands of the Turks, on the
taking of Constantinople by Mahomet II.--A. D. 1453.
CHAPTER. XIX.
TO CAPTAIN SMITH.
Athens, February 3d, 1789.
MY DEAR FRIEND,
Athens still contains near ten thousand inhabitants, and has lately been
enclosed by a wall, to defend it from the irruptions of the Albanians,
who are ever ripe for a revolt, and have several times plundered the
town. The neighbourhood abounds with olive trees, and the French have
established a small factory for the culture of them. The ancient citadel
is always kept in a state of defence; and, being situated on the flat
surface of an unassailable rock, it is only to be subdued by famine, or
a bombardment. But what most renders it an object of curiosity, is, its
containing the superb Temple of Minerva, the most celebrated work of the
illustrious Pericles. But, alas! of this magnificent pile, only enough
is left to give us a faint idea of its former grandeur, and to make us
lament the unhappy fate of so sublime an edifice. The columns which
supported the south side, and part of the front, are still standing,
with some elegant metopes, which represent the exploits of the different
heroes of Athens, and the battle of the Amazons: but these are every
year falling down, from a violent shock the remains of the temple
received, about a century ago, from the Venetians, who, in bombarding
the citadel, blew up a powder magazine within it.
From these ruins of fallen greatness, it is a pleasant relief to turn
our eyes to the Temple of Theseus, which, being converted into a Greek
church, is still perfect. Here the sympathetic soul enjoys the generous
glow of admiration, in contemplating a monument of gratitude to a
departed hero, and the satisfaction of seeing, that the ravages of more
than two thousand years have not been able to affect the work of a
grateful people in honor of a patriotic Prince: so may we hope, that, to
the last day, it will remain a living proof of the generosity of the
one, and of the merit of the other.
Theseus was the great grandson of Cecrops, and, like him, corrected the
wandering manner in which his people lived, and formed them into civil
societies; whence he is justly called the second founder of Athens.
In the preceding narration, I took no notice of the exploits of this
Prince, because they are stories we have been accustomed to hear from
our cradles, and, although founded on truth, are generally classed among
those of the fabulous kind. For the same reason, I passed over the death
of his successor, Mnestheus, at the siege of Troy, as well the
expedition for the Golden Fleece, and the other events in which Athens
was concerned previous to the invasion of the Persians.
The temple is an elegant edifice, supported by a beautiful colonnade, on
a similar plan to the largest at Pestum. It was erected in the
administration of Cimon, who, having discovered the bones of Theseus in
the island of Shyros, where he was killed by a fall from a precipice,
restored them to his native city. The metopes on the front, and part of
the sides, are ornamented with basso relievo, representing the battle of
the Centaurs. These, you may recollect, were nothing more than the
cavalry of Thessaly, where the men were so perfect in the management of
their horses, that, when mounted, they were supposed to be part of the
same animal.
The east gateway, which was also erected to Theseus, remains tolerably
perfect. It was repaired by Adrian, who added an inscription, importing
that Athens was now become his city; and, indeed, by his liberality, he
in some measure made amends for the depredations the Romans committed
upon her ornaments, and earned the title of one of her founders. It was
this Emperor who raised that superb pile the Pantheon, dedicated to all
the Gods; which, by its grandeur, elegance and beauty, justly merited
that exalted title. Out of an hundred and twenty columns, each eighteen
feet in circumference, only nine are standing. They are of the finest
marble, with very rich Corinthian capitals. Those of Theseus and Minerva
are Doric.
The monument vulgarly called the Lanthorn of Demosthenes, being
inhabited by a French Monk, and the octagonal Temple of the Winds, by a
Turkish Dervise, are still entire. The former is light and elegant; the
latter has nothing but its antiquity to recommend it; for the figures
which represent the different winds, are so indifferently executed,
that, were not their names inscribed below them, it would be impossible
to know their qualities.
Some triumphal columns, and other monuments, are still left in tolerable
preservation, besides a considerable part of the Theatre of Bacchus, and
many other fragments and ruins, which I am less particular in
describing, because we have taken exact plans of all of them.
The channel of the Ilyssus, whose banks were formerly so famous, is dry,
even at this rainy season; and I have several times walked in its bed,
as well as in the olive groves where Plato delivered his lectures. I
have also been as far as the plains of Marathon, to pay my oblations at
the shrine of Miltiades--an interesting scene to a Soldier, and of which
my military friends may expect an exact description.
THE BATTLE OF MARATHON,
MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED
TO
THE RIGHT HONORABLE
GENERAL ELIOTT,
LORD HEATHFIELD.
This celebrated field is about twelve miles in circumference, and a
day's march from Athens. It is washed by the sea on the east, and
surrounded by mountains on every other side, except the south-east
corner, where the flat is continued a short space along the shore, and
afterwards terminated by hills. The part where this slip joins the grand
plain, has a large morass in its center, which extends pretty close to
the hills on one side, and near the water's edge on the other.
There are two roads from the plains to Athens; the one by the morass,
the other through the town of Marathon, which lies at the foot of the
hills, nearly opposite the center of the plains.
Miltiades' army, in point of numbers, was not equal to one tenth of the
Persians; but he knew that by waiting for them under the walls of
Athens, he should abandon the country to their ravages, and submit to
see them receive their convoys, and gather provisions unmolested; and
possibly even subject himself to a famine. He therefore determined, at
all events, to keep from between the enemy and the capital, and wait for
an opportunity of attacking them to advantage. And this Fortune soon
gave him. The Persians having reached the plains of Marathon,
accompanied by their fleet, pursued the road nearest the sea. Their van
had already ascended the heights, their main body filled the flat
beneath, and their rear was passing the narrow space on the sides of the
morass. Historians tell us, that Miltiades drew his whole strength into
his wings, and particularly his right, leaving his center almost open.
But as they have not been sufficiently minute in describing the scene of
this memorable action, I could not thoroughly perceive the excellence of
his disposition, until I beheld the field of battle.
The morass supplied the place of troops in his center. The space on the
left was but narrow, consequently his greatest exertions were required
on his right. This the General thoroughly understood, and at the moment
the Persians were in the situation I have just described, he rushed from
the town of Marathon, and by his admirable disposition, brought his
whole force to act on the enemy's rear.
The Persians, encumbered and confined, and scarce able to use their
arms, were instantly thrown into confusion, and hewn down in immense
numbers. The main body faced about, and advanced to the assistance of
the rear. The van, confident of victory from their numbers, descended
from the heights to pursue their success. The whole crowded together in
the narrow passes, making a general, confused attempt to break into the
plain: but the Athenians constantly out-fronting them, and the immense
numbers of the enemy only serving to incommode themselves, and to create
confusion, they were slain as fast as they advanced. At length those in
front, unable to withstand the terrible carnage that raged around them,
attempted to fly; but being prevented from retreating by those behind
them, who not having seen the slaughter, still pushed forward, they
precipitately threw themselves into the morass.
Victory now declared for the Athenians, who, pursuing their advantage,
fell with such violence on the disordered ranks of the enemy, that to
escape their fury, their nearest opponents were compelled to turn, and
in despair, forced their way through their own friends. A general rout
immediately ensued, and the exertions of the Athenians encreasing with
their success, they drove the enemy headlong before them. Near thirty
thousand Persians fell by the sword. Numbers perished in the morass, and
the rest, in confusion and dismay, escaped to their ships.
These, my Lord, are my ideas of the principles on which Miltiades acted,
and what I have conceived to have been the plan of the battle, from
seeing the plains on which it was fought. I am, however, aware that one
of the causes to which I attribute the success of the Greeks--their
out-fronting the enemy--was a less advantage in those days, than it has
become since the invention of musketry and artillery. But although the
Grecians made their grand exertions by close action, yet it is to be
presumed, from the hilly, irregular country in which this army was
generally to act, that it was not without a considerable corps of
slingers and bowmen, who, in the disposition I have given, might act to
the greatest advantage upon the enemy's flank.
It is needless to say that the Persians, by forming _en potence_ along
the sides of the morass, might have brought as many men into action as
the Greeks; they were too much confused by the sudden attack, bordering
on a surprise, to execute this manœuvre, and most likely their troops
with missive weapons were not in this part of their army.
The most plausible objection to my plan is, that had the Persians,
instead of engaging and crowding themselves in the situation Miltiades
attacked them, made a retreating fight, till they passed the narrow
flat, and secured the heights, it was then in their power, had Miltiades
persisted in the attack, completely to surround him, by making part of
the troop on the heights, in front, deploy along the eminence, and then
descend in his rear, whilst the rest of the army, now advantageously
posted on the heights, would probably have prevented his forcing their
front.
This is, doubtless, what a good General would have done. But when the
Generals are equal, how can men be expected to beat ten times their
number? Miltiades was in one of those situations, where inaction is as
fatal as a defeat; and it was his duty to seize every opportunity, in
which it was in Fortune's power to favor his designs. He acted on these
principles, and was crowned with the success his courage deserved.
At first the Athenians thought no praises they could bestow, equal to
the merit of Miltiades; but in my letter from Paros, I mentioned the
cruel persecution he afterwards suffered. But the death of this great
man having disarmed the malice of his enemies, they soon became sensible
of their shameful ingratitude; and as some atonement to the manes of
their departed hero, they erected a monument to his memory on the plains
where he gained his glory.
Of this sacred tomb, only the base remains. I picked up a chip of marble
that had fallen from it, and was instantly impressed with the idea of
having this honored relick set, with a suitable device, in some of the
metal from the Battering Ships, destroyed before Gibraltar, and thus to
commemorate and unite the greatest victory of Greece, with the most
glorious achievement of Britain.
LETTER. XX.
TO CAPTAIN SMITH.
Athens, February 5th, 1789.
MY DEAR FRIEND,
On our way to Marathon, we turned a little out of the road to see a
mutilated statue of a Lion, which still bears the signs of most
excellent workmanship.
We have already repeatedly viewed every thing worthy notice in Athens;
but as the painter has not yet finished his drawings, we shall remain
here some days longer, during which we mean to make an excursion to the
Islands of Salamis, Ægina, &c. But as they contain nothing worthy
description, I will close this sketch of the history and antiquities of
this interesting city, with a short account of the religion of its
present inhabitants. About one-fifth of them are Turks, and the rest
Greeks.
GREEK RELIGION.
St. Paul, you recollect, visited Athens, and the other states of Greece,
to preach Christianity; and notwithstanding all the anathemas the Pope
has denounced against the Greeks, there is, in fact, but little
difference between their religion, and that of the Roman Catholics. They
equally make use of the sign of the cross; worship images; pray to the
saints; have confessors; and believe in transubstantiation, although
they do not kneel at the elevation of the Host. If they deny the
doctrine of purgatory, they admit something very like it, in praying for
the souls of the dead. Their Bishops and superior clergy are never
permitted to marry; but a simple priest is allowed that indulgence once
in his life, though he can never take a second wife. They acknowledge
the Pope to be the chief of the Patriarchs, but deny his having the
power of granting indulgences; and this was his Holiness's first reason
for accusing them of schism.
It is true, there is another grand point in which they dissent both from
the Roman Catholics and the Protestants; I mean the article of the Holy
Ghost, which they say can proceed from the Father only. There are some
less essential differences, such as their using leavened bread in the
consecration of the Sacrament, and mixing the bread and wine together.
And they also differ in the ceremonies of baptism, marriage, and burial.
In the first they give three complete immersions. The second is
performed by the priest's changing the ring from the bride's to the
bridegroom's finger, saying a few words, and then from the bridegroom's
to the bride's. He repeats this ceremony about thirty times, without any
alteration, and when he desists, it is again as often performed by each
of the godfathers and godmothers. Their funerals are like those of the
savages--howling and making hideous cries till the corpse is interred,
and then feasting over the grave.
The Patriarch of Constantinople is the head of the Greek Church, and has
under him the Patriarchs of Jerusalem, Damascus, and Alexandria. St.
Polycarp is their favorite Saint. He was one of St. John's disciples,
and suffered martyrdom at Smyrna, of which he was the first Archbishop.
MAHOMETAN RELIGION.
From the religion of the Greeks, I naturally turn to that of the Turks.
To have a just idea of this, it is necessary that we should divest
ourselves of every prejudice; and in arraigning the character of a man
whom death has prevented from appearing in his own defence, Justice ever
requires, that if we do not put the most favorable construction on his
actions, we should, at least, treat them with impartiality.
To speak candidly then, Mahomet might be a religious and a moral man.
His father left him in rather penurious circumstances, but profiting to
the utmost by the education his friends could afford him, and always
preserving a most unexceptionable character, he rose to be factor of a
rich widow, whom he afterwards married; and becoming, by this
connection, a person of some consequence in his country, he felt it his
duty to devote himself to its welfare.
He saw, with the utmost concern, that the Jews and the Christians were
constantly at variance, and that Idolatry was daily gaining ground. To
check the progress of a practice so unworthy the human mind, and so
degrading to our Divine Maker, appeared to him an object worthy his
whole attention. Filled with this idea, it became the constant subject
of his thoughts, and after long revolving it in his mind, he, at length,
conceived it impossible to attain his end by any other method, but by
that of uniting the Jews and the Christians in one religion. And this he
knew could only be effected by admitting part of the tenets of both.
For this purpose, he acknowledged Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses, whom
the Jews regarded as their chief Prophets, to whom he added our Blessed
Saviour; in commemoration of whose mildness and beneficence, he called
him the Breath of God--the most flattering appellation he could offer,
confident with the delicacy it was necessary to observe towards the
Jews. Nevertheless, a Christian cannot sufficiently lament, that he was
obliged to make concessions to a people execrated by God. But as his
only object was to restore the divine worship to its original purity, he
conceived that the Almighty would not be displeased at the means he was
about to adopt to attain so laudable an end.
The first person to whom he communicated his design, was her in whom, as
a good man, he was most interested, I mean his wife. She readily
embraced his sentiments, and, in a short time, many of their relations
adopted their opinions. Nevertheless, the Arabs in general continued
obstinate in their superstition and idolatry; and as Mahomet as yet only
made use of the gentle methods of persuasion, his proselytes increased
so slowly, that he had reason to despair of success, unless he could
make it be believed that he received supernatural assistance.