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[Illustration: _The Chaudière Falls, near Quebec._]
CANADIAN SCENERY
ILLUSTRATED.
FROM DRAWINGS BY W. H. BARTLETT.
THE LITERARY DEPARTMENT BY
N. P. WILLIS, ESQ.
AUTHOR OF “PENCILLINGS BY THE WAY,” “INKLINGS OF ADVENTURE,” ETC.
* * * * *
VOL. I.
* * * * *
LONDON:
VIRTUE & CO., CITY ROAD AND IVY LANE.
CONTENTS
I. CANADIAN SCENERY.
II. THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF CANADA.
III. LATER EVENTS IN CANADA.
IV. CONDITIONS OF THE INHABITANTS OF CANADA.
V. IMPRESSIONS OF CANADA ON TRAVELLERS.
LIST OF THE ENGRAVINGS.
* * * * *
VOL. I.
* * * * *
THE MAP
GEORGEVILLE
A FOREST SCENE
CANOE-BUILDING AT PAPPER’S ISLAND
VIEW ACROSS THE BOUNDARY LINE, FROM THE SUGAR LOAF
THE SQUAW’S GRAVE
PORT HOPE
THE WHIRLPOOL ON THE NIAGARA
AYLMER, UPPER CANADA
LONG SAULT RAPID, ON THE ST. LAWRENCE
QUEBEC, FROM THE OPPOSITE SHORE OF THE ST. LAWRENCE
MONTMORENCY COVE
MONUMENT TO WOLFE AND MONTCALM, QUEBEC
THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM, NEAR QUEBEC
LES MARCHES NATURELLES, NEAR QUEBEC
QUEENSTON
GENERAL BROCK’S MONUMENT, ABOVE QUEENSTON
CITADEL OF KINGSTON
VIEW FROM THE CITADEL OF KINGSTON
COPP’S FERRY, NEAR GEORGEVILLE
MARCH ON LAKE CHAUDIÈRE
THE CHAUDIÈRE, NEAR BYTOWN
LAKE OF THE TWO MOUNTAINS
ST. JOHN'S, RICHLIEU RIVER
FORT CHAMBLY
TORONTO
FISH MARKET, TORONTO
NAVY ISLAND
THE BANKS OF THE RIVER NIAGARA
QUEBEC
VILLAGE OF LORETTE, NEAR QUEBEC
JUNCTION OF THE ST. FRANCIS AND MAGOG RIVERS
HALLOWELL, BAY OF QUINTÉ
SCENE IN THE BAY OF QUINTÉ
ST. REGIS, INDIAN VILLAGE
BURIAL-PLACE OF THE VOYAGEURS
SCENE AMONG THE THOUSAND ISLES
RAPIDS, ON THE APPROACH TO THE VILLAGE OF CEDARS
PRESCOTT, FROM OGDENSBURG HARBOUR
VILLAGE OF CEDARS, RIVER ST. LAWRENCE
NELSON’S PILLAR, MONTREAL
MONTREAL, FROM THE ST. LAWRENCE
THE ST. LAWRENCE AT MONTREAL
RAFT IN A SQUALL ON LAKE ST. PETER
THE THREE RIVERS, RIVER ST. LAWRENCE
BRIDGE NEAR QUEBEC
THE CHAUDIÈRE BRIDGE, NEAR QUEBEC
THE CHAUDIÈRE FALLS, NEAR QUEBEC
RAFT ON THE ST. LAWRENCE, CAPE SANTE
SCENE FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE FALL OF MONTMORENCY
MONTMORENCY BRIDGE
PRESCOTT GATE, QUEBEC
VIEW FROM THE CITADEL, QUEBEC
WOLFE’S COVE
[Illustration: THE MAP]
CANADIAN SCENERY.
* * * * *
The name of this magnificent link in the colonial chain with which
England has encircled the world, is a matter of considerable doubt.[1]
It has been dignified with some research and ingenuity, however, and we
can record the result, leaving the choice of solutions to the reader.
Hennepin thus unfolds his idea of its origin:—“Les Espagnols ont fait
la première découverte du Canada. Ayant mis pied à terre, ils n’y
trouvèrent rien de considérable. Cette raison les obligea d’abandonner
ce pays, qu’ils appellèrent _il Capo di Nada_, c’est-à-dire le Cap de
Rien (or _Cape Nothing_), d’où est venu par corruption le nom de
_Canada_.”
La Potherie corroborates this statement, with this difference, that he
attributes the Spaniards’ idea of the nothingness of the country to its
being covered with snow. He says also that the Indians, on the arrival
of Jacques Cartier, frequently pronounced these words: _Aca nada_
(nothing here), which is a very plausible derivation. The words were
taught them probably by the Spaniards, who had visited the Baie des
Chaleurs, and pronounced them because they found no gold or silver
mines.
Our own opinion, however, is, that the word Canada is derived from the
word _Kanata_, which, in Iroquois, signifies _a collection of huts_. By
so unpromising an appellation, is known a province containing upwards of
350,000 square miles, which offer to the agriculturist almost
measureless fields of pasture and tillage—to the manufacturer, an
incalculable extension of the home market for the disposal of his
wares—to the merchant and mariner, vast marts for profitable traffic in
every product with which nature has bounteously enriched the earth—to
the capitalist, an almost interminable extent for the profitable
investment of funds—and to the industrious, skilful, and intelligent
emigrant, a field where every species of mental ingenuity and manual
labour may be developed and brought into action with advantage to the
whole family of man.
The first query that occurs to the reader’s mind in taking up any book
on Canada, is, What was the real character of the aboriginal inhabitant,
and how far and in what manner has he receded before the advancing step
of the white man? Before touching on the history of the civilization of
the country, the condition of its savage owners should be well
understood.
In their physical character, the American savage is considered by
Blumenbach as forming a particular variety in the human species,
differing, though not very widely, from the Mongolian. Believing that
the New World was peopled from the Old, and considering that the Mongol
race was situated nearest the point where Asia and America come almost
into contact, we are inclined to ascribe these variations merely to a
change of circumstances. The face is broad and flat, with high cheek
bones; more rounded and arched, however, than in the allied type,
without having the visage expanded to the same breadth. The forehead is
generally low; the eyes deep, small, and black; the nose rather
diminutive, but prominent, with wide nostrils; and the mouth large, with
somewhat thick lips. The stature, which varies remarkably throughout the
continent, is, in the quarter of which we treat, generally above the
middle size. This property, however, is confined to the men, the females
being usually below that standard—a fact which may be confidently
ascribed to the oppressive drudgery they are compelled to undergo. The
limbs, in both sexes, are well proportioned, and few instances of
deformity ever occur.
The colour of the skin in the American is generally described as red, or
copper-coloured; or, according to Mr. Lawrence’s more precise
definition, “it is an obscure orange or rusty-iron colour, not unlike
the bark of the cinnamon tree.” Although we believe that climate is the
chief cause of the diversities in human colour, yet it is certain that
all savages are dark-tinted. This peculiarity may be accounted for by
their constant exposure to the inclemency of the seasons, to sun, air,
and tempests; and the same cause, in civilized countries, produces a
similar effect on sailors, as well as on those who work constantly in
the fields. In the Old World, the intermediate tints between white and
black are generally varieties of brown and yellow. The _red_ tint is
considered characteristic of the New World. We must, however, observe
that the traveller Adair, who lived upwards of thirty years among the
Indians, positively asserts that it is produced artificially; that in
the oil, grease, and other unctuous substances with which they keep
their skin constantly smeared, there is dissolved the juice of a root
which gradually tinges it of this colour. He states that a white man,
who spent some years with the natives and adorned himself in their
manner, completely acquired it. Charlevoix seems also to lean to the
same opinion. Weld, though rather inclined to dissent from it, admits
that such a notion was adopted by missionaries and others who had
resided long in the country. It is certain that the inhabitants glory in
this colour, and regard Europeans who have it not as nondescript beings,
not fully entitled to the name of men. It may be noticed also, that this
tint is by no means so universal as is commonly supposed. Humboldt
declares that the idea of its general prevalence could never have arisen
in equinoctial America, or been suggested by the view of the natives in
that region; yet these provinces include by far the larger part of the
aboriginal population. The people of Nootka Sound and other districts of
the north-western coast are nearly as white as Europeans; which may be
ascribed, we think, to their ample clothing and spacious habitations.
Thus the red nations appear limited to the eastern tribes of North
America, among whom generally prevails the custom of painting or
smearing the skin with that favourite colour. We are not prepared to
express a decided opinion on this subject; but it obviously requires a
closer investigation than it has yet received.
The hair is another particular in which the races of mankind remarkably
differ. The ruder classes are generally defective, either in the
abundance or quality of that graceful appendage; and the hair of the
Americans, like that of their allied type the Mongols, is coarse, black,
thin, but strong, and growing to a great length. Like the latter also,
by a curious coincidence, most of them remove it from every part of the
head with the exception of a tuft on the crown, which they cherish with
much care. The circumstance, however, which has excited the greatest
attention, is the absence of beard, apparently entire among all the
people of the New World. The early travellers viewed it as a natural
deficiency; whence Robertson and other eminent writers have even
inferred the existence of something peculiarly feeble in their whole
frame. But the assertion, with all the inferences founded upon it, so
far as relates to the North American tribes, has been completely refuted
by recent observation. The original growth has been found nearly, if not
wholly, as ample as that of the Europeans; but the moment it appears,
every trace is studiously obliterated. This is effected by the aged
females, originally with a species of clam-shell, but now by means of
spiral pieces of brass wire supplied by the traders. With these an old
squaw will, in a few minutes, reduce the chin to a state of complete
smoothness; and slight applications during the year, clear away such
straggling hairs as happen to sprout. It is only among old men, who
become careless of their appearance, that the beard begins to be
perceptible. A late English traveller strongly recommends to his
countrymen a practice, which, though scarcely accordant with our ideas
of manly dignity, would, at the expense of a few minutes’ pain, save
them much daily trouble. The Indians have probably adopted this usage,
as it removes an obstacle to the fantastic painting of the face, which
they value so highly. A full beard, at all events, when it was first
seen on their French visitors, is said to have been viewed with peculiar
antipathy, and to have greatly enhanced the pleasure with which they
killed these foreigners.
The comparative physical strength of savage and civilized nations has
been a subject of controversy. A general impression has obtained that
the former, inured to simple and active habits, acquire a decided
superiority; but experience appears to have proved that this conclusion
is ill-founded. On the field of battle, when a struggle takes place
between man and man, the savage is usually worsted. In sportive
exercises, such as wrestling, he is most frequently thrown, and in
leaping comes short of his antagonist. Even in walking or running, if
for a short distance, he is left behind; but in these last movements, he
possesses a power of perseverance and continued exertion to which there
is scarcely any parallel. An individual has been known to travel nearly
eighty miles a day, and arrive at his destination without any symptoms
of fatigue. These long journeys, also, are frequently performed without
any refreshment, and even having their shoulders loaded with heavy
burdens, their power of supporting which is truly wonderful. For about
twelve miles, indeed, a strong European will keep a-head of the Indian,
but then he begins to flag; while the other, proceeding with unaltered
speed, outstrips him considerably. Even powerful animals cannot equal
them in this respect. Many of their civilized adversaries, when overcome
in war, and fleeing before them on swift horses, have, after a long
chase, been overtaken and scalped.
Having thus given a view of the persons of the American Aborigines, we
may proceed to consider the manner in which they are clothed and
ornamented. This last object might have been expected to have been a
very secondary one, among tribes whose means of subsistence are so very
scanty and precarious; but so far is this from being the case, that
there is scarcely any pursuit which occupies so much of their time and
regard. They have availed themselves of European intercourse to procure
each a small mirror, in which, from time to time, they view their
personal decorations, taking care that every thing shall be in the most
perfect order.
Embellishment, however, is not much expended on actual clothing, which
is simple, and chiefly arranged with a view to convenience. Instead of
shoes they wear what are termed moccasins, consisting of one strip of
soft leather wrapped round the foot, and fastened in front and behind.
Europeans, walking over hard roads, soon knock these to pieces; but the
Indian, tripping over snow or grass, finds them a light and agreeable
_chaussure_. Upwards, to the middle of the thigh, a piece of leather or
cloth, tightly fitted to the limb, serves instead of pantaloons,
stockings, and boots; it is sometimes sewed on so close as never to be
taken off. To a string or girdle round the waist are fastened two
aprons, one before and the other at the back, each somewhat more than a
foot square; and these are connected by a piece of cloth like a truss,
often used also as a capacious pocket. The use of breeches they have
always repelled with contempt, as cumbrous and effeminate. As an article
of female dress, they would consider them less objectionable; but that
the limbs of a warrior should be thus manacled, appears to them utterly
preposterous. They were particularly scandalized at seeing an officer
have them fastened over the shoulder by braces, and never after gave him
any name but Tied-Breech.
The garments now enumerated form the whole of their permanent dress. On
occasions of ceremony, indeed, or when exposed to cold, they put over it
a short shirt, fastened at the neck and wrists, and above it a long
loose robe closed or held together in front. For this purpose they now
generally prefer an English blanket. All these articles were originally
fabricated from the skins of wild animals; but at present, unless for
the moccasins, and sometimes the leggings, European stuffs are
preferred. The dress of the female scarcely differs from that of the
male, except that the apron reaches down to the knees; and even this is
said to have been adopted since their acquaintance with civilized
nations. The early French writers relate an amusing anecdote to prove
how little dress was considered as making a distinction between the
sexes. The Ursuline Nuns, having educated a Huron girl, presented her,
on her marriage to one of her countrymen, with a complete and handsome
suit of clothes in the Parisian style. They were much surprised, some
days after, to see the husband, who had ungenerously seized on the whole
of the bride’s attire and arrayed himself in it, parading back and
forward in front of the convent, and betraying every symptom of the most
extravagant exultation. This was further heightened, when he observed
the ladies crowding to the window to see him, and a universal smile
spread over their countenances.
These vestments, as already observed, are simple, and adapted only for
use. To gratify his passionate love of ornament, the Indian seeks
chiefly to load his person with certain glittering appendages. Before
the arrival of Europeans, shells and feathers took the lead; but since
that period, these commodities have been nearly supplanted by beads,
rings, bracelets, and similar toys, which are inserted profusely into
various parts of his apparel, particularly the little apron in front.
The chiefs usually wear a breastplate ornamented with them; and among
all classes, it is an object of the greatest ambition to have the
largest possible number suspended from the ear. That organ therefore is
not bored, but slit to such an extent that a stick of wax may be passed
through the aperture, which is then loaded with all the baubles that can
be mustered; and if the weight of these gradually draw down the yielding
flap till it rest on the shoulder, and the ornaments themselves cover
the breast, the Indian has reached the utmost height of his finery.
This, however, is a precarious splendour; the ear becomes more and more
unfit to support the burden, when at length some accident, the branch of
a tree, or even a twitch by a waggish comrade, lays at his feet all his
decorations, with the portion of the flesh to which they were attached.
Weld saw very few who had preserved this organ through life. The
adjustment of the hair, again, is an object of especial study. As
already observed, the greater part is generally eradicated, leaving only
a tuft, varying in shape and place according to taste and national
custom, but usually encircling the crown. This lock is stuck full of
feathers, wings of birds, shells, and every kind of fantastic ornament.
The women wear theirs long and flowing, and contrive to collect a
considerable number of ornaments for it, as well as for their ears and
dress.
But it is upon his skin that the American warrior chiefly lavishes his
powers of embellishment. His taste in doing so is very different from
ours. “While the European,” says Creuxius, “studies to keep his skin
clean, and free from every extraneous substance, the Indian’s aim is
that his, by the accumulation of oil, grease, and paint, may shine like
that of a roasted pig. Soot scraped from the bottoms of kettles, the
juices of herbs having a green, yellow, and above all, a vermilion tint,
rendered adhesive by combination with oil and grease, are lavishly
employed to adorn his person—or, according to our idea, to render it
hideous. Black and red, alternating with stripes, are the favourite
tints. Some blacken the face, leaving in the middle a red circle,
including the upper lip and tip of the nose; others have a red spot on
each ear, or one eye black and the other of a red colour. In war, the
black tint is profusely laid on, the others being only employed to
heighten its effect, and give to the countenance a terrific expression.
M. De Tracy, when Governor of Canada, was told by his Indian allies,
that, with his good-humoured face, he would never inspire his enemies
with any degree of awe: they besought him to place himself under their
brush, when they would soon make him such, that his very aspect would
strike terror. The breast, arms, and legs are the seat of more permanent
impressions, analogous to the tattooing of the South Sea Islanders. The
colours are rather elaborately rubbed in, or fixed by slight incisions
with needles and sharp-pointed bones. His guardian spirit, and the
animal that forms the symbol of his tribe, are the first objects
delineated. After this, every memorable exploit, and particularly the
enemies whom he has slain and scalped, are diligently graven on some
part of his figure; so that the body of an aged warrior contains the
history of his life.
The means of procuring subsistence must always form an important branch
of national economy. Writers taking a superficial view of savage life,
and seeing how scanty the articles of food are, while the demand is
naturally urgent, have assumed that the efforts to attain them must
absorb his whole mind, and scarcely leave room for any other thought.
But, on the contrary, these are to him very subordinate objects. To
perform a round of daily labour, even though insuring the most ample
provision for his wants, would be equally contrary to his inclination
and supposed dignity. He will not deign to follow any pursuit which does
not, at the same time, include enterprise, adventure, and excitement.
Hunting, which the higher classes in the civilised parts of the world
pursue for mere recreation, is almost the only occupation considered of
sufficient importance to engage his attention. It is peculiarly endeared
by its resemblance to war, being carried on with the same weapons, and
nearly in the same manner. In his native state, the arrow was the
favourite and almost exclusive instrument for assailing distant objects;
but now the gun has nearly superseded it. The great hunts are rendered
more animating, as well as more effectual, from being carried on in
large parties, and even by whole tribes. The men are prepared for these
by fasting, dreaming, and other superstitious observances, similar to
those which we find employed in the anticipation of war. In such
expeditions, too, contrivance and skill, as well as boldness and
enterprise, are largely employed. Sometimes a circle is formed, when all
the animals surrounded by it are pressed closer and closer till they are
collected in the centre, and fall under the accumulated weight of
weapons. On other occasions, they are driven to the margin of a lake or
river, in which if they attempt to take refuge, canoes are ready to
intercept them. Elsewhere a space is enclosed by stakes, only a narrow
opening being left, which, by clamour and shouts, the game are compelled
to enter, and thereby secured. In autumn and spring, when the ice is
newly formed and slight, they are pushed upon it, and their legs
breaking through, they are easily caught. In winter, when the snow
begins to fall, traps are set, in which planks are so arranged, that the
animal, in snatching at the bait, is crushed to death. Originally the
deer, both for food and clothing, was the most valuable object of chase;
but since the trade with Europeans has given such a prominent importance
to furs, the beaver has in some degree supplanted it. In attacking this
animal, great care is taken to prevent his escape into the water, on
which his habitation always borders; and with this view, various kinds
of nets and springes are employed. On some occasions, the Indians place
themselves on the dyke which encloses his amphibious village. They then
make an opening in it, when the inmates, alarmed by seeing the water
flowing out, hasten to this barrier, where they encounter their enemies
armed with all the instruments of destruction. At other times, when ice
covers the surface of the pond, a hole is made, at which the animal
comes to respire; he is then drawn out and secured.
The boar is a formidable enemy, which must be assailed by the combined
force of the hunters, who are ranged in two rows, armed with bows or
muskets: one of them advances and wounds him, and on being furiously
pursued, he retreats between the files, followed in the same line by the
animal, which is then overwhelmed by their united onset. In killing
these quadrupeds, the natives seem to feel a sort of kindness and
sympathy for their victim. On vanquishing a beaver or a bear, they
celebrate its praises in a song; recounting those good qualities which
it will never more be able to display, yet consoling themselves with the
useful purposes to which its flesh and skin will be applied.
Of the animals usually tamed and rendered subservient to useful
purposes, the Americans have only the dog, that faithful friend to man.
Though his services in hunting are valuable, he is treated with no
tenderness; but is left to roam about the dwelling, very sparingly
supplied with food and shelter. A missionary who resided in a Huron
village, represents his life as having been rendered miserable by these
animals. At night they laid themselves on his person, for the benefit of
the warmth; and whenever his scanty meal was set down, their snouts were
always first in the dish. Dog’s flesh is eaten, and has even a peculiar
sanctity attached to it: on all solemn festivals it is the principal
meat, the use of which on such occasions seems to import some high and
mysterious meaning.
But besides the cheering avocations of the chase, other means must be
used to ensure the comfort and subsistence of the Indian’s family; all
of which, however, are most ungenerously devolved upon the weaker sex.
Women, according to Creuxius, serve them as domestics, as tailors, as
peasants, and as oxen; and Long does not conceive that any other
purposes of their existence are recognised, except those of bearing
children and performing hard work. They till the ground, carry wood and
water, build huts, make canoes, and fish; in which latter processes,
however, and in reaping the harvest, their lords deign to give
occasional aid. So habituated are they to such occupations, that when
one of them saw a party of English soldiers collecting wood, she
exclaimed that it was a shame to see men doing women’s work; and began
herself to carry a load.
Through the services of this enslaved portion of the tribe, these
savages are enabled to combine, in a certain degree, the agricultural
with the hunting state, without any mixture of the pastoral, usually
considered as intermediate. Cultivation, however, is limited to small
spots in the immediate vicinity of the villages; and these being usually
at the distance of sixteen or seventeen miles from each other, it
scarcely makes any impression on the immense extent of forest.
[Illustration: _Georgeville._]
The women, in the beginning of summer, after having burnt the stubble of
the preceding crop, rudely stir the ground with a long crooked piece of
wood; they then throw in grain, which is chiefly the coarse but
productive species of maize peculiar to the continent. The nations in
the south have a considerable variety of fruits; whereas those of Canada
appear to have raised only “turnsoles, watermelons, and pompions.”
Tobacco used to be grown largely; but that imported by Europeans is now
universally preferred, and has become a regular object of trade. The
grain, after harvest (which is celebrated by a festival), is lodged in
large subterraneous stores lined with bark, where it keeps extremely
well. Previous to being placed in these, it is sometimes thrashed; on
other occasions, merely the ears are cut off and thrown in.
When first discovered by settlers from Europe, the degrees of culture
were found to vary in different tribes. The Algonquins, who were the
ruling people previous to the arrival of the French, wholly despised it,
and branded as plebeian their neighbours by whom it was practised. In
general, the northern clans, and those near the mouth of the St.
Lawrence, depended almost solely on hunting and fishing; and when these
failed, they were reduced to dreadful extremities, being often obliged
to depend on the miserable resource of that species of lichen called
_tripe de roche_.
The maize, when thrashed, is occasionally toasted on the coals, and
sometimes made into a coarse kind of unleavened cake. But the most
favourite preparation is that called _sagamity_, a species of pap formed
after it has been roasted, bruised, and separated from the husk. It is
insipid by itself, but when thrown into the pot along with the produce
of the chase, it enriches the soup or stew, one of the principal dishes
at their feasts. They never eat victuals raw, but rather over-boiled;
nor have they yet been brought to endure French ragouts, salt, pepper,
or indeed any species of condiment. A chief, admitted to the Governor’s
table, seeing the general use of mustard, was led by curiosity to take a
spoonful and put it in his mouth. On feeling its violent effects, he
made incredible efforts to conceal them, and escape the ridicule of the
company; but severe sneezings, and the tears starting to his eyes, soon
betrayed him, and raised a general laugh. He was then shown the manner
in which it should be used; but nothing could ever induce him to allow
the “boiling yellow,” as he termed it, to enter his lips.
The Indians are capable of extraordinary abstinence from food, in which
they can persevere for successive days without complaint or apparent
suffering. They even take a pride in long fasts, by which they prepare
themselves for any great undertaking. Yet when once set down to a feast,
their gluttony is described as enormous, and the capacity of their
stomachs almost incredible. They will go from feast to feast, doing
honour to each in succession. The chief giving the entertainment does
not partake, but with his own hands distributes portions among the
guests. On solemn occasions, it is the rule that every thing shall be
eaten; nor does this obligation seem to be felt as either burdensome or
unpleasant. In their native state, they were not acquainted with any
species of intoxicating liquors; their love of ardent spirits being
entirely consequent on their intercourse with Europeans.
The habitations of the Indians receive much less attention than the
attire, or at least embellishment of their persons. Our countrymen, by
common consent, give to them no better appellation than “cabins.” The
bark of trees is the chief material both for the houses and boats; they
peel it off with considerable skill, sometimes stripping a whole tree in
one piece. This coating, spread, not unskilfully, over a framework of
poles, and fastened to them by strips of tough rind, forms their
dwellings. The shape, according to the owner’s fancy, resembles a tub, a
cone, or a cart-shed, the mixture of which gives to the village a
confused and chaotic appearance. Light and heat are admitted only by an
aperture at the top, through which also the smoke escapes, after filling
all the upper part of the mansion. Little inconvenience is felt from
this by the natives, who, within doors, never think of any position
except sitting or lying; but to Europeans, who must occasionally stand
or walk, the abode is thereby rendered almost intolerable; and matters
become much worse when rain or snow makes it necessary to close the
roof. These structures are sometimes upwards of a hundred feet long;
four of them occasionally compose a quadrangle, each open on the inside,
and having a common fire in the centre. Formerly, the Iroquois had
houses somewhat superior, adorned even with some rude carving; but these
were burnt down by the French in successive expeditions, and have never
been rebuilt in the same style. The Canadians in this respect seem to be
surpassed by the Choktaws, Chickasaws, and other tribes in the south,
and even by Sauks in the west, whose mansions Carver describes as
constructed of well-hewn planks, neatly jointed, and each capable of
containing several families.
In their expeditions, whether for war or hunting, which often lead them
through desolate forests, several miles from home, the Indians have the
art of rearing, with great expedition, temporary abodes. On arriving at
their evening station, a few poles, meeting at top in form of a cone,
are in half an hour covered with bark; and having spread a few pine
branches within, by way of mattress, they sleep as on beds of down. Like
the Esquimaux, they also understand how to convert snow into a material
for building; and find it, in the depth of winter, the warmest and most
comfortable. A few twigs, plaited together, secure the roof. Europeans
in their Indian campaigns, have, in cases of necessity, used with
advantage this species of bivouac.
[Illustration: _A Forest Scene._]
[Illustration: _Canoe-building at Papper’s Island._]
The furniture in these native huts is exceedingly simple. The chief
articles are two or three pots or kettles for boiling their food, with a
few wooden plates or spoons. The former, in the absence of metal, with
which the inhabitants were unacquainted, were made of coarse earthenware
that resisted the fire, and sometimes of a species of soft stone, which
could be excavated with their rude hatchets. Nay, in some cases, their
kitchen utensils were of wood, and the water made to boil by throwing in
heated stones. Since their acquaintance with Europeans, the superiority
of iron vessels has been found so decided, that they are now universally
preferred. The great kettle or cauldron, employed only on high festivals
associated with religion, war, or hunting, attracts even a kind of
veneration, and potent chiefs have assumed its name as a title of
honour.
Canoes, another fabric which the Indians construct very rudely, are yet
adapted with considerable skill to their purpose. These are usually
framed of the bark of a single tree, strengthened at the centre with
ribs of tough wood. The ends are of bark only; but being curved upwards,
are always above water, and thus remain perfectly tight. Our sailors can
scarcely believe such nut-shells safe even on the smoothest waters, and
see with surprise the natives guiding them amid stormy waves, when their
very lightness and buoyancy preserve them from sinking. They have
another quality of great advantage in the devious pursuits of the
owners; being so extremely light, that they can be easily conveyed on
the shoulder from one river or branch of a lake to another. One man, it
is said, can carry on his back a canoe in which twelve persons can
navigate with safety.
Having taken this minute survey of the physical condition of the
Indians, we shall proceed to an examination of their social condition.
The fundamental principle of their polity is, the complete independence
of every individual, his right to do whatever he pleases, be it good or
bad, nay, even though criminal or destructive. When any one announces an
intention which is disagreeable to his neighbours, they dare not attempt
to check him by reproach or coercion; these would only rivet his
determination more strongly. Their only resource is to soothe him, like
a spoiled child, by kind words, and especially by gifts. If,
notwithstanding, he proceeds to wound or murder any one, the public look
on without concern, though revenge is eagerly sought by the kindred of
the injured person.
Notwithstanding this impunity, which in countries under the bonds of
law, would be followed by the most dreadful consequences, it is somewhat
mortifying to the pride of European civilization to learn, that there
reigns a degree of tranquillity greater than the strictest police can
preserve with us. The Indians are divided into a number of little
nations or tribes, fiercely hostile to each other but whose members are
bound among themselves by the strictest union. The honour and welfare of
the clan supply their ruling principle, and are cherished with an ardour
not surpassed in the most brilliant eras of Greek or Roman patriotism.
This national attachment forms a social tie, linking the members to each
other, and rendering exceedingly rare, not only deeds of violence, but
even personal quarrels; and banishing entirely that coarse and abusive
language which is so prevalent among the vulgar in more enlightened
communities. This feeling, added to the sentiment of dignity and
self-command considered suitable to the character of a warrior, renders
their deportment exceedingly pleasing. They are completely free from
that false shame which is termed _mauvaise honte_. When seated at table
with Europeans of the highest rank, they retain the most thorough
self-possession; and at the same time, by carefully observing the
proceedings of the other guests, they avoid all awkwardness in their
manners.
The generosity of the Indian in relieving the necessities of others of
the tribe, scarcely knows any bounds, and only stops short of an
absolute community of goods. No member of a tribe can be in the least
danger of starving, if the rest have wherewithal to supply him. Children
rendered orphans by the casualties to which savage life is subject, are
immediately taken in charge by the nearest relative, and supplied with
every thing needful, as abundantly as if they were his own. Nothing
gives them a more unfavourable opinion of the French and English, than
to see one portion revelling in abundance while the other suffers the
extremity of want; but when they are told that for want of these
accommodations, men are seized by their fellow-creatures and immured in
dungeons, such a degree of barbarism appears to them almost incredible.
Whole tribes, when obliged by the vicissitudes of war to seek refuge
among their neighbours, are received with unbounded hospitality;
habitations and lands are assigned to them, and they are treated by
their new friends, in every respect, as part of themselves. It may,
however, be observed, that as such an accession of numbers augments the
military strength of the tribe, there may be a mixture of policy in this
cordial reception.
In consequence of this spirit of order and internal union, the unbounded
personal freedom which marks their social condition seldom breaks out
into such crimes as would disturb the public peace. Its greatest evil,
of which we shall see repeated instances, is, that individuals, actuated
by a spirit of revenge or daring enterprise, think themselves justified
in surprising and murdering a hated adversary. From this cause, every
treaty between the tribes is rendered precarious; though, as each is
aware of these lawless propensities, room is left for mutual
explanation, so that particular outrages may not involve a general war.
This circumstance leads us to notice, that the favourable aspect
presented by the interior of these communities can by no means warrant
any conclusion as to the superiority of savage life, when compared with
civilized man. On the contrary, the most perfect form of government
devised by the human being in the state of nature has never been
exempted from those feelings of relentless enmity and continual fear
with which bordering nations regard each other. These, as will appear in
the sequel, often compel to the most direful crimes; but, at present, we
shall proceed with our survey of their domestic usages.
Some writers have denied that there exists among the Indians any thing
that can properly be termed a matrimonial union. This, however, seems
only a prejudice, in consequence of there not being any regular
ceremony, as with us. The man, it appears, after having made an
arrangement with the parent of his bride, takes her home, and they live
in every respect as husband and wife. The mode of courtship among
several of the tribes is singular:—the wooer, attended often by several
comrades, repairs at midnight to his fair one’s apartment, and there
twitches her nose. If she be inclined to listen to his suit, she rises;
otherwise she must depart. Though this visit be so very unseasonable, it
is said to be rarely accompanied with any impropriety. The missionaries,
however, did not think it right to sanction such freedoms in their
converts.
The preliminary step is in this manner taken with the lady, but the
decision still rests with the father, to whom the suitor now applies.
Long has given no unpleasing specimen of the address:—“Father, I love
your daughter; will you give her to me, that the small roots of her
heart may entangle with mine, so that the strongest wind that blows may
never separate them?” He offers at the same time a handsome present, the
acceptance of which is considered as sealing the union. Considerable
discrepancy prevails in the descriptions, and apparently in the
practice, as applied to different tribes; yet, on the whole, great
reserve and propriety seem to mark this intercourse.
The young men of the Five Nations valued themselves highly for their
correct conduct toward the other sex. Of numerous female captives who
fell into their hands during a long series of wars, though some were
possessed of great personal beauty, no one had to complain that her
honour was exposed to the slightest danger. The girls themselves are not
always quite so exemplary; but their failures are viewed with
indulgence, and form no obstacle to marriage. Once united by that tie,
however, a strict fidelity is expected, and commonly observed. The
husband, generally speaking, is not jealous, except when intoxicated;
but when his suspicions are really excited regarding the conduct of his
partner, he is very indignant, beats her, bites off her nose, and
dismisses her in disgrace.
There are occasional instances of a divorce being inflicted without any
assigned reason; but such arbitrary proceeding is by no means frequent.
As the wife performs the whole of the labour, and furnishes a great part
of the subsistence, she is usually considered too valuable a possession
to be rashly parted with. In some cases, the domestic drudges become
even an object of dispute and competition. A missionary mentions a
woman, who, during the absence of her husband, formed a new connexion.
Her first partner having returned, without being agitated by any
delicate sensibilities, demanded her back. The question was referred to
a chief, who could contrive no better scheme than that of placing her at
a certain distance from both, and decreeing that he who should first
reach her should have her. “Thus,” says he, “the wife fell to him who
had the best legs.”
With regard to polygamy, the usual liberty is claimed; and by the chiefs
in the west and the south it is indulged to a considerable extent, but
among the tribes on the lakes the practice is rare and limited. When it
does occur, the man very commonly marries his wife’s sister, and even
her whole family, we may suppose, that the household may be thereby
rendered more harmonious. The Indian is said never to betray the
slightest tenderness towards his wife or children. If he meets them on
his return from a distant expedition, he proceeds, without taking the
slightest notice, and seats himself in his cabin as if he had not been a
day absent. Yet his exertions for their welfare, and the eagerness with
which he avenges their wrongs, testify that this apparent apathy springs
only from pride, and a fancied sense of decorum. It is equally displayed
with regard to his most urgent wants. Though he may have been without
food during several days, and enters a neighbour’s house, nothing can
make him stoop to ask for a morsel.
The rearing (for it cannot be called the education) of children is
chiefly arranged so that it may cost the parents the least possible
trouble, in addition to the labour of procuring them subsistence. The
father is either engrossed by war and hunting, or resigned to total
indolence; while the mother, oppressed by various toils, cannot devote
much time to the cares of nurture. The infant, therefore, being fastened
with pieces of skin to a board spread with soft moss, is laid on the
ground, or suspended to a branch of a tree, where it swings, as in a
cradle—an expedient which is so carefully adopted as scarcely ever to
be attended with accident. As soon as the creatures are able to crawl on
hands and feet, they are allowed to move about every part of the house
and vicinity, like a cat or dog. Their favourite resort is the border of
the river or lake, to which an Indian village is usually adjacent, and
where, in summer, they are seen all day long sporting like fishes. As
reason dawns, they enjoy, in the most ample degree, that independence
which is held the birthright of the tribe; for, whatever extravagances
they may indulge in, the parents never take any steps to restrain or
chastise them. The mother only ventures to give her daughter some
delicate reproach, or throws water in her face, which is said to produce
a powerful effect. The youths, however, without any express
instructions, soon imbibe the spirit of their forefathers. Every thing
they see, the tales which they hear, inspire them with the ardent desire
to become great hunters and warriors. Their first study, their favourite
sport, is to bend the bow, to wield the hatchet, and practise all those
exercises which are to be their glory in after life. As manhood
approaches, they spontaneously assume that serious character, that
studied and stately gravity, of which the example has been set by their
elders.
The intellectual character of the American savage presents some striking
peculiarities. Considering his unfavourable condition, he, of all other
human beings, might seem doomed to make the nearest approach to the
brute; while, in point of fact, without any aid from letters or study,
many of the higher faculties of his mind are developed in a very
remarkable degree. He displays a decided superiority over the
uninstructed labourer in a civilized community, whose mental energies
are benumbed amid the daily round of mechanical occupation. The former
spends a great part of his life in arduous enterprises, where much
contrivance is requisite, and whence he must often extricate himself by
presence of mind and ingenuity. His senses, particularly those of seeing
and smelling, have acquired, by practice, an almost preternatural
acuteness. He can trace an animal or a foe by indications which, to a
European eye, would be wholly imperceptible; and in his wanderings he
gathers a minute acquaintance with the geography of the countries which
he traverses. He can even draw a rude outline of them, by applying a
mixture of charcoal and grease to prepared skins; and on seeing a
regular map, he soon understands its construction, and readily finds out
places. His facility in discovering the most direct way to spots
situated at the distance of hundreds of miles, and known, perhaps, only
by the report of his countrymen, is truly astonishing. It has been
ascribed by some to a mysterious and supernatural instinct, but it
appears to be achieved by merely observing the different aspect of the
trees or shrubs, when exposed to the north or south; as also the
position of the sun, which he can point out, although hidden by clouds.
Even where there is a beaten track, if at all circuitous, he strikes
directly through the woods, and reaches his destination by the nearest
possible line.
Other faculties of a higher order are developed by the scenes amid which
the life of savages is spent. They are divided into a number of little
communities, between which are actively carried on all the relations of
war, negotiation, treaty, and alliance. As mighty revolutions, observes
an eloquent writer, take place in these kingdoms of wood and cities of
bark, as in the most powerful civilized states. To increase the
influence and extend the possessions of their own tribe—to humble, and,
if possible, destroy those hostile to them—are the constant aims of
every member of those little commonwealths. For these ends, not only
deeds of daring valour are achieved, but schemes are deeply laid, and
pursued with the most accurate calculation. There is scarcely a
refinement in European diplomacy to which they are strangers. The French
once made an attempt to crush the confederacy of the Five Nations, by
attacking each in succession; but as they were on their march against
the first tribe, they were met by the deputies of the other, who offered
their mediation, intimating, that if it were rejected, they would make
common cause with the one threatened. That association, also, showed
that they completely understood how to employ the hostility, which
prevailed between their enemy and the English, for promoting their own
aggrandizement. Embassies, announced by the calumet of peace, are
constantly passing from one tribe to another.