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TO BE CORRECTED IN THE PRINT
I, 2 b, note, 6th line from below. _Read_ II, 175.
3 b, 12th line. _Read_ 2 =I=.
9 b, 3d line from below. _Read_ Karadžić’s.
11 a, note *, 3d line. _Read_ 48th and 49th.
14 a, 10th line from below. _Read_ =I=.
24 b, 5th line from below. _Read_ 2d.
29 a, 2d paragraph, 8th line. _Read_ De (Mörners sang).
36 b. [On the names cf. Bugge, Helge-Digtene i den Ældre Edda,
deres Hjem og Forbindelser (second series of his Studier over
de nordiske Gude- og Heltesagn), Kjøbenhavn, 1896, p. 271.]
39 a, 1st line. _Read_ contributed by Hoffmann.
94. [See Bugge’s discussion of the Scandinavian and the English
ballads, Helge-Digtene i den Ældre Edda, pp. 283 ff.]
113 a, 2d paragraph, 5th line. _Read_ Reifferscheid.
124, note †, 4th line. _Read_ Lettish ballad.
154 a, lines 1, 2. _Read_ Reifferscheid.
217 b, 11th line. _Read_ early.
239 a, last line but one of text. _Read_ circumstance.
250 b, last paragraph, 4th line. _Read_ II, 366.
267 b, note †. _Read_ Altswert.
270 a, note *, 5th line. _Read_ I, 152.
281 a, note †, second line. _Read_ Ásmundur.
339 b, 2d paragraph. _Read_ Lanval.
392 b, 2d paragraph, last line but one. _Read_ des.
393 b, 3d line. _Read_ Gianandria.
393 b, 3d paragraph, 23d line. _Read_ No 20, p. 16.
401 a, last paragraph, Pellegrini. _Exchange_ p. 37, p. 93.
418 a, 9th line. _Read_ Asbjørnsen.
424 b, 16th line. _Read_ garland _instead of_ broadside.
457 a, line 20. _Read_ =H= 42.
487 a, 41 a, 16th line. _Read_ II, 29.
488 a, 2d paragraph, 3d line. _Read_ kiego, II, 21.
493 b, 124 a, 5th line. _Read_ Tielemann.
499 a, 2d paragraph, last line. _Read_ blindness and.
II, 39, note †, 3d line. _Read_ c. 49.
81, 45^4. _Read_ (_according to earlier MS._) lest.
102 b, 13th line. _Read_ =B=, =C=, =G=, =H=, =K=, =M=.
137 b, 2d paragraph, line 3. _Read_ =G= 11.
137 b, 2d paragraph, line 6. _Read_ =D= 21.
205 b, notes, 4th line. _Read_ I, 159.
215 a, 2d paragraph, 5th line. _Read_ 1882.
227 f. [See Bugge’s discussion of ‘Fæstemanden i Graven’ and
related ballads, etc., in his Helge-Digtene i den Ældre Edda,
deres Hjem og Forbindelser, pp. 206 ff.]
236 b, 2d paragraph, 4th line. _Read_ II, 84.
244 b, 2d line. _Read_ 26, 27.
346 a, 4th paragraph, line 4. _Read_ 1875.
424 b, last line but three of preface. _Drop_ 83, =E= 32.
502 a, No 29, line 3. For Erox _read_ Evax.
510 a, No 57, 2d paragraph. For R. Köhler _read_ L. Laistner.
512 a, No 68, 1st line; 515 a, last line. _Read_ Norsk.
III, 9 =H=, 4^1. _Read_ browen.
16 a, last line. _Read_ No 119.
19 a, notes, first line. _Read_ X, 5.
41, note §, 2d line. _Read_ I, vii f.
51 b, 5th line. _Read_ No 119.
241 a, 6th line of notes. _Read_ 1765.
242 a, note †, 3d line. _Read_ 1873.
352 a, 2d line. _Read_ ed. 1720.
366 b, note ‡. _Read_ ed. 1873.
373 a, 3d line. _Read_ ed. 1777, II, 54 f.
427, note *. _Read_ Dalyell.
499 b, p. 156 b, etc., 5th and 6th lines. _Read_ Koritko, Part III,
p. 47.
501 b, 4th paragraph, 1st line. _Read_ I, 503 a.
501 b, 6th paragraph, 2d line. _Read_ 572.
517 b, 22d line. _Read_ 69. 23d line. _Read_ 659.
520 a, 1st line. _Read_ El Penitente.
IV, 62 b, 3d paragraph, 8th line. _Read_ =J= =a=, =b=.
162, note ‖, last line but two. _Read_ next ballad.
165 b. [On the Scandinavian ballad see Bugge, Helge-Digtene, pp.
295-7.]
187 a, 9th line. _Read_ 386.
268, 19^1. _Read_ Now she’s.
401 b, 2d line. _Read_ Hind Horn.
410, 23^1, garned. _Read_ gazed (_as in the original MS._).
441 a, 4th paragraph, last line. _Read_ Fedorowski.
459 b, 3d paragraph, 4th line. _Read_ VIII, 109.
482 a, No 96, 2d paragraph, 1st line. _Read_ Doncieux.
V. Advertisement. 3d paragraph, 2d line. _Read_ Saline.
8 b, note †. _Read_ note by Pinkerton.
13 b, line 15. _Read_ Jours.
32 a, lines 4, 6. _Read_ Böhme.
34 b, note †. _Read_ Harland ... ed. 1882.
36, 3^3. _Read_ petticoats.
40 b, 7th line. _Read_ I, 67.
65 a, 3d line. _Read_ Χιακὰ.
65 a, 8th and 9th lines. _Read_ 1857, I, 409.
88 b, 3d paragraph, 3d line. _Read_ Genest.
98 a, =B=, 2d line. _Read_ 20th August.
99, 9^3. _Read_ Now since.
108, =B=, 10^1. _Read_ year (_twice_).
121 a, 2d paragraph, line 2. _Read_ May 18.
147, 4^4. _Read_ man who.
151, =F=, 1^3. _Read_ nor tree.
168 a, 2d line of notes. _Drop_ =B=.
180, 2^3. _Read_ Ye sleep, ye wake, ye.
203 a, 9th, 10th line from below. _Read_ p. 80, No 73 =C=.
210 b, No 17, Romaic. _Read_ Manousos, II, 103; but the ballad has
been cited II, 215, where it more properly belongs.
214 b, 3^2. _Drop_ ea, _remnant of a correction of reading_.
215, 14^3. _Read_ An a’ the fish came.
215 b, No 39, =D= a, 12^2. _Read_ aft her gates.
219, 17^4. _Read_ Has he.
220 a, No 56, 2d line. _Read_ Dardy.
221, 20^4. _Read_ gell _as in the MS_.
222 a, 31^1. _Bracket this line._
222 b, 115, =B=, 4^4. _Drop._
225 b, note to No 80, 10th line. _Read_ Yule’s (Marco Polo).
227 b, 7^4. _Read_ Ther.
231 b, 2d paragraph, 4th line. _Read_ II, 265.
234 a, No 96, 1st paragraph. _Drop the last sentence._
235 b, =D=, 1^2. _Read_ An a.
240 a, No 132. _Read_ P. 154.
241 a, =U=, first line. _Read_ 1892.
243 b, 3^4. _Read_ hes.
246 a, 3^1. _Read_ Her father.
247 a, 11^3. _Read_ bare the bran.
249, note *. _Read_ R. R. Stodart.
251 b, 5th line. _Drop._
255 a, 314. _Read_ 214.
256 b, 13^4. _Drop_ she.
257 a, 10^6. _Read_ rins our my.
262, No 223, _MSS have at_ 13^2, with: 18^1, over.
262, No 225, P. 249, last line but one, _say_ added later by Sharpe.
264 a, 24^3. _Read_ Thee.
265 b, 6^3. _Read_ onye thing that.
270 a, line 8. _Drop_ 7^4. O come.
275 a, last line but 4. _Read_ Skene.
275 a, 1^1. _Probably_ bonny Lothen.
276, 12^3. _Read_ gin we.
277, 7^1. _Probably_ mony fair.
279 a, 17^4. _Drop._
279 b, No 266, 4th line. _Read_ V, III, 104.
281 a, last line of 3d paragraph. _Read_ =I= †.
Trivial Corrections of Spelling.
I, 492 a, 5^1. _Read_ better.
II, 104, 19^{1,2}. _Read_ pat.
III, 9, =H= 8^4. _Read_ brume.
IV, 105, 11^1. _Read_ Martinmass.
267, 10^2. _Read_ convoyd.
268, 18^3. _Read_ Altho.
V, 33 b, line 16. _Read_ turpiter.
35, =A=, 4^4. _Read_ go sae.
36, 14^1. _Read_ tean.
98, =B=, 2^1. _Read_ win.
99, 8^4. _Read_ doun.
103 b, =B=, =c=, 1^4. _Read_ and letee. 15^1. _Read_ friar.
108, =B=, 4^1. _Read_ jumpet. 6^1. _Read_ a’.
110, 4^2, 12^2. _Read_ misstres.
111, 22^2. _Read_ Hony.
116 a, =A=, title. _Read_ Shiperd.
116 a, 2^2. _Read_ of ... nead.
116 a, 2^3. _Read_ whelk.
116 b, 3^2. _Read_ loued.
117, 7^4. _Read_ follouing.
117 b, 13^1. _Read_ gentilmen.
121 a, 2d paragraph, l. 5. _Read_ i the. l. 9. _Read_ wi.
125, 5^1. _Read_ a dream.
140, e, 8^2. _Read_ an thrice.
147, 10^3. _Read_ I am.
153 a, 1^2 _Read_ drinkin’.
153 b, 4th line of preface. _Read_ Kiltie.
153 b, 6^3. _Read_ cuningly.
165, 1^4. _Read_ Tartan-trues.
197, 10^3 _Read_ muntit.
208, 8^1. _Read_ cam.
209 b, line 16. _Read_ Ron̑nal (_whatever that may mean_).
215 a, 11^3. _Read_ daugh[t]er.
217 a, 17^2. _Read_ divell.
217 b, No 49, 1^1. _Read_ two.
218 a, 6^1. _Read_ on my.
219 b, 28^1. _Read_ count[r]y.
220 b, 5^1. _Read_ saddel.
223 a, p. 148, 21^1, 22^1. _Read_ h’m.
223 b, 8^3. _Read_ marrey (?).
224, 12^1. _Read_ He’se (?).
224, 12^3. _Read_ marrage. 16^3. smaa.
224, 17^5. _Read_ got (?).
225 a, p. 219. _Insert_, 11^2. gate.
227, 7^3. _Perhaps_, monning.
228, 19^1. _Read_ Mukkel. 20^1. ribbins.
228, 22^3. _Read_ gei, _or_ gee. 26^3. an she.
228, 26^4. _Read_ att. 28^2. milk-whit.
229, 31^2. _Read_ hee. 33^1. _Perhaps_ daughters.
235 b, =D=, 5^3. _Read_ k[n]ight.
236 b, 20^2. _Read_ frie.
241 b, 5^1. _Read_ one.
242 a, 8^4. _Read_ Belou. 15^2. baked leak.
243 a, 16^4. _Read_ smodderd.
247 b, 21^2. _Read_ Nor. 23^3. fra.
247 b, 1^2. _Read_ call. 1^4. halld.
247 b, 2^2. _Read_ merrey.
248, 3^3. _Read_ Edom. 11^3. t[a]ne.
248, 13^3. _Read_ Bat. 19^1. an of.
248, 22^4. _Read_ gett. Last line, _add_ 17^1. Her.
249 b, 8^2. _Read_ weel.
256 a, 2^2. _Read_ get. 7^1. forder.
256 b, 14^2. _Read_ narrou.
260, No 221, 3^1. _Read, perhaps_, Lamendall.
261 b, 11^1. _Read_ But.
265 a, 11^1. _Read_ S[i]r. 13^2. ouer.
265 a, 17^1. _Read_ milk-whit. 18^3. came.
265 b, 4^4. _Read_ Healend.
266 b, 5^1. _Read_ rode.
267 b, 5^2. _Read_ middell.
269, 1^3. _Read_ marriage. 16^3. hunder.
271 a, 6^4. _Read_ welcom. 13^2. wer.
271 a, 16^3. _Read_ horses.
271 b, 5th line. _Read_ carrlis. 3^4. welcome.
273 a, 13^4. _Read, perhaps_, haae.
275 a, 12^3. _Read_ mach.
276 a, 15^1. _Read_ tuenty.
277 a, 2^3. _Read_ forestes.
277 b, 8^1. _Read_ clapet.
278 a, 25^1. _Read_ ouer.
278 b, 31^3. _Read, perhaps_, eair. 32^1. sayes.
Appendix
[This essay is reprinted from the _Publications of the Modern Language
Association of America_, Vol. XXI, No. 4, pp. 755-807 (New Series, Vol.
XIV, No. 4), 1906.]
PROFESSOR CHILD AND THE BALLAD
In the course of his insistence upon the necessity of a continued
recognition of the popular ballad as a distinct literary type,
Professor Gummere points out the value of a collection of Professor
Child’s critical remarks on the ballad and an attempt to determine
their general drift.[134] Such is the purpose of the present paper.
Aside from the article in the _Universal Cyclopædia_, Professor Child’s
comments are mere _obiter dicta_, based upon no underlying principle
and forming no part of a set purpose. They are, therefore, not easy to
classify; the attempt to reduce them to order can be only partially
successful, and any arrangement must appear more or less arbitrary.
Yet some arrangement has seemed advisable and they have been roughly
grouped under the following headings: (1) Authorship and Transmission;
(2) Subject-Matter; (3) Technique; (4) A Comparison of the _Ballads_ of
1857-1859 and _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_ of 1882-1898;
(5) A Collection of General Comments upon Specific Ballads; (6)
Summary.
I.
In that article in the _Universal Cyclopædia_ which Professor Child
“wished to be neither quoted nor regarded as final,”[135] but which
must here be combined with other tentative or fragmentary statements,
he defined the _popular ballad_ as “a distinct and very important
species of poetry. Its historical and natural place,” he said, “is
anterior to the appearance of the poetry of art, to which it has
formed a step, and by which it has been regularly displaced, and, in
some cases, all but extinguished. Whenever a people in the course of
its development reaches a certain intellectual and moral stage, it
will feel an impulse to express itself, and the form of expression
to which it is first impelled is, as is well known, not prose, but
verse, and in fact narrative verse. The condition of society in which
a truly national or popular poetry appears explains the character of
such poetry. It is a condition in which the people are not divided by
political organization and book-culture into markedly distinct classes,
in which consequently there is such community of ideas and feelings
that the whole people form an individual. Such poetry, accordingly,
while it is in its essence an expression of our common human nature,
and so of universal and indestructible interest, will in each case be
differenced by circumstances and idiosyncrasy. On the other hand, it
will always be an expression of the mind and heart of the people as
an individual, and never of the personality of individual men. The
fundamental characteristic of popular ballads is therefore the absence
of subjectivity and of self-consciousness. Though they do not ‘write
themselves,’ as William Grimm has said, though a man and not a people
has composed them, still the author counts for nothing, and it is not
by mere accident, but with the best reason, that they have come down to
us anonymous. Hence, too, they are extremely difficult to imitate by
the highly civilized modern man, and most of the attempts to reproduce
this kind of poetry have been ridiculous failures.
“The primitive ballad, then, is popular, not in the sense of something
arising from and suited to the lower orders of a people. As yet, no
sharp distinction of high and low exists, in respect to knowledge,
desires, and tastes. An increased civilization, and especially the
introduction of book-culture, gradually gives rise to such a division;
the poetry of art appears; the popular poetry is no longer relished by
a portion of the people, and is abandoned to an uncultivated or not
over-cultivated class--a constantly diminishing number.”
But “the popular ballad is not originally the product or the property
of the lower orders of the people. Nothing, in fact, is more obvious
than that many of the ballads of the now most refined nations had
their origin in that class whose acts and fortunes they depict--the
upper class--though the growth of civilization has driven them from
the memory of the highly polished and instructed, and has left them as
an exclusive possession to the uneducated. The genuine popular ballad
had its rise in a time when the distinctions since brought about by
education and other circumstances had practically no existence. The
vulgar ballads of our day, the ‘broadsides’ which were printed in such
large numbers in England and elsewhere in the sixteenth century or
later, belong to a different genus; they are products of a low kind of
_art_, and most of them are, from a literary point of view, thoroughly
despicable and worthless.
“Next it must be observed that ballads which have been handed down by
long-repeated tradition have always departed considerably from their
original form. If the transmission has been purely through the mouths
of unlearned people, there is less probability of willful change,
but once in the hands of professional singers there is no amount of
change which they may not undergo. Last of all comes the modern editor,
whose so-called improvements are more to be feared than the mischances
of a thousand years. A very old ballad will often be found to have
resolved itself in the course of what may be called its propagation
into several distinct shapes, and each of these again to have received
distinct modifications. When the fashion of verse has altered, we
shall find a change of form as great as that in the _Hildebrandslied_,
from alliteration without stanza to stanza with rhyme. In all cases
the language drifts insensibly from ancient forms, though not at
the same rate with the language of every-day life. The professional
ballad-singer or minstrel, whose sole object is to please the audience
before him, will alter, omit, or add, without scruple, and nothing is
more common than to find different ballads blended together.
“There remains the very curious question of the origin of the
resemblances which are found in the ballads of different nations, the
recurrence of the same incidents or even of the same story, among races
distinct in blood and history, and geographically far separated.” It
is not necessary to go back to a common ancestry to explain these
resemblances. “The incidents of many ballads are such as might occur
anywhere and at any time; and with regard to agreements that can not
be explained in this way we have only to remember that tales and songs
were the chief social amusement of all classes of people in all the
nations of Europe during the Middle Ages, and that new stories would
be eagerly sought for by those whose business it was to furnish this
amusement, and be rapidly spread among the fraternity. A great effect
was undoubtedly produced by the crusades, which both brought the chief
European nations into closer intercourse and made them acquainted with
the East, thus facilitating the interchange of stories and greatly
enlarging the stock.”
This account of authorship and transmission may be illustrated and
supplemented by _obiter dicta_ from _The English and Scottish Popular
Ballads_. “The author counts for nothing;” the ballad is essentially
anonymous: that Expliceth quod Rychard Sheale means merely that _The
Hunting of the Cheviot_ (162) “was of course part of his stock as
minstrel; the supposition that he was the author is preposterous in the
extreme.”[136]
Ballads are at their best when “the transmission has been purely
through the mouths of unlearned people,” when they have come down
by domestic tradition, through knitters and weavers. _Glasgerion_
(67, B) “is mainly of good derivation (a poor old woman in
Aberdeenshire).”[137] And “no Scottish ballads are superior in kind to
those recited in the last century by Mrs Brown, of Falkland.”[138] Yet
even upon Mrs Brown printed literature may have had some influence: in
_Fause Foodrage_ (89), “the resemblance in the verse in A 31, ‘The boy
stared wild like a gray gose-hawke,’ to one in ‘Hardyknute,’ ‘Norse
een like gray goss-hawk stared wild,’ struck Sir Walter Scott as
suspicious,” and “it is quite possible that Mrs Brown may unconsciously
have adopted this verse from the tiresome and affected Hardyknute, so
much esteemed in her day.”[139] A literary treatment of a ballad theme
may affect the traditional versions of that ballad. In the case of
_Child Maurice_ (83) “the popularity of the play [Home’s _Douglas_]
seems to have given vogue to the ballad. The sophisticated copy passed
into recitation, and may very likely have more or less infected those
which were repeated from earlier tradition.”[140] A whole ballad may
even be completely derived from print, and yet, in the course of time,
revert to the popular form. Of this same ballad, _Child Maurice_, “Mr
Aytoun considers that E is only the copy printed in the middle of the
last century purged, in the process of oral transmission, of what was
not to the popular taste, ‘and altered more.’ There is no doubt that
a copy learned from print may be transformed in this way, but it is
certain that old tradition does not come to a stop when a ballad gets
into print.”[141]
Not only the possible influence of print is to be taken into account;
much depends on the material to which the reciter was exposed and upon
his selection. “It will not ... help the ballad [_Young Bearwell_
(302)] much that it was not palmed off on Buchan in jest or otherwise,
or even if it was learned from an old person by Mr Nicol in his youth.
The intrinsic character of the ballad remains, and old people have
sometimes burdened their memory with worthless things.”[142] Editors
were not the only interpolators; of _The Twa Sisters_ (10), A, a,
11-13, need not have been written, but “might easily be extemporized
by any singer of sufficiently bad taste.”[143] The varying memory of
reciters, too, was a cause of unintentional change. Thus “Mrs Brown
was not satisfied with A b [of _Bonny Baby Livingston_ (222)], which
Jamieson had taken down from her mouth, and after a short time she
sent him A a. The verbal differences are considerable. We need not
suppose that Mrs Brown had heard two ‘sets’ or ‘ways,’ of which she
blended the readings; the fact seems to be that, at the time when
she recited to Jamieson, she was not in good condition to remember
accurately.”[144] In general, however, the folk memory is remarkable
for its tenacity. “Most of the [Danish] versions [of _Earl Brand_ (7)]
from recitation are wonderful examples and proofs of the fidelity with
which simple people ‘report and hold’ old tales: for, as the editor
has shown, verses which never had been printed, but which are found in
old manuscripts, are now met with in recited copies; and these recited
copies, again, have verses that occur in no Danish print or manuscript,
but which nevertheless are found in Norwegian and Swedish recitations,
and, what is more striking, in Icelandic tradition of two hundred
years’ standing.”[145]
The ballad does not remain in the possession of the simple folk, or of
reciters of Mrs Brown’s instinctive good taste. Its best fortune is
then perhaps to fall into the hands of children, like _The Maid Freed
From the Gallows_ (95), of which “F had become a children’s game, the
last stage of many old ballads.”[146] Again, “it is interesting to find
the ballad [_The Twa Brothers_ (49)] still in the mouths of children in
American cities,--in the mouths of the poorest, whose heritage these
old things are.”[147] _Sir Hugh_ (155) in the form of _Little Harry
Hughes and the Duke’s Daughter_, was heard, says Mr Newell, “from a
group of colored children, in the streets of New York city,” and traced
“to a little girl living in one of the cabins near Central Park.”[148]
Less happy is the fate of the ballad when it falls into the hands
of professional singers,--the Minstrel Ballad is to be considered
presently,--or when it falls into the hands of amateurs of various
sorts, who corrupt and debase it. _Hind Etin_ (41) “has suffered
severely by the accidents of tradition. A has been not simply damaged
by passing through low mouths, but has been worked over by low hands.
Something considerable has been lost from the story, and fine romantic
features, preserved in Norse and German ballads, have been quite
effaced.”[149] Of _The Clerk’s Twa Sons o Owsenford_ (72) “D has some
amusing dashes of prose, evidently of masculine origin. [Examples
follow]. We have here a strong contrast with both the blind-beggar
and the housemaid style of corruption; something suggesting the
attorney’s clerk rather than the clerk of Owsenford, but at least not
mawkish.”[150] The “blind beggar” is, of course, Buchan’s collector,
and whether he or the editor was responsible for the corruptions is
not always clear. The blind beggar himself, however, comes in for
special condemnation in the comment on _The Bent Sae Brown_ (71):
“The introduction and conclusion, and some incidental decorations,
of the Scottish ballad will not be found in the Norse, but are an
outcome of the invention and the piecing and shaping of that humble
but enterprising rhapsodist who has left his trail over so large a
part of Buchan’s volumes.”[151] In _Brown Robin_ (97) “the story
undoubtedly stops at the right point in A, with the escape of the two
lovers to the wood. The sequel in C is not at all beyond the inventive
ability of Buchan’s blind beggar, and some other blind beggar may have
contrived the cane and the whale, the shooting and the hanging, in
B.”[152] As type of the housemaid style of corruption may, perhaps,
stand _Lizie Lindsay_ (226). “Leezie Lindsay from a maid-servant in
Aberdeen,” wrote Jamieson to Scott of A b.[153] And, “in his preface to
B, Kinloch remarks that the ballad is very popular in the North, ‘and
few milk-maids in that quarter but can chaunt it.’”[154] “Ballads of
this description [a young lord o the Hielands, pretending that he is
the son of an auld shepherd and an auld dey, persuades a young lady of
Edinburgh to fly with him to the Highlands, where he at length reveals
his identity]--ballads of this description are peculiarly liable
to interpolation and debasement, and there are two passages, each
occurring in several versions, which we may, without straining, set
down to some plebeian improver.”[155]
Not mere corruption, but serving-man authorship, even, is suggested
for _Tom Potts_ (109): “Such events [unequal matches] would be
celebrated only by fellows of the yeoman or of the foot-boy, and
surely in the present case the minstrel was not much above the estate
of the serving-man. Lord Jockey’s reckless liberality throughout,
and Lord Phoenix’s in the end, is a mark of the serving-man’s ideal
nobleman.”[156] Again as mere corrupter, rather than author, appears
the ostler in one version of _Bewick and Graham_, (211). In the 1833
edition of _The Border Minstrelsy_ “deficiencies were partly supplied
and some different readings adopted ‘from a copy obtained by the
recitation of an ostler in Carlisle.’” g “is shown by internal evidence
to be the ostler’s copy. Both copies [g and h] were indisputably
derived from print, though h may have passed through several mouths, g
agrees with b--f closely as to minute points of phraseology which it
is difficult to believe that a reciter would have retained. It looks
more like an immediate, though faulty, transcript from print.”[157]
Contrasting styles are suggested in the comment on _The Broomfield
Hill_ (43): “The editor [of the broadside, “differing as to four or
five@@ words only from F”] remarks that A is evidently taken@ from F;
from which it is clear that the pungent buckishness of the broadside
does not necessarily make an impression. A smells of the broom;
F suggests the groom.”[158] Perhaps not to be classed with these
non-professional corrupters or interpolators is the bänkelsänger who
is responsible for one of the German versions of _Lady Isabel and the
Elf Knight_ (4): “M smacks decidedly of the bänkelsänger, and has an
appropriate moral at the tail: _animi index cauda!_”[159] Perhaps he is
to be regarded as a humble sort of minstrel; to the comments on this
class we may now turn our attention.
It does not appear from Professor Child’s remarks whether he thought of
the minstrel as composing his ballads,--or making them over,--orally
or in writing. Perhaps we are to suppose that he followed now one
method, now the other. Rychard Sheale may be supposed to have affixed
his “expliceth” to his written copy of Chevy Chase; yet it is “_quod_
Rychard Sheale” as if the manuscript had been written by another from
his singing. But whether the ballad passed through the minstrel’s mouth
or through his hands, it received some peculiar and characteristic
modifications. Thus The _Boy and the Mantle_ (29), _King Arthur and
King Cornwall_ (30), and _The Marriage of Sir Gawain_ (31) “are clearly
not of the same rise, and not meant for the same ears, as those which
go before. They would come down by professional rather than by domestic
tradition, through minstrels rather than knitters and weavers. They
suit the hall better than the bower, the tavern or public square
better than the cottage, and would not go to the spinning-wheel at
all. An exceedingly good piece of minstrelsy ‘The Boy and the Mantle’
is, too; much livelier than most of the numerous variations on the
somewhat overhandled theme.”[160] _Crow and Pie_ (111), likewise,
“is not a purely popular ballad, but rather of that kind which, for
convenience, may be called the minstrel-ballad. It has, however,
popular features, and markedly in stanzas 13, 14,”[161]--the damsel’s
demanding the name of the man who has wronged her, a feature found in
_The Bonny Hind_ (50) and its continental parallels.[162] The term
_minstrel_ may, perhaps, be more loosely used in the passage which
describes _The Rising in the North_ (175) as “the work of a loyal
but not unsympathetic minstrel;”[163] in the statement concerning
_Northumberland Betrayed by Douglas_ (176), that “the ballad-minstrel
acquaints us with circumstances concerning the surrender of
Northumberland;”[164] and in the statement to the effect that, in the
case of _Tom Potts_ (109), “the minstrel was not much above the estate
of the serving-man.”[165]
We may now attempt to construct an account of the vicissitudes to
which the ballad was subject when, in the course of transmission, it
sometimes found its way into writing and into print. Version B of _The
Hunting of the Cheviot_ (162) “is a striking but by no means a solitary
example of the impairment which an old ballad would suffer when
written over for the broadside press. This very seriously enfeebled
edition was in circulation throughout the seventeenth century, and
much sung ... despite its length. It is declared by Addison, in his
appreciative and tasteful critique ... to be the favorite ballad of
the common people of England.”[166] Similarly, in the case of _Sir
Andrew Barton_ (167), “a collation of A and B will show how ballads
were retrenched and marred in the process of preparing them for the
vulgar press.”[167] “B begins vilely, but does not go on so ill. The
forty merchants coming ‘with fifty sail’ to King Henry on a mountain
top ... requires to be taken indulgently.”[168] Though a broadside
differs widely from a true ballad, it is not to be supposed that,--at
least in the examples included by Professor Child,--some general traits
or special features peculiar to the popular or traditional matter or
manner did not survive. Thus, although the ballad of _The Twa Knights_
(268) “can have had no currency in Scotland, and perhaps was known
only through print,” yet “a similar one is strictly traditional in
Greece, and widely dispersed, both on the mainland and among the
islands.”[169] Again, there are two broadsides of _King John and the
Bishop_ (45), which Professor Child does not include, “both inferior
even to B, and in a far less popular style.”[170] There are, then,
degrees of departure from the popular style. There are degrees of
departure from the popular matter, also, and the broadside preserves
sometimes but a single popular feature. Version M of _Young Beichan_
(53) “was probably a broadside or stall copy, and is certainly of that
quality, but preserves a very ancient traditional feature.”[171] The
broadside version of _The Broomfield Hill_ (43) is distinguished by a
“pungent buckishness,” which is not found in A, and which “suggests
the groom.”[172] A broadside may itself become tradition. The English
version of _Lord Thomas and Fair Annet_ (73) “is a broadside of Charles
the Second’s time.... This copy has become traditional in Scotland and
Ireland. The Scottish traditional copy ... is far superior, and one of
the most beautiful of our ballads, and indeed of all ballads.”[173]
The tradition lives, even after a ballad has found its way into print,
and may influence and modify later versions of the printed form. Of
_Prince Heathen_ (104) “the fragment A ... is partly explained by B,
which is no doubt some stall-copy, reshaped from tradition.”[174] Of
_The Baffled Knight_ (112) “E is, in all probability, a broadside copy
modified by tradition.”[175] In origin, in any case, the broadsides in
_The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_ are popular.[176] “There
is a Scottish ballad [similar to _The Baffled Knight_] in which the
tables are turned.... This, as being of comparatively recent, and not
of popular, but of low literary origin, cannot be admitted here.”[177]
“Last of all comes the modern editor,” and from Professor Child’s
comments and skilful undoing of much of their work one might put
together fairly complete accounts of the methods of Percy, Scott,
Jamieson, Buchan, and the rest. We are concerned, however, not so
much with the editors as with the results of their editing, with
the kinds of change that the ballad suffered in their hands. It
was often lengthened, in many cases by the combination of several
versions. Thus Scott’s version of _Tam Lin_ (39, I), “as he himself
states, was compounded of the Museum copy, Riddell’s, Herd’s, and
‘several recitals from tradition.’”[178] Of this use of materials
from recitation examples are very numerous. Ballads were lengthened
also by the interpolation of new stanzas. After Scott’s edition, in
the _Minstrelsy_, of _The Twa Sisters_ (10), “Jamieson followed ...
with a tolerably faithful, though not, as he says, _verbatim_,[179]
publication of his copy of Mrs Brown’s ballad, somewhat marred,
too, by acknowledged interpolations.”[180] _King Henry_ (32) was
increased by Jamieson’s interpolations from twenty-two to thirty-four
stanzas.[181] Scott’s version of _Fair Annie_ (62, A) “was obtained
‘chiefly from the recitation of an old woman,’ but we are not informed
who supplied the rest. Herd’s fragment, D, furnished stanzas 2-6, 12,
17, 19. A doubt may be hazarded whether stanzas 8-10 came from the old
woman.”[182] Interpolation and combination are here both illustrated.
Scott’s later edition of _Tam Lin_ (39) “was corrupted with eleven new
stanzas, which are not simply somewhat of a modern cast as to diction,
as Scott remarks, but of a grossly modern invention, and as unlike
popular verse as anything can be.”[183] Of his version of _Jellon
Grame_ (90) Scott says: “‘Some verses are apparently modernized.’” “The
only very important difference between Scott’s version and Mrs Brown’s
is its having four stanzas of its own, the four before the last two,
which are evidently not simply modernized, but modern.”[184]
But the editor did not merely combine or interpolate; more vaguely,
he “improved.” Version E of _The Fair Flower of Northumberland_ (9),
“a traditional version from the English border, has unfortunately
been improved by some literary pen.”[185] Or he “retouched,”[186] or
“altered,”[187] or “emended.” Scott confesses to some emendation of
_Kinmont Willy_ (186); “it is to be suspected that a great deal more
emendation was done than the mangling of reciters rendered absolutely
necessary. One would like, for example, to see stanzas 10-12 and 31 in
their mangled condition.”[188] In general, no changes or additions are
“in so glaring contrast with the groundwork as literary emendations
of traditional ballads.”[189] “Variations,” also, are to be noted:
inaccuracies in _The Fire of Frendraught_ (196) are acknowledged by
Motherwell; “the implication is, or should be, that these variations
are of editorial origin.”[190] Of _Sweet William’s Ghost_ (77, A and
B), “Percy remarks that the concluding stanza seems modern. There can
be no doubt that both that and the one before it are modern; but, to
the extent of Margaret’s dying on her lover’s grave, they are very
likely to represent original verses not remembered in form.”[191]
Certain general results of transmission, of whatever kind, are to be
noted. As a ballad passes from one country to another the nationality
of the hero may be changed. In _Hugh Spencer’s Feats in France_ (158)
“Hugh is naturally turned into a Scotsman in the Scottish version,
C.”[192] The hero’s name is not more stable than his nationality. “In
the course of transmission [of _John Thomson and the Turk_ (266)], as
has ever been the wont, names were changed, and also some subordinate
circumstances.”[193] Again, “the actual name of the hero of a ballad
affords hardly a presumption as to who was originally the hero.”[194]
Even the part that he plays the hero may exchange with another
character. “Robin Hood’s rescue of Little John, in Guy of Gisborne,
after quarrelling with him on a fanciful provocation, is a partial
offset for Little John’s heart-stirring generosity in this ballad.
[_Robin Hood and the Monk_ (119).] We have already had several cases of
ballads in which the principal actors exchange parts.”[195] The ballad,
again, is not constant in its attachment to one locality, and “the
topography of traditional ballads frequently presents difficulties,
both because it is liable to be changed, wholly, or, what is more
embarrassing, partially, to suit a locality to which a ballad has been
transported, and again because unfamiliar names, when not exchanged,
are exposed to corruption.”[196] Thus, “in the ballad which follows
this [_Rare Willie Drowned in Yarrow_ (215)], a western variety of the
same story, Willie is drowned in the Clyde.”[197]
The corruption of names is but one phase of the change to which
all unfamiliar ballad diction is exposed. “At every stage of oral
transmission we must suppose that some accidental variations from
what was delivered would be introduced, and occasionally some wilful
variations. Memory will fail at times; at times the listener will hear
amiss, or will not understand, and a perversion of sense will ensue,
or absolute nonsense,--nonsense which will be servilely repeated, and
which repetition may make more gross.... Learned words do not occur
in ballads; still an old native word will be in the same danger of
metamorphosis. But, though unfamiliarity naturally ends in corruption,
mishearing may have the like effect where the original phrase is in no
way at fault....
“It must be borne in mind, however, that as to nonsense the burden
of proof rests always upon the expositor. His personal inability
to dispose of a reading is not conclusive; his convictions may be
strong, but patience and caution are his part and self-restraint as to
conjectures.”[198]
In transmission, then, and even in the best of it, the ballad
ordinarily fares but ill, “departs from the original form,” becomes
less typically ballad; and, generally speaking, the older it is, the
earlier it is caught and fixed in print, the better. Professor Child
has thus special praise for those Robin Hood ballads which “have
come down to us in comparatively ancient form.”[199] _Robin Hood’s
Death_ (120, B) is “in the fine old strain.”[200] _Robin Hood and
the Beggar_ (134, II), “by far the best of the Robin Hood ballads of
the secondary, so to speak cyclic, period,” is “a composition of some
antiquity,”[201] _Thomas Rymer_ (37) “is an entirely popular ballad as
to style, and must be of considerable age.”[202] One is not to expect
in a late or modern ballad the excellence found in an early or ancient
one. _Robin Hood’s Chase_ (146) “is a well-conceived ballad, and only
needs to be older.”[203] _Walter Lesly_ (296) is “a late, but life-like
and spirited ballad.”[204] _The Hunting of the Cheviot_ (162, B) “is
a striking ... example of the impairment which an old ballad would
suffer when written over for the broadside press.”[205] Version M of
_Young Beichan_ (53) “was probably a broadside or stall copy, and is
certainly of that quality, but preserves a very ancient traditional
feature.”[206] The “ridiculous ballad” of _John Thomson and the Turk_
(266) finds a place in the collection because it is “a seedling from
an ancient and very notable story.”[207] _The Knight’s Ghost_ (265)
“has not a perceptible globule of old blood in it, yet it has had
the distinction of being more than once translated as a specimen of
Scottish popular ballads.”[208] Scott’s later edition of _Tam Lin_ (39)
“was corrupted with eleven new stanzas, which are not simply somewhat
of a modern cast as to diction, as Scott remarks, but of a grossly
modern invention, and as unlike popular verse as anything can be.”[209]
Scott’s version of _Jellon Grame_ (90) has four stanzas of its own,
“which are evidently not simply modernized, but modern.”[210] Certain
stanzas in version B b of _Archie o Cawfield_ (188) “are indifferent
modern stuff.”[211] The “modern ballad” on the subject of _The Heir of
Linne_ (267) is “an inexpressibly pitiable ditty.”[212]
Certain counterfeits, imitations, or “spurious” ballads, wholly or
almost wholly the work of editors or modern writers, are included
in Professor Child’s collection. _Robin Hood and the Tinker_ (127)
is a “contemptible imitation of imitations.”[213] Buchan’s version
of _Young Waters_ (94) is, for the most part, “a counterfeit of the
lowest description. Nevertheless it is given in an appendix; for much
the same reason that thieves are photographed.”[214] _Young Ronald_
(304) is an example of the “spurious” ballad, and the reasons for
its inclusion are given at some length. “If any lover of ballads
should feel his understanding insulted by the presentation of such
a piece as this, I can have no quarrel with him. There is certainly
much in it that is exasperating.... In this and not a very few other
cases, I have suppressed disgust, and admitted an actually worthless
and manifestly--at least in part--spurious ballad, because of a
remote possibility that it might contain relics, or be a debased
representative, of something genuine and better. Such was the advice of
my lamented friend, Grundtvig, in more instances than those in which
I have brought myself to defer to his judgment.”[215] For the same
reason is included _The Laidley Worm of Spindleston Heughs_: “This
composition of Mr. Lamb’s--for nearly every line of it is his[216]--is
not only based on popular tradition, but evidently preserves some small
fragments of a popular ballad, and for this reason is given in an
Appendix.”[217]
II.
From what has been said it is clear that, as a rule, the ballad is
at its best, is most typically ballad, when its subject-matter is of
purely popular origin. The _Gest_ and the earliest Robin Hood ballads
“are among the best of all ballads,” and Robin Hood “is absolutely
a creation of the popular muse. The earliest mention we have of him
is as the subject of ballads.”[218] “Absolutely a creation of the
popular muse” would seem to imply that the ballad is not,--or that
these ballads at least are not,--based either upon a formless popular
tradition or upon definite prose tales. Local traditions follow the
ballad, as attempts to explain it; they do not supply the story. “In
places where a ballad has once been known, the story will often be
remembered after the verses have been wholly or partly forgotten, and
the ballad will be resolved into a prose tale, retaining, perhaps, some
scraps of verse, and not infrequently taking up new matter, or blending
with other traditions. Naturally enough, a ballad and an equivalent
tale sometimes exist side by side.”[219]
The existence of foreign traditional parallels is one evidence of
popular origin. _The Bent Sae Brown_ (71) has close resemblances
with Norse ballads; “but the very homeliness of the Scottish ballad
precludes any suspicion beyond tampering with tradition. The silliness
and fulsome vulgarity of Buchan’s versions often enough make one
wince or sicken.... But such correspondences with foreign ballads as
we witness in the present case are evidence of a genuine traditional
foundation.”[220] Less complete, yet even more striking, are the
foreign versions of the theme of _Tam Lin_ (39).
“This fine ballad stands by itself, and is not, as might have been
expected, found in possession of any people but the Scottish. Yet
it has connections, through the principal feature in the story, the
retransformation of Tam Lin, with Greek popular tradition older than
Homer.”[221] “We come ... surprisingly near to the principal event of
the Scottish ballad in a Cretan fairy-tale ... [1820-1830].” And this
“Cretan tale does not differ from the one repeated by Apollodorus from
earlier writers a couple of thousand years ago more than two versions
of a story gathered from oral tradition in these days are apt to do.
Whether it has come down to our time from mouth to mouth through
twenty-five centuries or more, or whether, having died out of the
popular memory, it was reintroduced through literature, is a question
that cannot be decided with certainty; but there will be nothing
unlikely in the former supposition to those who bear in mind the
tenacity of tradition among people who have never known books.”[222]
_The Suffolk Miracle_ (272) has “impressive and beautiful”[223]
European parallels, and therefore finds a place in Professor Child’s
collection. Other debased or counterfeit or spurious ballads are
present for the same reason, or because, like _Tam Lin_, they contain
some purely popular or traditional feature. Certain features are
expressly declared to be popular or to be common in ballads; among
these are the quibbling oaths and the unbosoming oneself to an oven
or stove, in _The Lord of Lorn and the False Steward_ (271);[224]
the miraculous harvest in _The Carnal and the Crane_ (55);[225] the
childbirth in the wood in _Leesome Brand_ (15) and in _Rose the Red
and White Lily_ (103);[226] the presence of three ladies, “that the
youngest may be preferred to the others;” the unpardonable “offence
given by not asking a brother’s assent to his sister’s marriage” in
_The Cruel Brother_ (11);[227] the testament in _The Cruel Brother_,
_Lord Randal_, _Edward_, etc.;[228] the riddles in _Riddles Wisely
Expounded_ (1), etc.;[229] and certain stanzas in _Crow and Pie_
(111).[230] “Heroic sentiment” is a characteristic of the earlier
Robin Hood ballads; in the later it is gone.[231] It may be that in
his appreciation of certain other features Professor Child is thinking
not merely of their excellence but of their peculiarly popular
quality as well. Thus he speaks of “the fine trait of the ringing of
the bells without men’s hands, and the reading of the books without
man’s tongue,”[232] in _Sir Hugh_ (155); and thinks that “perhaps
the original conception [of _The Twa Sisters_ (10)] was the simple
and beautiful one which we find in English B and both the Icelandic
ballads, that the king’s harper, or the girl’s lover, takes three locks
of her yellow hair to string his harp with.”[233]
The ballad does not always go to ancient tradition, or draw upon the
stock of popular themes and motives; occasionally, in more modern
times, it tells the story of some actual occurrence; it is based on
fact. But the balladist feels himself under no obligation of loyalty to
the fact. “A strict accordance with history should not be expected, and
indeed would be almost a ground of suspicion [“or a pure@ accident”].
Ballad singers and their hearers would be as@ indifferent to the facts
as the readers of ballads are now; it is only editors who feel bound
to look closely into such matters.”[234] In _Johnie Armstrong_ (169)
“the ballads treat facts with the customary freedom and improve upon
them greatly.”[235] _Bonny John Seton_ (198) “is accurate as to the
date, not commonly a good sign for such things.”[236] “A ballad taken
down some four hundred years after the event will be apt to retain very
little of sober history.”[237] Yet, in the case of _The Hunting of the
Cheviot_ (162), at least, “the ballad can scarcely be a deliberate
fiction. The singer is not a critical historian, but he supposes
himself to be dealing with facts; he may be partial to his countrymen,
but he has no doubt that he is treating of a real event.”[238] Part of
_The Earl of Westmoreland_ (177) “has an historical substratum, though
details are incorrect.”[239] In _Northumberland Betrayed by Douglas_
(176) “the ballad-minstrel acquaints us with circumstances concerning
the surrender of Northumberland which are not known to any of the
historians.”[240] Local tradition would seem to be even less authentic
than the ballad; “in such cases” as _The Coble o Cargill_ (242) it
“seldom means more than a theory which people have formed to explain a
preëxisting ballad.”[241]
We have already seen how a ballad derived from print tends to revert to
the popular form; the same tendency is evident in the ballad derived
from a romance. Of _Gude Wallace_ (157) “Blind Harry’s Wallace ...
is clearly the source.” “But the portions of Blind Harry’s poem out
of which these ballads were made were perhaps themselves composed
from older ballads, and the restitution of the lyrical form may
have given us something not altogether unlike what was sung in the
fifteenth, or even the fourteenth, century.”[242] _Thomas Rymer_ (37)
is derived from the romance, yet it is “an entirely popular ballad
as to style.”[243] These are the only cases where Professor Child
admits without question the derivation of a ballad from a romance;
in other cases, where ballad and romance tell the same story, he
insists that the possibility of the priority of the ballad must be
considered. Thus the ballad of _Hind Horn_ (17) has close affinity
with the later English romance, but no filiation. “And were filiation
to be accepted, there would remain the question of priority. It is
often assumed, without a misgiving, that oral tradition must needs be
younger than anything that was committed to writing some centuries ago;
but this requires in each case to be made out; there is certainly no
antecedent probability of that kind.”[244] _Fair Annie_ (62) is not
derived from the lay; they “have a common source, which lies further
back, and too far for us to find.”[245] In _Gil Brenton_ (5) “the
artifice of substituting waiting-woman for bride has been thought to
be derived from the romance of Tristan.... Grundtvig truly remarks
that a borrowing by the romance from the popular ballad is as probable
a supposition as the converse.”[246] The ballad does sometimes go to
the romance for details. Thus, in _The Earl of Westmoreland_ (177)
“what follows [stanza 15] is pure fancy work, or rather an imitation
of stale old romance.”[247] _The Kitchie-Boy_ (252) is a modern
adaptation of King Horn, but, “in the particular of the hero’s having
his choice of two women, it is more like the _gest_ of ‘King Horn,’
or ‘Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild;’ but an independent invention of
the Spanish lady is not beyond the humble ability of the composer of
‘The Kitchie-Boy.’”[248] In the “worthless and manifestly--at least
in part--spurious ballad” of _Young Ronald_ (304), “the nicking
with nay and the giant are borrowed from romances.”[249] Though the
_Gest_, finally, “as to all important considerations, is eminently
original, absolutely so as to the conception of Robin Hood, some
traits and incidents, as might be expected, are taken from what we
may call the general stock of mediæval fiction.”[250] Thus “Robin
Hood will not dine until he has some guest that can pay handsomely for
his entertainment.... This habit of Robin’s seems to be a humorous
imitation of King Arthur, who in numerous romances will not dine till
some adventure presents itself.”[251]
Not only from ancient tradition, from fact, from romance or the
sources of romance may the ballad derive its subject-matter; it may
also turn back upon itself, and as late ballads counterfeit or imitate
the style of earlier ones, so late ballads go to earlier ones for
their subject-matter as well. Thus _The Battle of Otterburn_ (161)
“is likely to have been modernized from ... a predecessor.”[252] Part
of _The King’s Disguise, and Friendship with Robin Hood_ (151) “is a
loose paraphrase, with omissions, of the seventh and eighth fits of
the Gest.”[253] _The Brown Girl_ (295) “recalls ‘Lord Thomas and Fair
Annet,’ ‘Sweet William’s Ghost,’ ‘Clerk Saunders,’ ‘The Unquiet Grave,’
‘Bonny Barbara Allen,’ and has something of all of them.... Still it
is not deliberately and mechanically patched together (as are some
pieces in Part VIII), and in the point of the proud and unrelenting
character of the Brown Girl it is original.”[254] “Deliberately and
mechanically put together” were the pieces of Part VIII which follow.
_Auld Matrons_ (249) “was made by someone who had acquaintance with
the first fit of ‘Adam Bell.’ The anonymous ‘old wife’ becomes ‘auld
Matrons;’ Inglewood, Ringlewood. The conclusion is in imitation of the
rescues in Robin Hood ballads.”[255] _Henry Martyn_ (250) “must have
sprung from the ashes of ‘Andrew Barton,’ of which name Henry Martyn
would be no extraordinary corruption.”[256] _The Kitchie-Boy_ (252)
is “a modern ‘adaptation’ of ‘King Horn’ ... from which A 33, 34,
B 47, D 7, 8, are taken outright.”[257] The first half of _Willie’s
Fatal Visit_ (255) “is a medley of ‘Sweet William’s Ghost,’ ‘Clerk
Saunders,’ and ‘The Grey Cock,’”[258] Of _Broughty Wa’s_ (258), “Stanza
9, as it runs in b, is a reminiscence of ‘Bonny Baby Livingston,’
and 13 recalls ‘Child Waters,’ or ‘The Knight and the Shepherd’s
Daughter.’”[259] A large part of _The New-Slain Knight_ (263) “is
imitated or taken outright from very well known ballads.”[260] Like
some of these later ballads the _Gest of Robyn Hode_ goes back to
earlier ballads for its subject-matter. “The Gest is a popular epic,
composed from several ballads by a poet of a thoroughly congenial
spirit. No one of the ballads from which it was made up is extant in
a separate shape, and some portions of the story may have been of the
compiler’s own invention. The decoying of the sheriff into the wood,
stanzas 181-204, is of the same derivation as the last part of Robin
Hood and the Potter, No 121, Little John and Robin Hood exchanging
parts; the conclusion, 451-56, is of the same source as Robin Hood’s
Death, No 120.”[261] Some of the Middle-English forms “may be relics
of the ballads from which this little epic was made up; or the whole
poem may have been put together as early as 1400, or before.”[262] It
is noteworthy that the _Gest_ was composed _from_, not _of_, several
ballads; it was not made up of unchanged ballads, “deliberately and
mechanically put together.”
The motives or features characteristic of subject-matter derived
from pure popular tradition have already been noted; we may now note
those traits which Professor Child declares or implies to be not
characteristic of such subject-matter. Extravagance would seem to be
one of these: the extravagance of _Hughie Grame_ (191, A, 16) “it is to
be hoped is a corruption.”[263] In _Mary Hamilton_ (173) “there are
not a few spurious passages. Among these are the extravagance of the
queen’s bursting in the door, F 8; the platitude,[264] of menial stamp,
that the child, if saved, might have been an honor to the mother, D 10,
L 3, O 4.”[265] Exaggeration is another non-traditional trait: “It is
but the natural course of exaggeration that the shepherd, having beaten
Robin Hood, should beat Little John. This is descending low enough, but
we do not see the bottom of this kind of balladry here”[266] [_Robin
Hood and the Shepherd_ (165)]. _Robin Hood and Queen Katherine_ (145)
is “a very pleasant ballad, with all the exaggeration.”[267] The true
ballad is not prosaic: in _Fause Foodrage_ (89) “the ... king kills
his successful rival on his wedding-day. According to the prosaic, not
at all ballad-like, and evidently corrupted account in A, there is
a rebellion of nobles four months after the marriage, and a certain
False Foodrage takes it upon himself to kill the king.”[268] The true
ballad is not over-refined: in _The Braes of Yarrow_ (214, C, 2) “the
brothers have taken offence because their sister was not regarded as
his equal by her husband, which is perhaps too much of a refinement for
ballads, and may be a perversion.”[269] The true ballad is not cynical:
_The Twa Corbies_ sounds “something like a cynical variation of the
tender little English ballad,”[270] and it is not printed as a ballad
in Professor Child’s collection. The true ballad is not sophisticated:
it was the influence of the play, Home’s _Douglas_, that gave vogue to
the ballad, _Child Maurice_ (83), and “the sophisticated copy passed
into recitation.”[271] The true ballad is not sentimental: in _Mary
Hamilton_ (173), “there are not a few spurious passages,” among them,
“the sentimentality of H 3, 16.”[272] Jamieson published _Child Waters_
(63, B a) with “the addition of three sentimental stanzas to make Burd
Ellen die just as her enduring all things is to be rewarded.”[273] The
true ballad does not append a moral: a German version of _Lady Isabel
and the Elf-Knight_ (4) “smacks decidedly of the bänkelsänger, and has
an appropriate moral at the tail.”[274] A certain degree of probability
or naturalness is to be expected of the true ballad story: in _Jellon
Grame_ (90), “one day, when the boy asks why his mother does not take
him home, Jellon Grame (very unnaturally) answers, I slew her, and
there she lies: upon which the boy sends an arrow through him.”[275]
Finally, the plot of the true ballad is not trite. In _Child Owlet_
(291) “the chain of gold in the first stanza and the penknife below
the bed in the fourth have a false ring, and the story is of the
tritest. The ballad seems at best to be a late one, and is perhaps mere
imitation.”[276]
III.
It is clear that to Professor Child’s mind it was necessary that the
ballad should tell a story. “The word _ballad_ in English signifies a
narrative song, a short tale in lyric verse.”[277] Thus the English
versions of _Geordie_ (209) are said to be mere ‘goodnights,’ whereas
“the Scottish ballads have a proper story, with a beginning, middle,
and end, and (save one late copy), a good end, and they are most
certainly ... independent of the English.”[278] _Dugall Quin_ (294) is
a “little ballad, which has barely story enough to be so called.”[279]
To the “English ‘ditty’ (not a traditional ballad) ... there is very
little story.”[280]
Necessary as the story is, however, it is seldom completely told in
the ballad; something is left to the hearers’ imagination. Sometimes
the close of the story is omitted: “it is not said (except in the
spurious portions of E) that the lady was carried back by her husband,
but this may perhaps be inferred from his hanging the gypsies. In D
and K we are left uncertain as to her disposition.”[281] Transitions
are usually abrupt,--“abrupt even for a ballad” in _Willie’s Lady_ (6)
from stanza 33 to stanza 34.[282] Jamieson, in printing _The Bonny
Birdy_ (82), introduced several stanzas ‘to fill up chasms.’ “But the
chasms, such as they are, are easily leapt by the imagination, and
Jamieson’s interpolations are mere bridges of carpenter’s work.”[283]
Of _Sir Patrick Spens_ (58), “Percy’s version [A] remains, poetically,
the best. It may be a fragment, but the imagination easily supplies
all that may be wanting; and if more of the story, or the whole, be
told in H, the half is better[284] than the whole.”[285] These abrupt
transitions do not, then, result in incoherence, which accompanies
corruption and is a sign of degeneracy. Thus _The Carnal and the
Crane_ (55) “had obviously been transmitted from mouth to mouth
before it was fixed in its present incoherent and corrupted form by
print.”[286] _Young Bearwell_ (302) is “one of not a few flimsy and
unjointed ballads found in Buchan’s volumes, the like of which is
hardly to be found elsewhere.”[287] After an attempt to make the story
of _The White Fisher_ (264) hang together, Professor Child concludes:
“But we need not trouble ourselves much to make these counterfeits
reasonable. Those who utter them rely confidently upon our taking
folly and jargon as the marks of genuineness.”[288] Coherence, on the
contrary, is a characteristic of the true ballad, an important phase of
ballad excellence. “I am persuaded that there was an older and better
copy of this ballad [_Bewick and Graham_ (211)] than those which are
extant. The story is so well composed, proportion is so well kept, on
the whole, that it is reasonable to suppose that certain passages (as
stanzas 3, 4, 50) may have suffered some injury.”[289] Introductions,
not closely connected with the ballad story, are not characteristic.
“The narrator in the Ever Green poem reports at second hand: as he is
walking, he meets a man who, upon request, tells him the beginning and
the end. Both pieces have nearly the same first line. The borrowing was
more probably on the part of the ballad, for a popular ballad would be
likely to tell its tale without preliminaries.”[290]
Brevity is a characteristic of the true ballad, and it may be, in
this respect, profitably contrasted with Buchan’s versions. Version C
of _Brown Adam_ (98) “has the usual marks of Buchan’s copies, great
length, vulgarity, and such extravagance and absurdity as are found
in stanzas 23, 26, 29.”[291] “Buchan, who may generally be relied
upon to produce a longer ballad than anybody else, has ‘Young Waters’
in thirty-nine stanzas, ‘the only complete version which he had ever
met.’”[292] His version of _The Gay Goshawk_ (96, G) is “vilely dilated
and debased,”[293] and that of _Jellon Grame_ (90, C) “has nearly the
same incidents as B, diluted and vulgarized in almost twice as many
verses.”[294]
The action is seldom carefully localized: the compiler of _A Gest
of Robyn Hode_ was careless of geography.[295] The New England copy
of _Archie o Cawfield_ (188, F) “naturally enough, names no places.”
“The route in C is not described[2] there is no reason, if they start
from Cafield (see 23), why they should cross the Annan, the town being
on the eastern side. All difficulties are escaped in D by giving no
names.”[296] The attention given to the setting in some of the Robin
Hood ballads is, then, exceptional. Of _Robin Hood and the Monk_ (119),
“the landscape background of the first two stanzas has often been
praised, and its beauty will never pall. It may be called landscape
or prelude, for both eyes and ears are addressed, and several others
of these woodland ballads have a like symphony or setting: Adam Bell,
Robin Hood and the Potter, Guy of Gisborne, even the much later ballad
of The Noble Fisherman. It is to be observed that the story of the
outlaw Fulk Fitz Warine, which has other traits in common with Robin
Hood ballads, begins somewhat after the same fashion.”[297]
In dealing with the supernatural the way of the true ballad is to
omit description or explanation. In _James Harris_ (243), “to explain
the eery personality and proceedings of the ship-master, E-G, with a
sort of vulgar rationalism, turn him into the devil.... D (probably
by the fortunate accident of being a fragment) leaves us to put our
own construction upon the weird seaman; and, though it retains the
homely ship-carpenter, is on the whole the most satisfactory of all
the versions.”[298] In _Johnie Scot_ (99) “the champion is described
in A 31 as a gurious (grugous, gruous?) ghost; in H 27 as a greecy
(frightful) ghost; in L 18 he is a fearsome sight, with three women’s
spans between his brows and three yards between his shoulders; in the
Abbotsford copy of A, 29, 30, a grisly sight, with a span between
his eyes, between his shoulders three and three, and Johnie scarcely
reaching his knee. These points are probably taken from another and
later ballad, which is perhaps an imitation, and might almost be called
a parody, of Johnie Soot.”[299] Ghosts, though not thought sufficiently
strange to demand special treatment, should, nevertheless, “have a
fair reason for walking.... In popular fictions, the motive for their
leaving the grave is to ask back plighted troth, to be relieved from
the inconveniences caused by the excessive grief of the living, to put
a stop to the abuse of children by stepmothers, to repair an injustice
done in the flesh, to fulfil a promise; at the least, to announce the
visitant’s death.”[300]
Turning now from technique,--from treatment of plot, of setting, of
the supernatural,--to style in the narrower sense, we find that the
comments are again largely in the way of pointing out flaws, or traits
which are not characteristic of the true ballad, and which are due to
the peculiar conditions of ballad transmission. From such negative
comments may be inferred, again, the stylistic marks of the true
ballad. Thus, in the first place, ballad style is artless and homely.
In _Andrew Lammie_ (233):
Her bloom was like the springing flower
That hails the rosy morning,
With innocence and graceful mein
Her beauteous form adorning.
and
‘No kind of vice eer staind my life,
Or hurt my virgin honour;
My youthful heart was won by love,
But death will me exoner’ (C, 2, 42).
are “not homely enough.”[301] Moreover,
‘At Fyvie’s yetts there grows a flower,
It grows baith braid and bonny;
There’s a daisie in the midst o it,
And it’s ca’d by Andrew Lammie’ (A, 1.).
“the mystical verses with which A and B begin are also not quite
artless.”[302] The ninth stanza of _The New-Slain Knight_ (263) “is
pretty, but not quite artless.”[303] In the true ballad the conceit is
out of place. Scott’s version (C) of _Thomas Rymer_ (37) closes with
two satirical stanzas not popular in style. “‘The repugnance of Thomas
to be debarred the use of falsehood when he should find it convenient,’
may have, as Scott says, ‘a comic effect,’ but is, for a ballad, a
miserable conceit.”[304] In _The Mother’s Malison_ (216), A 8^{1-2}, C
10^{1-2},
Make me your wrack as I come back,
But spare me as I go,
the conceit (from Martial) “does not overwell suit a popular
ballad.”[305] The literary manner is thus to be contrasted with the
popular. In _Edward_ (13) “the word ‘brand,’ in the first stanza, is
possibly more literary than popular; further than this the language is
entirely fit.”[306] Of _Earl Brand_ (7) “A a has suffered less from
literary revision than ... A c.”[307] This revision may be illustrated
by the following stanza:
To a maiden true he’ll give his hand,
To the king’s daughter o fair England,
To a prize that was won by a slain brother’s hand,
which c substitutes for a 32:
This has not been the death o ane,
But it’s been that of fair seventeen.
version from the English border, has unfortunately been improved
by some literary pen.”[308] These improvements consist in part of
descriptions of the lady’s states of mind;[309] for example:@
To think of the prisoner her heart was sore,
Her love it was much but her pity was more.
The words that he said on her fond heart smote,
She knew not in sooth if she lived or not.
She looked to his face, and it kythed so unkind
That her fast coming tears soon rendered her blind.
(Sts. 3, 9, 10.)
_Jamie Telfer_ (190) “was retouched for the Border Minstrelsy, nobody
can say how much. The 36th stanza is in Hardyknute style.”[310]
Of _Hughie Grame_ (191), B, 3, 8, “are obviously, as Cromek says, the
work of Burns, and the same is true of 10^{3-4}.”[311] _The Famous
Flower of Serving-Men_ (106), an “English broadside, which may be
reasonably believed to be formed upon a predecessor in the popular
style,[312] was given in Percy’s _Reliques_, ..., ‘from a written copy
containing some improvements (perhaps modern ones).’ These improvements
are execrable in style and in matter, so far as there is new matter,
but not in so glaring contrast with the groundwork as literary
emendations of traditional ballads.”[313] Such contrast is found in
the “hack-rhymester lines” in _Bewick and Graham_ (211, 7^3, 19^2),
which are “not up to the mark of the general style.”[314] Similarly,
_King Henry_ (32) “as published by Jamieson ... is increased by
interpolation to thirty-four stanzas [from twenty]. ‘The interpolations
will be found enclosed in brackets,’ but a painful contrast of style
of itself distinguishes them.”[315] Editorial changes are, however, in
some cases confined to slight verbal variations, where the contrast is
less evident or painful.[316]
Yet, in spite of its artless, homely, and non-literary style, the
ballad is not without conventions of its own. Most striking of these is
the use of “commonplaces” or passages which recur in many ballads, like:
When bells were rung and mass was sung,
And a’ men bound to bed;
or,
O whan he came to broken briggs
He bent his bow and swam,
An whan he came to the green grass growin
He slackd his shoone and ran.[317]
Another convention is the complete repetition of the message by the
messenger. Thus in _Fair Mary of Wallington_ (91, A) “the stanza
which should convey ... part of the message is wanting, but may be
confidently supplied from the errand-boy’s repetition.”[318] Another
form of repetition occurs in the narration of similar incidents by
different ballads. “There is a general resemblance between the rescue
of Robin Hood in stanzas 61-81 and that of William of Cloudesly in Adam
Bell, 56-94, and the precaution suggested by Much in the eighth stanza
corresponds to the warning given by Adam in the eighth stanza of the
other ballad. There is a verbal agreement in stanzas 71 of the first
and 66 of the second. Such agreements or repetitions are numerous in
the Robin Hood ballads, and in other traditional ballads, where similar
situations occur.”[319]
In the course of degeneration, ballads retain, but distort, the
commonplace. Thus in _Lord Thomas and Lady Margaret_ (261) “B 14^{3, 4}
is a commonplace, which, in inferior traditional ballads, is often, as
here, an out-of-place. B 15, 16 is another commonplace, of the silly
sort.”[320] “Hacknied commonplaces” occur in _Auld Matrons_ (249),
stanzas 2-5;[321] “frippery commonplaces,” in _The White Fisher_ (264),
stanzas 2, 7, 8, 12.[322]
Turning now to the emotional qualities of ballad style, we find that
the ghost ballad, in spite (or perhaps because) of the absence of
special treatment noted above, is, at its best, “impressive.” The
scene at the grave in _Sweet William’s Ghost_ (77 C 11-13) “may be
judged grotesque, but is not trivial or unimpressive. These verses
may be supposed not to have belonged to the earliest form of the
ballad, and one does not miss them from A, but they cannot be an
accretion of modern date.”[323] In _The Wife of Usher’s Well_ (79)
“there is no indication that the sons come back to forbid obstinate
grief, as the dead often do. But supplying a motive would add nothing
to the impressiveness of these verses. Nothing that we have is more
profoundly affecting.”[324] _The Suffolk Miracle_ (272) is to be
contrasted with the continental versions, “one of the most remarkable
tales and one of the most impressive and beautiful ballads of the
European continent.”[325] _Bewick and Graham_ (211), in spite of
certain defects, “is a fine-spirited ballad as it stands, and very
infectious.”[326] _Walter Lesly_ (296) is “a late, but life-like
and spirited ballad.”[327] _The Wee Wee Man_ (38) is an “extremely
airy and sparkling little ballad.”[328] _Andrew Lammie_ (233) “is
a homely ditty, but the gentleness and fidelity of Annie under the
brutal behavior of her family are genuinely pathetic, and justify the
remarkable popularity which the ballad has enjoyed in the north of
Scotland.”[329] Contrasted with the cynical _Twa Corbies_ of Scott’s
Minstrelsy is _The Three Ravens_ (26), a “tender little English
ballad.”[330] In the _Gest_: “Nothing was ever more felicitously told,
even in the best _dit_ or _fabliau_, than the ‘process’ of Our Lady’s
repaying the money which had been lent on her security. Robin’s slyly
significant welcome to the monk upon learning that he is of Saint Mary
Abbey, his professed anxiety that Our Lady is wroth with him because
she has not sent him his pay, John’s comfortable suggestion that
perhaps the monk has brought it, Robin’s incidental explanation of the
little business in which the Virgin was a party, and request to see the
silver in case the monk has come upon her affair, are beautiful touches
of humor, and so delicate that it is all but brutal to point them
out.”[331] The tales which are cited as parallels to _Queen Eleanor’s
Confession_ (156) all “have the cynical Oriental character, and, to a
healthy taste, are far surpassed by the innocuous humor of the English
ballad.”[332] While we need not question the substantial genuineness of
_Fause Foodrage_ (89), “we must admit that the form in which we have
received it is an enfeebled one, without much flavor or color.”[333]
_The Suffolk Miracle_ (272) preserves the story only in a “blurred,
enfeebled, and disfigured shape.”[334] Version B of the _Cheviot_ (162)
is “very seriously enfeebled.”[335]
The lyrical quality,--the fact that the ballad was made to be
sung,--must not be lost sight of. “Fair Annie’s fortunes have not only
been charmingly sung, as here [in the ballad of _Fair Annie_ (62)];
they have also been exquisitely _told_ in a favorite lay of Marie
de France.”[336] The superior lyrical quality of _The Bonny Birdy_
(82) “makes up for its inferiority [to _Little Musgrave_ (81)] as a
story, so that on the whole it cannot be prized much lower than the
noble English ballad.”[337] Thus lyrical quality is to be regarded
as no less significant than plot as a trait of the true ballad. _The
Queen of Elfan’s Nourice_ (40), “after the nature of the best popular
ballad, forces you to chant and will not be read.”[338] Even _The Jolly
Pindar of Wakefield_, (124) “is thoroughly lyrical, ... and was pretty
well sung to pieces before it ever was printed.”[339] “It is not ...
always easy to say whether an isolated stanza belonged to a ballad or
a song;”[340] and Professor Child speaks even of the whole of _Bessy
Bell and Mary Gray_ (201) as “this little ballad, or song.”[341] Of
_Lord Lovel_ (75) he says: “It can scarcely be too often repeated
that such ballads as this were meant only to be sung, not at all to
be recited.... ‘Lord Lovel’ is especially one of those which, for
their due effect, require the support of a melody, and almost equally
the comment of a burden. No burden is preserved in the case of ‘Lord
Lovel,’ but we are not to infer that there never was one. The burden,
which is at least as important as the instrumental accompaniment
of modern songs, sometimes, in these little tragedies, foreshadows
calamity from the outset, sometimes ... is a cheerful-sounding formula,
which in the upshot enhances by contrast the gloom of the conclusion.
‘A simple but life-like story, supported by the burden and the air,
these are the means by which such old romances seek to produce an
impression.’”[342] _The Elfin Knight_ (2 A) “is the only example, so
far as I remember, which our ballads afford of a burden of this kind,
one that is of greater extent than the stanza with which it was sung,
though this kind of burden seems to have been common enough with old
songs and carols.”[343]
IV.
_The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_ of 1882-1898 has naturally
superseded the _English and Scottish Ballads_ of 1857-1859, and
Professor Child himself shared the general tendency to underestimate
the real value of the earlier collection. It was of course made on a
different plan; its limits were not so clearly defined, and it did
not attempt to give every version of every known ballad. Many of
the sources, moreover, were not yet open. One is, then, surprised
to find that, of the three hundred and five ballads printed in the
later collection, only ninety are new; and these are, for the most
part, unimportant additions to the body of ballad literature. They
are distributed as follows: 15 in volume I, 16 in II, 11 in III, 25
in IV, 23 in V. Thus 59 of the 90 occur in the last three volumes;
of these there is not one of first importance. Of the remaining
31 not more than 10 can be regarded as really valuable additions,
though such an estimate must of necessity be based more or less upon
personal impression. Some of these were already accessible, in Buchan’s
versions, or elsewhere: _Willie’s Lyke-Wake_ (25), _Lizie Wan_ (51),
_The King’s Dochter Lady Jean_ (52), _Brown Robyn’s Confession_
(57), _Fair Mary of Wallington_(91). These, doubtless, were omitted
because of the nature of their subject-matter; it was only in the
later collection that Professor Child “had no discretion.”[344] Other
important ballads were not yet accessible, or not yet discovered:
_St. Stephen and Herod_ (22), _The Laily Worm and the Machrel of the
Sea_ (36), _The Queen of Elfan’s Nourice_ (40), _The Unquiet Grave_
(78), _The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry_ (113). Of the ten, only four
are included in Professor Gummere’s collection. The main addition
of the later collection is thus rather in the way of new versions
of important ballads, or of more authentic versions based directly
upon the manuscripts; in the citation of a larger number of foreign
parallels; and, generally, in the matter contained in the introductions.
The _Ballads_ contained 115 pieces which do not appear in the later
collection. The nature of such material, since it is excluded from the
“complete” _English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, is significant as
throwing some additional light upon Professor Child’s conception. In
many cases the reason for exclusion is made clear by Professor Child
himself, in comments in the earlier or in the later collection. Of the
whole group of lays and romances contained in Book I of the _Ballads_,
he says: “Some of the longer pieces in this book are not of the nature
of ballads, and require an apology. They were admitted before the
limits of the work had been determined with exactness.”[345] If such
pieces as these do not fulfil the lyrical requirement of the true
ballad, others cannot fulfil the requirement of plot, and the songs, of
the _Ballads_, like _A Lyke Wake Dirge_, _Fair Helen of Kirconnel_, or
_The Lowlands of Holland_[346] find no place in the later collection.
The _Ballads_ contains also translations from the Danish, and the
original and translation of a modern Greek parallel of the Lenore
story; these are naturally not included in _The English and Scottish
Popular Ballads_.
The later collection is much more chary of the admission of broadsides
or sheet-ballads: in many cases they are relegated to introductions
or appendices; in many more, omitted. _William Guiseman_ is cited
merely, under _Brown Robin’s Confession_ (57), as “a copy, improved by
tradition, of the ‘lament’ in ‘William Grismond’s Downfal,’ a broadside
of 1650.”[347] _The Lament of the Border Widow_, which occurs in Book
VI of the _Ballads_, “shows broader traces of the sheet-ballad,”
and is quoted in the introduction to No 106 for “those who are
interested in such random inventions (as, under pardon, they must be
called).”[348] Of _The Lady Isabella’s Tragedy_ Professor Child says in
the later collection: “Though perhaps absolutely the silliest ballad
that ever was made, and very far from silly sooth, the broadside was
traditionally propagated in Scotland without so much change as is usual
in such cases.”[349] Even in the _Ballads_ one finds this comment:
“The three following pieces [_The Spanish Virgin_, _Lady Isabella’s
Tragedy_, _The Cruel Black_] are here inserted merely as specimens
of a class of tales, horrible in their incidents but feeble in their
execution, of which whole dreary volumes were printed and read about
two centuries ago. They were all of them, probably, founded on Italian
novels.”[350] Although the _Ballads_ includes _Macpherson’s Rant_, it
is declared “worthy of a hangman’s pen.”[351] A number of tales which
employ a highly artificial stanza, such as _The Fray of Suport_, _The
Raid of the Reidswire_, or _The Flemish Insurrection_, do not find
their way into the later collection.
Traces of the modern editor or author become less common in the later
collection. Versions “modernized and completed by Percy” (Book I, Nos.
1 b and 5 b) are excluded. The cynical _Twa Corbies_ appears only in
the introduction to _The Three Ravens_; and Motherwell’s edition,
declared already in the _Ballads_ to be a “modernized version,”[352]
does not appear at all. Motherwell’s _Bonnie_ _George Campbell_
suffers a like fate, and this, we infer, because “Motherwell made up
his ‘Bonnie George Campbell’ from B, C, D.”[353] As, no doubt, not
merely modernized but modern, _Sir Roland_ is excluded. “This fragment,
Motherwell tells us, was communicated to him by an ingenious friend,
who remembered having heard it sung in his youth. He does not vouch
for its antiquity, and we have little or no hesitation in pronouncing
it a modern composition.”[354] Similarly, _Lady Anne_ “is on the face
of it a modern composition, with extensive variations, on the theme of
the popular ballad.”[355] It is printed in the appendix to No 20. _Earl
Richard_ is “an entirely modern composition, excepting only the twenty
lines of Herd’s fragment.”[356] Of _Auld Maitland_ Professor Child
says: “Notwithstanding the authority of Scott and Leyden, I am inclined
to agree with Mr Aytoun, that this ballad is a modern imitation, or if
not that, a comparatively recent composition. It is with reluctance
that I make for it the room it requires.”[357] The essential anonymity
of the ballad, in Professor Child’s final conception, naturally
excludes pieces like Henryson’s _Robene and Makyne_ and _The Bludy
Serk_, which had found their way into the _Ballads_.[358]
There are but few instances of definite praise, as ballads, of pieces
included in the earlier collection and excluded from the later. _The
Children in the Wood_ is said to be “perhaps the most popular of all
English ballads. Its merit is attested by the favor it has enjoyed with
so many generations, and was vindicated to a cold and artificial age
by the kindly pen of Addison.”[359] We must not forget, however, that
Professor Child was fifty years nearer the kindly pen of Addison. The
cold and artificial age, moreover, was also sentimental and moral; and
why, with it, this ballad was so popular, a single stanza will show:
You that executors be made,
And overseers eke
Of children that be fatherless,
And infants mild and meek;
Take you example by this thing,
And yield to each his right,
Lest God with such like miserye
Your wicked minds requite (vv. 153 ff.).
_The Blind Beggar’s Daughter of Bednall’s Green_ is said to be printed
from a modern broadside, yet it is characterized as “this favorite
popular ballad.”[360] _The Nutbrowne Maid_ is “this matchless poem,”
“this beautiful old ballad.”[361] Yet, clearly, it is not a popular
ballad at all.
On the whole, it is not difficult to see why the 115 ballads are
excluded from the later collection; and one gets the impression that,
had Professor Child chosen to enforce the conception of the ballad
which he already had in mind, most of them would have been excluded
from the earlier collection as well. This impression is deepened by an
examination of the comments scattered through the _Ballads_.
He already regarded the ballad as inimitable:[362] “The exclusion
of the ‘Imitations’ ... may possibly excite the regret of a few....
Whatever may be the merit of the productions in question, they are
never less likely to obtain credit for it, than when they are brought
into comparison with their professed models.”[363] Again, _Sir Patrick
Spence_, “if not ancient, has been always accepted as such by the
most skilful judges, and is a solitary instance of a successful
imitation, in manner and spirit, of the best specimens of authentic
minstrelsy.”[364]
Professor Child had already fallen foul of the editors, and their
alterations and interpolations.[365] It is interesting to see how, in
many cases, he anticipated the corrections and comments made possible,
for the later collection, by access to the manuscripts. Of _The Child
of Elle_ he says: “So extensive are Percy’s alterations and additions,
that the reader will have no slight difficulty in detecting the few
traces that are left of the genuine composition.”[366] Compare: “So
much of Percy’s ‘Child of Elle’ as was genuine, which, upon the
printing of his manuscript, turned out to be one fifth.”[367] Again,
Percy acknowledges interpolations, which “might with some confidence
be pointed out. Among them are certainly most, if not all, of the
last twelve stanzas of the Second Part, which include the catastrophe
to the story.”[368] In Percy, he says in the later collection, _Sir
Cawline_ “is extended to nearly twice the amount of what is found in
the manuscript, and a tragical turn is forced upon the story.”[369]
Again: “We have given _Gil Morrice_ as it stands in the _Reliques_
(iii. 132,) degrading to the margin those stanzas which are undoubtedly
spurious.”[370] The stanzas thus degraded turned out to be actually
spurious.[371] Condemnation of Buchan is scattered throughout the
_Ballads_. Thus: “Some resolution has been exercised, and much disgust
suppressed, in retaining certain pieces from Buchan’s collections, so
strong is the suspicion that, after having been procured from very
inferior sources, they were tampered with by the editor.”[372] Again:
“One uncommonly tasteless stanza [41, A, 53], the interpolation of some
nursery-maid,[373] is here omitted. Too many of Buchan’s ballads have
suffered in this way, and have become both prolix and vulgar.”[374]
Even in the _Ballads_ Professor Child placed “no confidence in any
of Allan Cunningham’s _souvenirs_ of Scottish song,”[375] and his
early suspicions[376] of the character of Cunningham’s version of Gil
Brenton are confirmed in the later collection.[377] _King Henry_,
printed in the earlier collection “without the editor’s [Jamieson’s]
interpolations,”[378] appears in the same form in the later, except
that stanza 14 is printed in small type, as not being in the
Jamieson-Brown MS. Again, in _The Bonny Birdy_, “the lines supplied by
Jamieson have been omitted.”[379] There is an interesting comment on
these lines in the later collection.[380]
Professor Child was already aware that change of nationality was
accompanied by change of the scene of action.[381] He quoted Scott’s
account of the locality of _The Douglas Tragedy_ [==_Earl Brand_ (7,
B)], and added: “After so circumstantial a description of the scene,
... the reader may be amused to see the same story told in various
Scandinavian ballads, with a no less plausible resemblance to actual
history. This, as has already been pointed out under _Guy of Warwick_
and _Kempion_,[382] is an ordinary occurrence in the transmission of
legends.”[383]
He noted, too, the tendency of ballads to combine: “The natural desire
of men to hear more of characters in whom they have become strongly
interested, has frequently stimulated the attempt to continue
successful fictions.”[384] _Sweet William’s Ghost_ is often made the
sequel to other ballads.[385]
So far as subject-matter is concerned, we find in the _Ballads_ the
same conception of the relation of ballad and fact. _Jane Shore_
“adheres to matter of fact with a fidelity very uncommon,”[386] and
this is, perhaps, one reason why it does not find a place in the
later collection.[387] We may contrast, on the other hand, the two
statements in regard to the relation of _Hind Horn_ and the romance:
“Metrical romances ... are known in many cases to have been adapted
for the entertainment of humbler hearers, by abridgment in the form of
ballads.” He regards _Hind Horn_ as a case of this sort.[388]
Style and plot, finally, are a test of genuineness: “I cannot assent to
the praise bestowed by Scott on _The Outlaw Murray_. The story lacks
point and the style is affected--not that of the unconscious poet of
the real _traditional_ ballad.”[389] Though there without comment, it
is placed at the very end of the later collection.
From a comment like this it is obvious that Professor Child already had
in mind the conception of “a real _traditional_ ballad,” a “specimen
of authentic minstrelsy.”[390] Although he admitted to the earlier
collection lays, romances, songs, broadsides and sheet-ballads, as
well as modern or modernized compositions, yet he was aware that all
these differed from the true ballad. This true ballad, he conceived,
was inimitable, in matter and manner. In transmission it might suffer,
from the invention of a nursery-maid, from Buchan’s beggar, from a
“hangman’s pen,” from the modern editors. It drew its subject-matter
from fact (to which it was not loyal), from romances, from other
ballads. In quality the subject-matter was not “horrible.” In style
the true ballad was not feeble in execution, not prolix and vulgar,
and not affected. The earlier conception was not as complete as the
later, and it was by no means so rigorously enforced. In regard to
specific compositions, there was, as is to be expected, some change
of opinion. But the significant fact is that for at least forty years
Professor Child retained without essential change his conception of the
traditional ballad as a distinct literary type.
V.
We may now bring together the passages in which Professor Child
declared certain ballads to be of the true “popular” or “traditional”
type. The fewness of such passages is at first surprising, yet it
clearly formed no part of a set purpose to include in his introductions
estimates of this kind, and such “appreciations” seem to have been
either spontaneous,--springing, as in the case of _Johnie Cock_, from
his delight in the ballad with which he was concerned,--or intended,
as in the case of _Edward_, as answer to his predecessors’ doubts of
authenticity. On ballads like _Lord Randal_, _Babylon_, _Hind Horn_,
_Clerk Saunders_, _Fair Margaret and Sweet William_, there is no such
comment. It would seem, no doubt, in such cases obviously unnecessary.
Nevertheless the list is fairly representative. We have examples of
the Domestic Ballad,--tragic, in _Earl Brand_ (7), _Edward_ (13), _Old
Robin of Portingale_ (80), _Little Musgrave_ (81), _The Bonny Birdy_
(82); not tragic, in _Child Waters_ (63), _Young Beichan_ (53), _Queen
Eleanor’s Confession_ (156): we have examples of the Supernatural
Ballad,--transformation, in _The Laily Worm and the Machrel of the Sea_
(36); fairy, in _Thomas Rymer_ (37); ghost, in _The Wife_ _of Usher’s
Well_ (79): we have examples of the Border Ballad in _Captain Car_ (178
F) and _Jock o the Side_ (187): of the Outlaw Ballad in _Johnie Cock_
(114), the Robin Hood ballads, 117-121: of the Heroic Ballad in _King
Estmere_ (60), _Sir Aldingar_ (59), _Sir Patrick Spens_ (58 A).
_Johnie Cock_ (114): “This precious specimen of the unspoiled
traditional ballad.” III, 1.
_Edward_ (13): “The word ‘brand,’ in the first stanza, is possibly
more literary than popular; further than this the language is entirely
fit. The affectedly antique spelling in Percy’s copy has given rise to
vague suspicions concerning the authenticity of the ballad, or of the
language: but as spelling will not make an old ballad, so it will not
unmake one. We have, but do not need, the later traditional copy to
prove the other genuine. ‘Edward’ is not only unimpeachable, but has
ever been regarded as one of the noblest and most sterling specimens
of the popular ballad.” I, 167.
_The Laily Worm and the Machrel of the Sea_ (36): “Somewhat mutilated,
and also defaced, though it be, this ballad has certainly never been
retouched by a pen, but is pure tradition. It has the first stanza
in common with ‘Kemp Owyne,’ and shares more than that with ‘Allison
Gross.’ But it is independent of ‘Allison Gross,’ and has a far more
original sound.” I, 315.
_Earl Brand_ (7): ... “has preserved most of the incidents of a very
ancient story with a faithfulness unequalled by any ballad that has
been recovered from English oral tradition.” I, 88.
_The Wife of Usher’s Well_ (79): “A motive for the return of the
wife’s three sons is not found in the fragments which remain to us....
But supplying a motive would add nothing to the impressiveness of
these verses. Nothing that we have is more profoundly affecting.” II,
238.
_Thomas Rymer_ (37): “B ... has been corrupted here and there, but
only by tradition.” I, 317.
“The fairy adventures of Thomas and of Ogier have the essential points
in common, and even the particular trait that the fairy is taken to be
the Virgin. The occurrence of this trait again in the ballad, viewed
in connection with the general similarity of the two, will leave no
doubt that the ballad had its source in the romance. Yet it is an
entirely popular ballad as to style,[391] and must be of considerable
age, though the earliest version (A) can be traced at furthest only
into the first half of the last century.” I, 319 f.
_Captain Car_ (178): “F is purely traditional and has one fine stanza
not found in any of the foregoing:@
Out then spake the lady Margaret,
As she stood on the stair;
The fire was at her goud garters,
The lowe was at her hair.” III, 429.@
_Queen Eleanor’s Confession_ (156): “There is reason to question
whether this [F] and the other recited versions are anything more than
traditional variations of printed copies. The ballad seems first to
have got into print in the latter part of the seventeenth century, but
was no doubt circulating orally sometime before that, for it is in the
truly popular tone.” III, 255.
_Robin Hood and the Tanner_ (126): “The sturdy Arthur a Bland is well
hit off, and, bating the sixteenth and thirty-fifth stanzas, the
ballad has a good popular ring. There is corruption at 8^3, 12^3, and
perhaps 13^3.” III, 137.
The earliest Robin Hood ballads (117-121) “are among the best of all
ballads, and perhaps none in English please so many and please so
long.” III, 42.
_Robin Hood and the Monk_ (119): “Too much could not be said in praise
of this ballad, but nothing need be said. It is very perfection in its
kind; and yet we have others equally good, and beyond doubt should
have had more, if they had been written down early, as this was, and
had not been left to the chances of tradition. Even writing would not
have saved all, but writing has saved this (in large part), and in
excellent form.” III, 95.
_Child Waters_ (63): “This charming ballad, which has perhaps no
superior in English, and if not in English perhaps nowhere.” II, 84.
(“Caution is imperative where so much ground is covered, and no man
should be confident that he can do absolute justice to poetry in a
tongue that he was not born to; but foreign poetry is as likely to be
rated too high as to be undervalued.” II, 84, n.)
_Jock o the Side_ (187): “The ballad is one of the best in the world,
and enough to make a horse-trooper of any young borderer, had he
lacked the impulse.” III, 477.
_Sir Patrick Spens_ (58, A): “This admired and most admirable ballad.”
“It would be hard to point out in ballad poetry, or other, happier
or more refined touches than the two stanzas in A which portray the
bootless waiting of the ladies for the return of the seafarers.” II,
17 f.[392]
_Young Beichan_ (53): “A favorite ballad and most deservedly.” I, 455.
_King Estmere_ (60): “While we cannot but be vexed that so
distinguished a ballad, not injured much, so far as we can see, by
time, should not come down to us as it came to Percy, our loss must
not be exaggerated. The changes made by the editor, numerous enough,
no doubt, cannot be very material until we approach the end. Stanzas
63-66 are entirely suspicious, and it may even be questioned whether
the manuscript contained a word that is in them.” II, 49.
_Little Musgrave and Lady Barnard_ (81): “The noble English ballad.”
II, 260.
_The Bonny Birdy_ (82): “A fine ballad upon the same theme.” II, 243.
_Old Robin of Portingale_ (80): “This fine ballad.” II, 240.
_Sir Aldingar_ (69): “This ballad, one of the most important of all
that the Percy manuscript has saved from oblivion.” II, 33.
_Robin Hood’s Death_ (120): “B, though found only in late garlands, is
in the fine old strain.” III, 103.
Certain ballads are expressly condemned as not “traditional” or
“popular”:
_Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly_ (141): “This is a ballad made for
print, with little of the traditional in the matter and nothing in the
style. It may be considered as an imitation of the Rescue of the Three
Squires.” III, 185.
_Robin Hood’s Birth, Breeding, etc._ (149): “The jocular author of
this ballad, who would certainly have been diverted by any one’s
supposing him to write under the restraints of tradition....” III, 214.
_The Lovely Northerne Lasse_ (217, Appendix): “There is an English
‘ditty’ (not a traditional ballad) ... which was printed in the first
half of the seventeenth century. It is here given in an appendix.” IV,
192.
To these may be added a few examples of less specific condemnation:
_The Earl of Mar’s Daughter_ (270): A Scandinavian ballad and this
“are, perhaps, on a par, for barrenness and folly, but the former may
claim some age and vogue, the Scottish ballad neither.” V, 39.
_The Drunkard’s Legacy_ (267, Appendix): “The modern ballad ... used
by Percy was ‘The Drunkard’s Legacy,’ an inexpressibly pitiable
ditty.” V, 12.
_John Thomson and the Turk_ (266): “This ridiculous ballad.” V, 1.
_Robin Hood and the Tinker_ (127): “The fewest words will best befit
this contemptible imitation of imitations.” III, 140.
_Robin Hood and Maid Marian_ (150): “This foolish ditty.” III, 218.
_Robin Hood and the Valiant Knight_ (153): “Written, perhaps, because
it was thought that authority should in the end be vindicated against
outlaws, which may explain why this piece surpasses in platitude
everything that goes before.” III, 225.
_The Suffolk Miracle_ (272): “This piece could not be admitted here on
its own merits. At the first look, it would be classed with the vulgar
prodigies printed for hawkers to sell and for Mopsa and Dorcas to buy.
It is not even a good specimen of its kind.” V, 58.
We may add from the _Ballads_ half-a-dozen examples of specific praise:
_The Lass of Lochroyan_ [76, D][393]: “This beautiful piece.”
_Ballads_, II, 98.
_The Queen’s Marie_ [173, I]: “Jamieson and Kinloch have each
published a highly dramatic fragment of this terrible story.”
_Ballads_, III, 107.
_The Lochmaben Harper_ [192, A]: “This fine old ballad ... has the
genuine ring of the best days of minstrelsy. On account of its
excellence, we give two versions.” _Ballads_, VI, 3.
_Earl Richard_ [68, J]: “This gloomy and impressive romance.”
_Ballads_, III, 3.
_Chevy-Chace_ [162, A]: “Addison’s papers in the _Spectator_ ...
evince so true a perception of the merits of this ballad [162, B],
shorn as it is of the most striking beauties of the grand original,
that we cannot but deeply regret his never having seen the ancient
and genuine copy (‘The noble ballad,’ 162, A; _Ballads_, VII, 27),
which was published by Hearne only a few days after Addison died.”
_Ballads_, VII, 43.
_Sir Andrew Barton_ [167, A]: “This noble ballad.” _Ballads_, VII, 56.
_Sir Patrick Spence_ [58, A]: “If not ancient, has been always
accepted as such by the most skilful judges, and is a solitary
instance of a successful imitation, in manner and spirit, of the best
specimens of authentic minstrelsy.” _Ballads_, III, 149.
VI.
We are now in position to attempt a summary of Professor Child’s
conception of the popular ballad. He regarded it as a distinct species
of poetry, which precedes the poetry of art, as the product of a
homogeneous people, the expression of our common human nature, of the
mind and heart of the people, never of the personality of an individual
man, devoid, therefore, of all subjectivity and self-consciousness.
Hence the author counts for nothing; hence, too, the ballad is
difficult to imitate and most attempts in this way are ridiculous
failures. In transmission the ballad regularly departs from the
original form, least in the mouths of unlearned people, more in the
hands of professional singers or editors. It is at its best when it has
come down by a purely domestic tradition, yet even so it is sometimes
influenced by printed literature; and much depends on the experience
and selection of the reciters, and on their varying memory, which is,
however, ordinarily remarkable for its tenacity. Less fortunate is the
ballad when it passes through low mouths or hands, suffering corruption
of various kinds,--in the style of the attorney’s clerk, or the
housemaid or the serving-man, or ostler, or blind beggar. In the hands
of the _bänkelsänger_ or of the minstrel, the ballad departs still
further from its original form. Or, rewritten for the broadside press,
it is seriously enfeebled, or retrenched and marred, though it may
retain some original features, and there are thus degrees of departure
from the original matter and manner. The broadside may, in turn, become
tradition. It is, so far as it appears in Professor Child’s later
collection, always founded on tradition, and this tradition lives after
the composition of the broadside, and may influence the later versions
of the printed form. Last comes the modern editor, and by him the
ballad is sometimes lengthened,--by combination of different versions,
by interpolation of new stanzas, always more or less unlike the popular
style; or it is sometimes “improved,” or retouched, or emended, or
altered,--changed to something in glaring contrast to the groundwork.
Some results of the vicissitudes of transmission are, the change of
the hero’s nationality, of his name, of his rôle; change of the scene
of action; corruption of diction resulting in perversion of sense or
in nonsense; introduction of learned words. The ballad thus suffers in
transmission, and is at its best when it is early caught and fixed in
print. It is sometimes counterfeited or imitated, and counterfeits are
included in the later collection for contrast, for much the same reason
that thieves are photographed, or because they may contain relics of
something genuine or better.
Of the Subject-Matter of the ballad, the sources may be, and in
the best instances are, purely popular, consisting of material
which appears only in popular literature. Professor Child mentions
no instance where a prose tale is the source of a ballad, but the
ballad, he says, may sometimes be resolved into a prose tale. Popular
origin is attested by foreign parallels in folk-literature. Of such
literature certain features or themes are characteristic, such as the
quibbling oath, the miraculous harvest, the childbirth in the wood,
the testament, the riddle, heroic sentiment, etc. The source may,
again, be an actual occurrence, in which case the ballad, while not
deliberate fiction, is yet not loyal to the fact. Or the source may be
a romance, or the source of a romance, in which case oral tradition may
be older than written, the ballad older than the romance. Or the source
may be earlier ballads, mechanically and deliberately put together in
later ones, made over and assimilated in the _Gest of Robin Hood_.
In the course of transmission certain features appear which are not
characteristic of popular literature; the subject-matter of the true
ballad does not deal in extravagance, or exaggeration, or platitude;
it is not prosaic, over-refined, cynical, sophisticated, sentimental,
unnatural, trite, or moral, though the “pungent buckishness” of the
broadside, and the gay cynicism of the minstrel, are foreign to it.
So far as Technique is concerned, the ballad must have plot. The story
may not be completely told; conclusion, transitions, and preliminaries
may be omitted; but the result is not nonsense, the ballad is not
incoherent. At its best it is, however, brief. It is careless of
geography, and, except in some,--and some of the best,--of the
Robin Hood ballads, it touches Setting lightly. In dealing with the
Supernatural it does not attempt to explain the action or to describe
supernatural figures; ghosts, however, do not walk without reason.
In Style the ballad is artless and homely, and in it the conceit,
and literary or learned words and phrases, are out of place. Yet it
has certain conventions of its own, such as the “commonplace,” the
repetition of a message by a messenger, the verbally similar treatment
of similar incidents as they occur in different ballads. Emotionally,
the ghost ballad is impressive and affecting; and, in general, the
ballad may be infectious, or spirited and life-like, or pathetic, or
tender, or humorous, or vigorous and not lacking in color or flavor. It
is essentially lyrical, and its lyrical quality is not less essential
than plot. Often it absolutely requires the support of a melody and the
comment of a burden. This burden sometimes foreshadows the calamity,
sometimes enhances by contrast the gloom of the conclusion. It is
usually less than the stanza with which it was sung; and, unlike
the refrain, it was sung, not after the stanza, but with it. It is
sometimes of different metre, sometimes not. The absence of the burden
is in no case proof that it never existed. never existed.
Walter Morris Hart.
FOOTNOTES:
[134] _Modern Philology_, I, 377 f.
[135] Professor Gummere in _Modern Philology_, I, 378.
[136] III, 303.
[137] II, 136.
[138] I, vii.
[139] II, 296.
[140] II, 263. An old woman (the reciter of E) knew _Chield Morice_
as a child, but later learned _Gil Morice_ which began to be more
fashionable. II, 264.
[141] II, 464, n.
[142] V, 178.
[143] I, 119.
[144] IV, 231.
[145] I, 89. See also the comment on Apollodorus and the Cretan
fairy-tale, I, 337, quoted, p. 774, below.
[146] II, 346.
[147] I, 435.
[148] Quoted, III, 254.
[149] I, 360.
[150] II, 173.
[151] II, 170.
[152] II, 368.
[153] IV, 255, n.
[154] IV, 255.
[155] IV, 256. Cf. B 10, D 10, E 19; F 11; E 10, F 6.
[156] II, 441.
[157] IV, 144.
[158] I, 391.
[159] I, 34.
[160] I, 257.
[161] II, 478.
[162] Cf. I, 444 f.
[163] III, 403.
[164] III, 410.
[165] II, 441.
[166] III, 305.
[167] III, 334.
[168] III, 334, n.
[169] V, 21.
[170] I, 404.
[171] I, 455.
[172] I, 391.
[173] II, 180.
[174] II, 424.
[175] II, 480.
[176] The comparison of broadsides with traditional versions is
instructive. See I, A, a, b, c; 10, A, a; 45, B; 53, L, M; 73, D; 104,
B, 112, E (and II, 491); 110, A; 145, C; 151; 152; 153; 162, B; 167, B;
268. Much of the later Robin Hood poetry looks like “char-work done for
the petty press” (III, 42). _Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly_ (141) “is
a ballad made for print, with little of the traditional in the matter
and nothing in the style” (III, 185).
[177] II, 480.
[178] I, 335.
[179] “Jamieson was not always precise in the account he gave of the
changes he made in his texts” (IV, 255). Cf. also I, 138.
[180] Stanzas 20, 21, 27, etc. I, 119. Cf. II, 83.
[181] I, 297.
[182] II, 63 f.
[183] I, 335.
[184] II, 302.
[185] I, 112.
[186] IV, 5.
[187] I, 138.
[188] III, 472.
[189] II, 428.
[190] IV, 39. Cf. II, 317.
[191] II, 226.
[192] III, 276.
[193] V, 2.
[194] II, 19.
[195] III, 96.
[196] IV, 156.
[197] IV, 178.
[198] V, 309.
[199] III, 42.
[200] III, 103.
[201] III, 159.
[202] I, 320.
[203] III, 206.
[204] V, 168.
[205] III, 305.
[206] I, 455.
[207] V, 1.
[208] IV, 437.
[209] I, 335.
[210] II, 302.
[211] III, 486.
[212] V, 12. Cf. also I, 35, IV, 10, 142, 401, for passages condemned
as “modern.”
[213] III, 140.
[214] II, 342.
[215] V, 182.
[216] Communicated by the Rev. Mr Lamb to Hutchinson “with this
harmless preamble: ‘a song 500 years old, made by the old Mountain
Bard, Duncan Frasier, living on Cheviot, A. D. 1270.’”
[217] I, 308.
[218] III, 42.
[219] I, 46; examples follow.
[220] II, 170, n.
[221] I, 336.
[222] I, 337.
[223] V, 59.
[224] V, 48.
[225] II, 7.
[226] II, 416.
[227] I, 142.
[228] Examples, I, 143.
[229] I, 1.
[230] II, 478.
[231] III, 159.
[232] III, 235.
[233] I, 121.
[234] II, 19.
[235] III, 366.
[236] IV, 51.
[237] III, 317.
[238] III, 304.
[239] III, 417.
[240] III, 410.
[241] IV, 359.
[242] III, 265 f.
[243] I, 320.
[244] I, 193.
[245] II, 67.
[246] I, 67.
[247] III,
[248] IV, 401.
[249] V, 182.
[250] III, 49 f.
[251] III, 51.
[252] III, 293.
[253] III, 220.
[254] V, 166.
[255] IV, 391.
[256] IV, 393.
[257] IV, 401.
[258] IV, 415.
[259] IV, 423.
[260] IV, 434.
[261] III, 49.
[262] III, 40.
[263] IV, 10.
[264] Cf. III, 225.
[265] III, 381.
[266] III, 165.
[267] III, 197.
[268] II, 296.
[269] IV, 161.
[270] I, 253. Cf. also III, 258.
[271] II, 263.
[272] III, 381.
[273] II, 83.
[274] I, 34.
[275] II, 302.
[276] V, 156 f.
[277] _Universal Cyclopædia_, “Ballad Poetry.” The lyrical element is
of equal importance; see p. 790, below.
[278] IV, 126.
[279] V, 165.
[280] IV, 192. [The Broom of Cowdenknows (217)].
[281] IV, 63. [The Gypsie Laddie (200)].
[282] I, 82.
[283] II, 260.
[284] Surely better _as ballad_. Cf. p. 796, below.
[285] II, 18.
[286] II, 7.
[287] V, 178.
[288] IV, 435.
[289] IV, 145.
[290] III, 317.
[291] II, 373.
[292] II, 342.
[293] II, 355.
[294] II, 302.
[295] III, 51.
[296] III, 486.
[297] III, 95.
[298] IV, 362.
[299] II, 378.
[300] V, 59.
[301] IV, 301, n.
[302] IV, 301, n.
[303] IV, 434.
[304] I, 320, n.
[305] IV, 186.
[306] I, 167.
[307] I, 88.
[308] I, 112
[309] [The true ballad has little to say of mental states.]
[310] IV, 5. The stanza reads:
But he’s taen aff his gude steel cap, And thrice he’s waved it in
the air; The Dinlay snaw was neer mair white Nor the lyart locks of
Harden’s hair.
[311] IV, 10.
[312] II, 430.
[313] II, 428.
[314] IV, 145.
[315] I, 297.
[316] Cf. II, 83, 317; IV, 39.
[317] See the _Index of Matters and Literature_, V, 474 f.
[318] II, 309, n.
[319] III, 96.
[320] IV, 426.
[321] IV, 391.
[322] IV, 435.
[323] II, 227.
[324] II, 238.
[325] V, 59.
[326] IV, 145.
[327] V, 168.
[328] I, 329.
[329] IV, 301.
[330] I, 253.
[331] III, 53.
[332] III, 258.
[333] II, 296.
[334] V, 59.
[335] III, 305.
[336] II, 67.
[337] II, 260.
[338] I, 358.
[339] III, 129.
[340] V, 201.
[341] IV, 75.
[342] II, 204, n.
[343] I, 7. See the foot-note for Professor Child’s longest discussion
of the burden.
[344] _Sheath and Knife_ (16), also, was accessible but omitted.
[345] _Ballads_, I, xi, n. “Certain short romances which formerly stood
in the First Book, have been dropped from this second Edition [1860],
in order to give the collection a homogeneous character.” _Ballads_
[1860], I, xii.
[346] “A song,” II, 317. (Where merely volume and page are given the
reference is still to the later collection; references to the earlier
are preceded by the word _Ballads_.)
[347] II, 16.
[348] II, 429.
[349] V, 34, n.
[350] _Ballads_, III, 360.
[351] _Ballads_, VI, 263.
[352] _Ballads_, III, 61.
[353] IV, 142.
[354] _Ballads_, I, 341.
[355] I, 218, n.
[356] _Ballads_, III, 293.
[357] _Ballads_, VI, 220. Cf. Mr Andrew Lang’s plea for _Auld
Maitland_, _Folk-Lore_, XIII, 191 ff.
[358] See also the comments on the Rev. Mr Lamb’s _Laidley Worm of
Spindleston Heugh_, _Ballads_, I, 386, and cf. p. 772, above.
[359] _Ballads_, III, 128.
[360] _Ballads_, IV, 161.
[361] _Ballads_, IV, 143 f.
[362] Cf. p. 757, above.
[363] _Ballads_, V, iv.
[364] _Ballads_, III, 148-149.
[365] Cf. p. 767, above.
[366] _Ballads_, III, 225.
[367] I, 88.
[368] _Ballads_, III, 173.
[369] II, 56.
[370] _Ballads_, II, 30.
[371] II, 275.
[372] _Ballads_, I, ix, n.
[373] Cf. p. 762, above.
[374] _Ballads_, I, 306 n.
[375] _Ballads_, II, 220.
[376] _Ballads_, I, 270.
[377] See I, 62, and, for the omitted couplets, I, 80-81.
[378] _Ballads_, I, 265.
[379] _Ballads_, II, 22.
[380] II, 260. See, also, the comments on Jamieson’s _Child Rowland
and Burd Ellen_, _Ballads_, I, 416, and _English and Scottish Popular
Ballads_, V, 201, n.
[381] Cf. p. 769, above.
[382] _Ballads_, I, 256.
[383] _Ballads_, II, 115.
[384] _Ballads_, II, 64.
[385] _Ballads_, II, 45.
[386] _Ballads_, VII, 194.
[387] Cf. the comment on _The Hunting of the Cheviot_, _Ballads_, VII,
25.
[388] _Ballads_, IV, 17. For the later comment, see p. 777, above.
[389] _Ballads_, VI, 22.
[390] _Ballads_, III, 148-149.
[391] “Excepting the two satirical stanzas with which Scott’s version
(C) concludes.”
[392] See also the comment in the _Ballads_, quoted p. 804, below.
[393] The numbers in brackets are those affixed to the ballads in the
later collection.
Transcriber's Notes:
A number of typographical errors were corrected silently.
Cover image is in the public domain.
Page number jump in Appendix was in the original.
Under “Kinloch MSS, I, 319.” there is a skip from verse 4 to 7 that was
in the original.
Footnote 247 was missing the page number in the original.
Table of Contents modified to have two lines for Additions and
Corrections.
Index for "Morte Darthur, Malory" corrected to page 298 from
non-existent 982.
Character shown as ι̮ is an imprecise representation of the original.
Music is available in the HTML version where flagged as [Music].