[1] _History of Rise and Progress of the English Constitution_, i.
332.
[2] Stubbs' _Constitutional History of England_, i. p. 162.
[3] _History of Peru_, i. 143.
[4] _Rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs dans la nouvelle
Espagne_ (1840), p. 223.
[5] Something like this is to be found in the Russian notion of
_chin_, or status according to official hierarchy of ranks, as
modified by the custom of _myestnichestvo_, by which no one entering
the public service could be placed beneath a person who had been
subject to his father's orders. Hereditary nobility at one time
belonged to every servant, military or civil, above a certain rank,
and a family remaining out of office for two generations lost its
rights of nobility; but in 1854 the privilege was confined to army
colonels and state councillors of the 4th class. At one time,
therefore, the _razryadniya knighi_, or special registers, superseded
by Peter the Great's _barkhatnaya kniga_, or Velvet Book, contained a
complete code of social privilege and precedence. Peter's "_tabel o
rangakh_" contained fourteen classes. The subject is treated of in
the 1600 articles of the ninth volume of the Russian Code _Svod
Zakonov_. The Russian Nobility, though deprived of their exemptions
from conscription, personal taxation and corporal punishment, still
retain many advantages in the public service.
[6] Juarros, _Hist. of Guatemala_, Tr. (London, 1823).
[7] _Life and Essays of H.T. Colebrooke_, i. p. 104.
[8] _History of India_.
[9] "The crudities and cruelties of the caste system need not blind
us to its other aspects. There is no doubt that it is the main cause
of the fundamental stability and contentment by which Indian society
has been braced up for centuries against the shocks of politics and
the cataclysms of Nature. It provides every man with his place, his
career, his occupation, his circle of friends. It makes him, at the
outset, a member of a corporate body: it protects him through life
from the canker of social jealousy and unfulfilled aspirations; it
ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in
like case with himself. The caste organization is to the Hindu his
club, his trade union, his benefit society, his philanthropic
society. An Indian without caste, as things stand at present, is not
quite easy to imagine." (Sidney Low, _Vision of India_, 1906, ch. xv.
p. 263).
[10] Muir's _Sanskrit Texts_, vol. i. (1868).
[11] _Ideen_, i. 610.
[12] The idea of a conquering white race is strangely repeated in the
later history of India. The Rajputs and Brahmans are succeeded by the
Mussulmans, the Turks, the Afghans. There was an aristocracy of
colour under the Mogul dynasty. But under an Indian climate it could
not last many generations. The Brahmans of southern India were as
black as the lowest castes; the Chandalas are said to be descended
from Brahmans. According to Manu the Chandala must not dwell within
town; his sole wealth must be dogs and asses; his clothes must
consist of the mantles of deceased persons; his dishes must be broken
pots. Surely this vituperative description must apply to an
aboriginal race.
[13] _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_, Band
i. (quoted by Muir, _ubi supra_).
[14] _De Origine Castarum_ (Gottingen).
[15] _History of India_, vol. i. (1867-1871).
[16] For a characteristic appreciation of caste see Comte, _Cours de
philosophic positive_, vi. c. 8. He regards the hereditary
transmission of functions under the rule of a sacerdotal class as a
necessary and universal stage of social progress, greatly modified by
war and colonization. The morality of caste was, he contends, an
improvement on what preceded; but its permanence was impossible,
because "the political rule of intelligence is hostile to human
progress." The seclusion of women and the preservation of industrial
inventions were features of caste; and the higher priests were also
magistrates, philosophers, artists, engineers, and physicians.
[17] _De la religion_, ii. 8.
[18] The great mass of the Brahmans were in reality mendicants, who
lived on the festivals of birth, marriage, and death, and on the
fines exacted for infractions of caste rule. Others had
establishments called Muths, endowed with Jagir villages. There were
two distinct orders of officiating priests--the Purohita, or family
priest, who performed all the domestic rites, and probably gave
advice in secular matters, and the Guru, who is the head of a
religious sect, making tours of superintendence and exaction, and
having the power to degrade from caste and to restore. In some cases
the Guru is recognized as the Mehitra or officer of the caste
assembly, from whom he receives Huks, or salary, and an exemption
from house and stamp taxes, and service as begarree (Steele's _Law
and Customs of Hindoo Castes within the Dekhan Provinces_, 1826;
later edition, 1868). Expulsion from caste follows on a number of
moral offences (e.g. assault, murder, &c.), as well as ceremonial
offences (e.g. eating prohibited food, eating with persons of lower
caste, abstaining from funeral rites, having connexion with a
low-caste woman). Exclusion means that it is not allowed to eat with
or enter the houses of the members of the caste, the offender being
in theory not degraded but dead. For some heinous offences, i.e.
against the express letter of the Shasters, no readmission is
possible. But generally this depends on the ability of the out-caste
to pay a fine, and to supply the caste with an expiatory feast of
sweetmeats. He has also to go through the Sashtanyam, or prostration
of eight members, and to drink the Panchakaryam, i.e. drink of the
five products of the cow (_Description of People of India_, Abbe J.A.
Dubois, Missionary in Mysore, Eng. Trans., London, 1817; edition by
Pope, Madras, 1862).
[19] _Manu_. x. 88-90.
[20] Wheeler ii. 533.
[21] _Travels of Fah Hian_, c. 27.
[22] Strabo, _Ind._ sec. 59.
[23] Arrian, _Indic._ c. 11, 12; Diod. Sic. ii. c. 40, 41; and Strabo
xv. 1.
[24] Irving, _Theory and Practice of Caste_ (London, 1859).
[25] _Manual of Archaeology_.
[26] _Revue des deux mondes_, 15th September 1848.
CASTEL, LOUIS BERTRAND (1688-1757), French mathematician, was born at
Montpellier on the 11th of November 1688, and entered the order of the
Jesuits in 1703. Having studied literature, he afterwards devoted
himself entirely to mathematics and natural philosophy. He wrote several
scientific works, that which attracted most attention at the time being
his _Optique des couleurs_ (1740), or treatise on the melody of colours.
He endeavoured to illustrate the subject by a _clavecin oculaire_, or
ocular harpsichord; but the treatise and the illustration were quickly
forgotten. He also wrote _Mathematique universelle_ (1728) and _Traite
de physique sur la pesanteur universelle des corps_ (1724). He also
published a critical account of the system of Sir Isaac Newton in French
in 1743.
CASTELAR Y RIPOLL, EMILIO (1832-1899), Spanish statesman, was born at
Cadiz on the 8th of September 1832. At the age of seven he lost his
father, who had taken an active part in the progressist agitations
during the reign of Ferdinand VII., and had passed several years as an
exile in England. He attended a grammar-school at Sax. In 1848 he began
to study law in Madrid, but soon elected to compete for admittance at
the school of philosophy and letters, where he took the degree of doctor
in 1853. He was an obscure republican student when the Spanish
revolutionary movement of 1854 took place, and the young liberals and
democrats of that epoch decided to hold a meeting in the largest theatre
of the capital. On that occasion Castelar delivered his maiden speech,
which at once placed him in the van of the advanced politicians of the
reign of Queen Isabella. From that moment he took an active part in
politics, radical journalism, literary and historical pursuits. Castelar
was compromised in the first rising of June 1866, which was concerted by
Marshal Prim, and crushed, after much bloodshed, in the streets by
Marshals O'Donnell and Serrano. A court-martial condemned him _in
contumaciam_ to death by "garote vil," and he had to hide in the house
of a friend until he escaped to France. There he lived two years until
the successful revolution of 1868 allowed him to return and enter the
Cortes for the first time--as deputy for Saragossa. At the same time he
resumed the professorship of history at the Madrid university. Castelar
soon became famous by his rhetorical speeches in the Constituent Cortes
of 1869, where he led the republican minority in advocating a federal
republic as the logical outcome of the recent revolution. He thus gave
much trouble to men like Serrano, Topete and Prim, who had never
harboured the idea of drifting into advanced democracy, and who had each
his own scheme for re-establishing the monarchy with certain
constitutional restrictions. Hence arose Castelar's constant and
vigorous criticisms of the successive plans mooted to place a
Hohenzollern, a Portuguese, the duke of Montpensier, Espartero and
finally Amadeus of Savoy on the throne. He attacked with relentless
vigour the short-lived monarchy of Amadeus, and contributed to its
downfall.
The abdication of Amadeus led to the proclamation of the federal
republic. The senate and congress, very largely composed of monarchists,
permitted themselves to be dragged along into democracy by the
republican minority headed by Salmeron, Figueras, Pi y Margall and
Castelar. The short-lived federal republic from the 11th of February
1873 to the 3rd of January 1874 was the culminating point of the career
of Castelar, and his conduct during those eleven months was much praised
by the wiser portion of his fellow-countrymen, though it alienated from
him the sympathies of the majority of his quondam friends in the
republican ranks.
Before the revolution of 1868, Castelar had begun to dissent from the
doctrines of the more advanced republicans, and particularly as to the
means to be employed for their success. He abhorred bloodshed, he
disliked mob rule, he did not approve of military _pronunciamientos_.
His idea would have been a parliamentary republic on the American lines,
with some traits of the Swiss constitution to keep in touch with the
regionalist and provincialist inclinations of many parts of the
peninsula. He would have placed at the head of his commonwealth a
president and Cortes freely elected by the people, ruling the country in
a liberal spirit and with due respect for conservative principles,
religious traditions and national unity. Such a statesman was sure to
clash with the doctrinaires, like Salmeron, who wanted to imitate French
methods; with Pi y Margall, who wanted a federal republic after purely
Spanish ideas of decentralization; and above all with the intransigent
and gloomy fanatics who became the leaders of the cantonal insurrections
at Cadiz, Seville, Valencia, Malaga and Cartagena in 1873.
At first Castelar did his best to work with the other republican members
of the first government of the federal republic. He accepted the post of
minister for foreign affairs. He even went so far as to side with his
colleagues, when serious difficulties arose between the new government
and the president of the Cortes, Senor Martos, who was backed by a very
imposing commission composed of the most influential conservative
members of the last parliament of the Savoyard king, which had
suspended its sittings shortly after proclaiming the federal republic.
A sharp struggle was carried on for weeks between the executive and this
commission, at first presided over by Martos, and, when he resigned, by
Salmeron. In the background Marshal Serrano and many politicians and
military men steadily advocated a _coup d'etat_ in order to avert the
triumph of the republicans. The adversaries of the executive were
prompted by the captain-general of Madrid, Pavia, who promised the
co-operation of the garrison of the capital. The president, Salmeron,
and Marshal Serrano himself lacked decision at the last moment, and lost
time and many opportunities by which the republican ministers profited.
The federal republicans became masters of the situation in the last
fortnight of April 1873, and turned the tables on their adversaries by
making a pacific bloodless _pronunciamiento_.
The battalions of the militia that had assembled in the bull-ring near
Marshal Serrano's house to assist the anti-democratic movement were
disarmed, and their leaders, the politicians and generals, were allowed
to escape to France or Portugal. The Cortes were dissolved, and the
federal and constituent Cortes of the republic convened, but they only
sat during the summer of 1873, long enough to show their absolute
incapacity, and to convince the executive that the safest policy was to
suspend the session for several months.
This was the darkest period of the annals of the Spanish revolution of
1873-1874. Matters got to such a climax of disorder, disturbance and
confusion, from the highest to the lowest strata of Spanish society,
that the president of the executive, Figueras, deserted his post and
fled the country. Pi y Margall and Salmeron, in successive attempts to
govern, found no support in the really important and influential
elements of Spanish society. Salmeron had even to appeal to such
well-known reactionary generals as Pavia, Sanchez, Bregna and Moriones,
to assume the command of the armies in the south and in the north of
Spain. Fortunately these officers responded to the call of the
executive. In less than five weeks a few thousand men properly handled
sufficed to quell the cantonal risings in Cordoba, Sevilla, Cadiz and
Malaga, and the whole of the south might have been soon pacified, if the
federal republican ministers had not once more given way to the pressure
of the majority of the Cortes, composed of "Intransigentes" and radical
republicans. The president, Salmeron, after showing much indecision,
resigned, but not until he had recalled the general in command in
Andalusia, Pavia. This resignation was not an unfortunate event for the
country, as the federal Cortes not only made Castelar chief of the
executive, though his partisans were in a minority in the Parliament,
but they gave him much liberty to act, as they decided to suspend the
sittings of the house until 2nd January 1874. This was the turning-point
of the Spanish revolution, as from that day the tide set in towards the
successive developments that led to the restoration of the Bourbons.
On becoming the ruler of Spain at the beginning of September 1873,
Castelar at once devoted his attention to the reorganization of the
army, whose numbers had dwindled down to about 70,000 men. This force,
though aided by considerable bodies of local militia and volunteers in
the northern and western provinces, was insufficient to cope with the
60,000 Carlists in arms, and with the still formidable nucleus of
cantonalists around Alcoy and Cartagena. To supply the deficiencies
Castelar called out more than 100,000 conscripts, who joined the colours
in less than six weeks. He selected his generals without respect of
politics, sending Moriones to the Basque provinces and Navarre at the
head of 20,000 men, Martinez Campos to Catalonia with several thousand,
and Lopez Dominguez, the nephew of Marshal Serrano, to begin the land
blockade of the last stronghold of the cantonal insurgents, Cartagena,
where the crews of Spain's only fleet had joined the revolt.
Castelar next turned his attention to the Church. He renewed direct
relations with the Vatican, and at last induced Pope Pius IX. to approve
his selection of two dignitaries to occupy vacant sees as well as his
nominee for the vacant archbishopric of Valencia, a prelate who
afterwards became archbishop of Toledo, and remained to the end a close
friend of Castelar. He put a stop to all persecutions of the Church and
religious orders, and enforced respect of Church property. He attempted
to restore some order in the treasury and administration of finance,
with a view to obtain ways and means to cover the expense of the three
civil wars, Carlist, cantonal and Cuban. The Cuban insurgents gave him
much trouble and anxiety, the famous _Virginius_ incident nearly leading
to a rupture between Spain and the United States. Castelar sent out to
Cuba all the reinforcements he could spare, and a new governor-general,
Jovellar, whom he peremptorily instructed to crush the mutinous spirit
of the Cuban militia, and not allow them to drag Spain into a conflict
with the United States. Acting upon the instructions of Castelar,
Jovellar gave up the filibuster vessels, and those of the crew and
passengers who had not been summarily shot by General Burriel. Castelar
always prided himself on having terminated this incident without too
much damage to the prestige of Spain.
At the end of 1873 Castelar had reason to be satisfied with the results
of his efforts, with the military operations in the peninsula, with the
assistance he was getting from the middle classes and even from many of
the political elements of the Spanish revolution that were not
republican. On the other hand, on the eve of the meeting of the federal
Cortes, he could indulge in no illusions as to what he had to expect
from the bulk of the republicans, who openly dissented from his
conservative and conciliatory policy, and announced that they would
reverse it on the very day the Cortes met. Warnings came in plenty, and
no less a personage than the man he had made captain-general of Madrid,
General Pavia, suggested that, if a conflict arose between Castelar and
the majority of the Cortes, not only the garrison of Madrid and its
chief, but all the armies in the field and their generals, were disposed
to stand by the president. Castelar knew too well what such offers meant
in the classic land of _pronunciamientos_, and he refused so flatly that
Pavia did not renew his advice. The sequel is soon told. The Cortes met
on the 2nd of January 1874. The intransigent majority refused to listen
to a last eloquent appeal that Castelar made to their patriotism and
common sense, and they passed a vote of censure. Castelar resigned. The
Cortes went on wrangling for a day and night until, at daybreak on the
3rd of January 1874, General Pavia forcibly ejected the deputies, closed
and dissolved the Cortes, and called up Marshal Serrano to form a
provisional government.
Castelar kept apart from active politics during the twelve months that
Serrano acted as president of the republic. Another _pronunciamiento_
finally put an end to it in the last week of December 1874, when
Generals Campos at Sagunto, Jovellar at Valencia, Primo de Rivera at
Madrid, and Laserna at Logrono, proclaimed Alphonso XII. king of Spain.
Castelar then went into voluntary exile for fifteen months, at the end
of which he was elected deputy for Barcelona. He sat in all subsequent
parliaments, and just a month before his death he was elected as
representative of Murcia. During that period he became even more
estranged from the majority of the republicans. Bitter experience had
shown him that their federal doctrines and revolutionary methods could
lead to nothing in harmony with the aspirations of the majority of
Spaniards. He elected, to use his own words, to defend and to seek the
realization of the substance of the programme of the Spanish revolution
of 1868 by evolution, and legal, pacific means. Hence the contrast
between his attitude from 1876 to 1886, during the reign of Alphonso
XII., when he stood in the front rank of the Opposition to defend the
reforms of that revolution against Senor Canovas, and his attitude from
1886 to 1891. In this latter period Castelar acted as a sort of
independent auxiliary of Sagasta and of the Liberal party. As soon as
Castelar saw universal suffrage re-established he solemnly declared in
the Cortes that his task was accomplished, his political mission at an
end, and that he proposed to devote the remainder of his life to those
literary, historical, philosophical, and economic studies which he had
never neglected even in the busiest days of his political career.
Indeed, it was his extraordinary activity and power of assimilation in
such directions that allowed him to keep his fellow-countrymen so well
informed of what was going on in the outer world. His literary and
journalistic labours occupied much of his time, and were his chief means
of subsistence. He left unfinished a history of Europe in the 19th
century. The most conspicuous of his earlier works were:--_A History of
Civilization in the First Five Centuries of Christianity_,
_Recollections of Italy_, _Life of Lord Byron_, _The History of the
Republican Movement in Europe_, _The Redemption of Slaves_, _The
Religious Revolution_, _Historical Essays on the Middle Ages_, _The
Eastern Question_, _Fra Filippo Lippi_, _History of the Discovery of
America_, and some historical novels. Castelar died near Murcia on the
25th of May 1899, at the age of 66. His funeral at Madrid was an
imposing demonstration of the sympathy and respect of all classes and
parties. (A. E. H.)
CASTELFRANCO NELL' EMILIA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
Bologna, 16 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 3163
(town), 13,484 (commune). The churches contain some pictures by later
Bolognese artists. Just outside the town is a massive fort erected by
Urban VIII. in 1628, on the frontier of the province of Bologna, now
used as a prison. Castelfranco either occupies or lies near the site of
the ancient Forum Gallorum, a place on the Via Aemilia between Mutina
and Bononia, where in 43 B.C. Octavian and Hirtius defeated Mark Antony.
CASTELFRANCO VENETO, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the
province of Treviso, 16 m. W. by rail from the town of Treviso. Pop.
(1901) 5220 (town), 12,551 (commune). The older part of the town is
square, surrounded by medieval walls and towers constructed by the
people of Treviso in 1218 (see CITTADELLA). It was the birthplace of the
painter Giorgio Barbarelli (Il Giorgione, 1477-1512), and the cathedral
contains one of his finest works, the Madonna with SS. Francis and
Liberalis (1504), in the background of which the towers of the old town
may be seen.
CASTELL, EDMUND (1606-1685), English orientalist, was born in 1606 at
Tadlow, in Cambridgeshire. At the age of fifteen he entered Emmanuel
College, Cambridge, but afterwards changed his residence to St John's,
on account of the valuable library there. His great work was the
compiling of his _Lexicon Heptaglotton Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum,
Samaritanum, Aethiopicum, Arabicum, et Persicum_ (1669). Over this book
he spent eighteen years, working (if we may accept his own statement)
from sixteen to eighteen hours a day; he employed fourteen assistants,
and by an expenditure of L12,000 brought himself to poverty, for his
lexicon, though full of the most unusual learning, did not find
purchasers. He was actually in prison in 1667 because he was unable to
discharge his brother's debts, for which he had made himself liable. A
volume of poems dedicated to the king brought him preferment. He was
made prebendary of Canterbury and professor of Arabic at Cambridge.
Before undertaking the _Lexicon Heptaglotton_, Castell had helped Dr
Brian Walton in the preparation of his Polyglott Bible. His MSS. he
bequeathed to the university of Cambridge. He died in 1685 at Higham
Gobion, Bedfordshire, where he was rector.
The Syriac section of the _Lexicon_ was issued separately at Gottingen
in 1788 by J.D. Michaelis, who offers a tribute to Castell's learning
and industry. Trier published the Hebrew section in 1790-1792.
CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA (anc. _Stabiae_), a seaport and episcopal see of
Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 17 m. S.E. by rail from the
town of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 26,378; commune, 32,589. It lies in
the south-east angle of the Bay of Naples, at the beginning of the
peninsula of Sorrento, and owing to the sea and mineral water baths (12
different springs) and its attractive situation, with a splendid view of
Vesuvius and fine woods on the hills behind, it is a favourite resort of
foreigners in spring and autumn and of Neapolitans in summer. The castle
from which it takes its name, on the hill to the south of the town, was
built by the emperor Frederick II. There are three large churches of the
late 18th century. There are a large royal dockyard and a small-arms
factory; there are also iron works, cotton, flour and macaroni mills.
The value of imports (chiefly coal, wheat, scrap-iron and cheese) for
1904 was L1,239,048, and the value of exports (chiefly macaroni and
green fruit) L769,100. There is also a sponge trade, but the former
coral trade is depressed. The port was cleared by 420 vessels of 477,713
tonnage in 1905. An electric tramway along the coast road to Sorrento
was opened in 1905.
CASTELLESI, ADRIANO (c. 1460?-c. 1521?), known also as CORNETO from his
birthplace, Italian cardinal and writer, was sent by Innocent VIII. to
reconcile James III. of Scotland with his subjects. While in England he
was appointed (1503), by Henry VII., to the see of Hereford, and in the
following year to the more lucrative diocese of Bath and Wells, but he
never resided in either. Returning to Rome, he became secretary to
Alexander VI. and was made by him cardinal (May 31, 1503). A man of
doubtful reputation, Alexander's confidant and favourite, he paid the
pope a large sum for his elevation. He bought a _vigna_ in the Borgo
near the Vatican, and thereon erected a sumptuous palace after designs
by Bramante; and it was here, in the summer of 1503, that he entertained
the pope and Cesare Borgia at a banquet that went on till nightfall
despite the unhealthy season of the year, when ague in its most
malignant form was rife. Of the three, Cardinal Adrian was the first to
fall ill, the pope succumbing a week after. The story of the poisoning
of the pope is to be relegated to the realm of fiction. Soon after the
election of Leo X. the cardinal was implicated in the conspiracy of
Cardinal Petrucci against the pope, and confessed his guilt; but, pardon
being offered only on condition of the payment oL 25,000 ducats, he fled
from Rome and was subsequently deposed from the cardinalate. As early as
1504 he had presented his palace (now the Palazzo Giraud-Torlonia) to
Henry VII. as a residence for the English ambassador to the Holy See;
and on his flight Henry VIII., who had quarrelled with him, gave it to
Cardinal Campeggio. Adrian first fled to Venice. Of his subsequent
history nothing is known for certain. It is said that he was murdered by
a servant when on his way to the conclave that elected Adrian VI. As a
writer, he was one of the first to restore the Latin tongue to its
pristine purity; and among his works are _De Vera Philosophia ex quatuor
doctoribus ecclesiae_ (Bologna, 1507), _De Sermone Latino_ (Basel,
1513), and a poem, _De Venatione_ (Venice, 1534).
See Polydore Vergil, _Anglicae historiae_, edited by H. Ellis (London,
1844); and A. Aubery, _Histoire generale des cardinaux_ (Paris, 1642).
(E. Tn.)
CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRANZ (1781-1862), Austrian dramatist, was born at
Vienna on the 6th of March 1781. He studied law at the university, and
then entered the government service. During the Napoleonic invasions his
patriotism inspired him to write stirring war songs, one of which,
_Kriegslied fur die osterreichische Armee_, was printed by order of the
archduke Charles and distributed in thousands. For this Castelli was
proclaimed by Napoleon in the _Moniteur_, and had to seek refuge in
Hungary. In 1815 he accompanied the allies into France as secretary to
Count Cavriani, and, after his return to Vienna, resumed his official
post in connexion with the estates of Lower Austria. In 1842 he retired
to his property at Lilienfeld, where, surrounded by his notable
collections of pictures and other art treasures, he for the rest of his
life devoted himself to literature. Castelli's dramatic talent was
characteristically Austrian; his plays were well constructed and
effective and satirized unsparingly the foibles of the Viennese. But his
wit was too local and ephemeral to appeal to any but his own generation,
and if he is remembered at all to-day it is by his excellent _Gedichte
in niederosterreichischer Mundart_ (1828). He died at Lilienfeld on the
5th of February 1862.
Castelli's _Gesammelte Gedichte_ appeared in 1835 in 6 vols.; a
selection of his _Werke_ in 1843 in 15 vols. (2nd ed., 1848), followed
by 6 supplementary volumes in 1858. His autobiography, _Memoiren
meines Lebens_, appeared in 1861-1862 in 4 vols.
CASTELLO, BERNARDO (1557-1629), Genoese portrait and historical painter,
born at Albaro near Genoa, was the intimate friend of Tasso, and took
upon himself the task of designing the figures of the _Gerusalemme
Liberata_, published in 1592; some of these subjects were engraved by
Agostino Caracci. Besides painting a number of works in Genoa, mostly in
a rapid and superficial style, Castello was employed in Rome and in the
court of the duke of Savoy.
CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1500?-1569?), Italian historical painter,
was born near Bergamo in 1500 or perhaps 1509, and is hence ordinarily
termed Il Bergamasco. He belongs, however, to the school of Genoa, but
does not appear to have had any family relationship with the other two
painters named Castello, also noticed here. He was employed to decorate
the Nunziata di Portoria in Genoa, the saloon of the Lanzi Palace at
Gorlago, and the Pardo Palace in Spain. His best-known works are the
"Martyrdom of St Sebastian," and the picture of "Christ as Judge of the
World" on one of the vaultings of the Annunziata. He was an architect
and sculptor as well as painter. In 1567 he was invited to Madrid by
Philip II., and there he died, holding the office of architect of the
royal palaces. The date of death (as of birth) is differently stated as
1569 or 1579.
CASTELLO, VALERIO (1625-1659), Italian painter, was the youngest son of
Bernardo Castello (q.v.). He surpassed his father, and particularly
excelled in painting battle-scenes. He painted the "Rape of the
Sabines," now in the Palazzo Brignole, Genoa, and decorated the cupola
of the church of the Annunziata in the same city. In these works he is
regarded by his admirers as combining the fire of Tintoretto with the
general style of Paolo Veronese.
CASTELLO BRANCO, CAMILLO, VISCONDE DE CORREIA BOTELHO (1825-1890),
Portuguese novelist, was born out of wedlock and lost his parents in
infancy. He spent his early years in a village in Traz-os-Montes. He
learnt to love poetry from Camoens and Bocage, while Mendes Pinto gave
him a lust for adventure, but he dreamed more than he read, and grew up
undisciplined and proud. He studied in Oporto and Coimbra with much
irregularity, and since his disdain for the intrigues and miseries of
politics in Portugal debarred him from the chance of a government post,
he entered the career of letters to gain a livelihood. After a spell of
journalistic work in Oporto and Lisbon he proceeded to the Episcopal
seminary in the former city with a view of studying for the priesthood,
and during this period wrote a number of religious works and translated
Chateaubriand. He actually took minor orders, but his restless nature
prevented him from following one course for long and he soon returned to
the world, and henceforth kept up a feverish literary activity to the
end. He was created a viscount in 1885 in recognition of his services to
letters, and when his health finally broke down and he could no longer
use his pen, parliament gave him a pension for life. When, having lost
his sight, and suffering from chronic nervous disease, he died by his
own hand in 1890, it was generally recognized that Portugal had lost the
most national of her modern writers.
Apart from his plays and verses, Castello Branco's works may be divided
into three sections. The first comprises his romances of the
imagination, of which _Os mysterios de Lisboa_, in the style of Victor
Hugo, is a fair example. The second includes his novels of manners, a
style of which he was the creator and remained the chief exponent until
the appearance of _O Crime de Padre Amaro_ of Eca de Queiroz. In these
he is partly idealist and partly realist, and describes to perfection
the domestic and social life of Portugal in the early part of the 19th
century. The third division embraces his writings in the domain of
history, biography and literary criticism. Among these may be cited
_Noites de Lamego_, _Cousas leves e pesadas_, _Cavar em ruinas_,
_Memorias do Bispo do Grao Para_ and _Bohemia do Espirito_.
In all, his publications number about two hundred and sixty, belonging
to many departments of letters, but he owes his great and lasting
reputation to his romances. Notwithstanding the fact that his slender
means obliged him to produce very rapidly to the order of publishers,
who only paid him from L30 to L60 a book, he never lost his
individuality under the pressure. Knowing the life of the people by
experience and not from books, he was able to fix in his pages a
succession of strongly marked and national types, such as the
_brazileiro_, the old _fidalgo_ of the north, and the Minho priest,
while his lack of personal acquaintance with foreign countries and his
relative ignorance of their literatures preserved him from the
temptation, so dangerous to a Portuguese, of imitating the classical
writers of the larger nations. Among the most notable of his romances
are _O Romance de un Homem Rico_, his favourite, _Retrato de Ricardina,
Amor de Perdicao_, and the magnificent series entitled _Novellas do
Minho_. Many of his novels are autobiographical, like _Onde esta a
felicidade_, _Memorias do Carcere_ and _Vinganca_. Castello Branco is an
admirable story-teller, largely because he was a brilliant
improvisatore, but he does not attempt character study. Nothing can
exceed the richness of his vocabulary, and no other Portuguese author
has shown so profound a knowledge of the popular language. Though nature
had endowed him with the poetic temperament, his verses are mediocre,
but his best plays are cast in bold lines and contain really dramatic
situations, while his comedies are a triumph of the grotesque, with a
mordant vein running through them that recalls Gil Vicente.
The collected works of Camillo Castello Branco are published by the
Companhia Editora of Lisbon, and his most esteemed books have had
several editions. The _Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. ix.
p. 7 et seq., contains a lengthy but incomplete list of his
publications. See _Romance do Romancista_, by A. Pimentel, a badly put
together but informing biography; also a study on the novelist by J.
Pereira de Sampaio in _A Geracao Nova_ (Oporto, 1886); Dr Theophilo
Braga, _As Modernas Ideias na litteratura Portugueza_ (Oporto, 1892);
Padre Senna Freitas, _Perfil de Camillo Castello Branco_ (S. Paulo,
1887); and Paulo Osorio, _Camillo, a sua vida, o seu genio, a sua
obra_ (Oporto, 1908). (E. Pr.)
CASTELLO BRANCO, an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative
district formerly included in the province of Beira, Portugal; 1560 ft.
above the sea, on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1900) 7288.
Numerous Roman remains bear witness to the antiquity of Castello Branco,
but its original name is unknown. The city is dominated by a ruined
castle, and partly enclosed by ancient walls; its chief buildings are
the cathedral and episcopal palace. Cloth is manufactured, and there is
a flourishing local trade in cork, wine and olive oil. The
administrative district of Castello Branco, which comprises the valleys
of the Zezere, Ocreza and Ponsul, right-hand tributaries of the Tagus,
coincides with the south-eastern part of Beira; pop. (1900) 216,608;
area, 2382 sq. m.
CASTELLON DE LA PLANA, a maritime province of eastern Spain, formed in
1833 of districts formerly included in Valencia, and bounded on the N.
by Teruel and Tarragona, E. by the Mediterranean Sea, S. by Valencia,
and W. by Teruel. Pop. (1900) 310,828; area, 2495 sq. m. The surface of
the province is almost everywhere mountainous, and flat only near the
coast and along some of the river valleys. Even on the coast the
Atalayas de Alcala and the Desierto de las Palmas form two well-defined
though not lofty ridges. The Mijares or Millares is the principal river,
flowing east-south-east from the highlands of Teruel, between the
Sierras of Espina and Espadan towards the south, and the peak called
Pena Golosa (5945 ft.) towards the north, until it reaches the sea a
little south of the capital, also called Castellon de la Plana. The
Monlleo, a left-hand tributary of the Mijares; the Bergantes, which
flows inland to join the Guadalope in Teruel; the Cenia, which divides
Castellon from Tarragona; and a variety of lesser streams, render the
province abundantly fertile. No considerable inlet breaks the regularity
of the coast-line, and there is no first-class harbour. The climate is
cold and variable in the hilly districts, temperate in winter and very
warm in summer in the lowlands. Agriculture, fruit-growing, and
especially the cultivation of the vine and olive, employ the majority of
the peasantry; stock-farming and sea-fishing are also of importance.
Lead, zinc, iron and other ores have been discovered in the province;
but in 1903, out of 129 mining concessions registered, only two were
worked, and their output, lead and zinc, was quite insignificant. The
local industries are mainly connected with fish-curing, paper,
porcelain, woollens, cotton, silk, esparto, brandy and oils. Wine,
oranges and oil are exported to foreign countries and other parts of
Spain. The important Barcelona-Valencia railway skirts the coast,
passing through the capital; and the Calatayud-Sagunto line crosses the
southern extremity of the province. Elsewhere the roads, which are
generally indifferent, form the sole means of communication. Castellon
(29,904), Villarreal (16,068), the port of Burriana (12,962), and
Peniscola (3142), a town of some historical interest, are described in
separate articles. The other chief towns are Alcala de Chisbert (6293),
Almazora (7076), Benicarlo (7251), Maella (7335), Onda (6595), Segorbe
(7045), Vail de Uxo (8643), Villafames (6708) and Vinaroz (8625).
CASTELLON DE LA PLANA, the capital of the province described above, on
the Barcelona-Valencia railway, 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea. Pop.
(1900) 29,904. The broad and fertile plain in which Castellon is built
is watered artificially by a Moorish aqueduct, largely cut through the
solid rock, and supplied by the estuary of the Mijares, 5 m. south-east.
The town is partly encircled by ancient walls; and, although most of its
public buildings are modern, it contains several convents of early
foundation, a curious old bell-tower, 150 ft. high, and a parish church
chiefly noteworthy for a painting in the interior by Francisco Ribalta,
who was born here in the middle of the 16th century. Castellon has a
brisk trade, its manufactures comprising porcelain, leather, silk,
linen, brandy and cork goods. Its harbour, El Grao de Castellon, about 4
m. east, is annually entered by some 200 small vessels. A light railway,
which traverses the numerous and profitable orange plantations on the
south-west, connects it with the towns of Almazora, Villarreal, Burriana
and Onda. Under its Moorish rulers Castellon occupied a hill to the
north of its present site; its removal to the plain by James I. of
Aragon (1213-1276) gave the town its full name, "Castellon of the
Plain."
CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, SIEUR DE LA MAUVISSIERE (c. 1520-1592), French
soldier and diplomatist, ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, was born in
Touraine about 1520. He was one of a large family of children, and his
grandfather, Pierre de Castelnau, was equerry to Louis XII. Endowed with
a clear and penetrating intellect and remarkable strength of memory, he
received a careful education, to complete which he travelled in Italy
and made a long stay at Rome. He then spent some time in Malta,
afterwards entered the army, and made his first acquaintance with war in
the campaigns of the French in Italy. His abilities and his courage won
for him the friendship and protection of the cardinal of Lorraine, who
took him into his service. In 1557 a command in the navy was given to
him, and the cardinal proposed to get him knighted. This, however, he
declined, and then rejoined the French army in Picardy. Various delicate
missions requiring tact and discretion were entrusted to him by the
constable de Montmorency, and these he discharged so satisfactorily that
he was sent by the king, Henry II., to Scotland with despatches for Mary
Stuart, then betrothed to the dauphin (afterwards Francis II.). From
Scotland he passed into England, and treated with Queen Elizabeth
respecting her claims on Calais (1559), a settlement of which was
effected at the congress of Cateau-Cambresis. He was next sent as
ambassador to the princes of Germany, for the purpose of prevailing upon
them to withdraw their favour from the Protestants. This embassy was
followed by missions to Margaret of Parma, governess of the Netherlands,
to Savoy, and then to Rome, to ascertain the views of Pope Paul IV. with
regard to France. Paul having died just before his arrival, Castelnau
used his influence in favour of the election of Pius IV. Returning to
France, he once more entered the navy, and served under his former
patron. It was his good fortune, at Nantes, to discover the earliest
symptoms of the conspiracy of Amboise, which he immediately reported to
the government.
After the death of Francis II. (December 1560) he accompanied the queen,
Mary Stuart, to Scotland, and remained with her a year, during which
time he made several journeys into England, and attempted to bring about
a reconciliation between Mary and Queen Elizabeth. The wise and moderate
counsels which he offered to the former were unheeded. In 1562, in
consequence of the civil war in France, he returned there. He was
employed against the Protestants in Brittany, was taken prisoner in an
engagement with them and sent to Havre, but was soon after exchanged. In
the midst of the excited passions of his countrymen, Castelnau, who was
a sincere Catholic, maintained a wise self-control and moderation, and
by his counsels rendered valuable service to the government. He served
at the siege of Rouen, distinguished himself at the battle of Dreux,
took Tancarville, and contributed in 1563 to the recapture of Havre from
the English.
During the next ten years Castelnau was employed in various important
missions:--first to Queen Elizabeth, to negotiate a peace; next to the
duke of Alba, the new governor of the Netherlands. On this occasion he
discovered the project formed by the prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny
to seize and carry off the royal family at Monceaux (1567). After the
battle of St Denis he was again sent to Germany to solicit aid against
the Protestants; and on his return he was rewarded for his services with
the post of governor of Saint-Dizier and a company of orderlies. At the
head of his company he took part in the battles of Jarnac and
Moncontour. In 1572 he was sent to England by Charles IX. to allay the
excitement created by the massacre of St Bartholomew, and the same year
he was sent to Germany and Switzerland. Two years later he was
reappointed by Henry III. ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, and he remained
at her court for ten years. During this period he used his influence to
promote the marriage of the queen with the duke of Alencon, with a view
especially to strengthen and maintain the alliance of the two countries.
But Elizabeth made so many promises only to break them that at last he
refused to accept them or communicate them to his government. On his
return to France he found that his chateau of La Mauvissiere had been
destroyed in the civil war; and as he refused to recognize the authority
of the League, the duke of Guise deprived him of the governorship of
Saint-Dizier. He was thus brought almost to a state of destitution. But
on the accession of Henry IV., the king, who knew his worth, and was
confident that although he was a Catholic he might rely on his fidelity,
gave him a command in the army, and entrusted him with various
confidential missions.
Castelnau died at Joinville in 1592. His _Memoires_ rank very high among
the original authorities for the period they cover, the eleven years
between 1559 and 1570. They were written during his last embassy in
England for the benefit of his son; and they possess the merits of
clearness, veracity and impartiality. They were first printed in 1621;
again, with additions by Le Laboureur, in 2 vols. folio, in 1659; and a
third time, still further enlarged by Jean Godefroy, 3 vols. folio, in
1731. Castelnau translated into French the Latin work of Ramus, _On the
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls_. Various letters of his are
preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian collections in the British
Museum.
His grandson, JACQUES DE CASTELNAU (1620-1658), distinguished himself in
the war against Austria and Spain during the ministries of Richelieu and
Mazarin, and died marshal of France.
See Hubault, _Ambassade de Castelnau en Angleterre_ (1856); _Relations
politiques de la France ... avec l'Ecosse au seizieme siecle_, edited
by J.B.A.T. Teulet (1862); and De la Ferriere, _Les Projets de mariage
d'Elisabeth_ (1883).
CASTELNAUDARY, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Aude, 22 m. W.N.W. of Carcassonne,
on the Southern railway between that city and Toulouse. Pop. (1906)
6650. It is finely situated on an elevation in the midst of a fertile
and well-cultivated plain; and its commercial facilities are greatly
increased by the Canal du Midi, which widens out, as it passes the town,
into an extensive basin surrounded with wharves and warehouses for the
timber used in the upkeep of the canal. The principal buildings are the
law court, the hotel de ville, and the church of St Michel, dating from
the 14th century; none of these offers any feature of unusual interest.
There are a number of flour-mills, as well as manufactories of
earthenware, tiles and blankets; an extensive trade is maintained in
lime, gypsum, timber, grain, fruits, wine, wool, cattle and farm
implements, and the building of canal boats forms an important industry.
The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a communal college and a farm school.
Castelnaudary probably represents the ancient town of _Sostomagus_,
taken during the 5th century by the Visigoths, who, it is conjectured,
rebuilt the town, calling it _Castrum Novum Arianorum_, whence the
present name. Early in the 13th century the town was the scene of
several struggles during the war against the Albigenses, between Simon
IV., count of Montfort, and Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, and their
supporters. In 1229 it was deprived of its ramparts, and after these had
been rebuilt, it was captured and burned by the Black Prince in 1355,
but again rebuilt in 1366. In 1632 it was the scene of a cavalry
engagement in which the rebel Henry II., duke of Montmorency, was
defeated and captured by the royal troops.
CASTELSARRASIN, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 12 m. W. of
Montauban on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) town, 3189; commune,
7496. Castelsarrasin, situated on the left bank of the lateral canal of
the Garonne and about a mile from the right bank of that river, is
surrounded by promenades occupying the site of the old fortifications.
Its chief building is the brick-built church of St Sauveur, which dates
from the 13th century. The administrative buildings are modern. The town
has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college. The principal industrial establishment is the metal-foundry of
Sainte-Marguerite, where copper, tin and other metals are worked; there
are also flour-mills, saw-mills and dye-works. Trade is in cattle,
agricultural produce, wine, baskets and game.
The name Castelsarrasin appears in the 13th century, when the village of
Villelongue was replaced by the present bastide. Castrum Cerrucium,
Castel-sur-Azine (from the neighbouring stream, Azine) and Castellum
Sarracenum are suggested derivations, no one of which can be adopted
with certainty.
CASTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1721-1803), Italian poet, was born of humble
parents at Montefiascone, in the states of the church, in 1721. He rose
to the dignity of canon in the cathedral of his native place, but gave
up his chance of church preferment to satisfy his gay and restless
spirit by visiting most of the capitals of Europe. In 1782, on the death
of Metastasio, he was appointed _Poeta Cesario_, or poet-laureate of
Austria, in which capacity he applied himself with great success to the
opera bouffe; but in 1796 he resigned this post, in order that he might
not be hampered by political relations; and he spent the close of his
life as a private gentleman at Paris, where he died in 1803. Casti is
best known as the author of the _Novelle galanti_, and of _Gli Animali
parlanti_, a poetical allegory, over which he spent eight years
(1794-1802), and which, notwithstanding its tedious length, excited so
much interest that it was translated into French, German and Spanish,
and (very freely and with additions) into English, in W.S. Rose's _Court
and Parliament of Beasts_ (Lond., 1819). Written during the time of the
Revolution in France, it was intended to exhibit the feelings and hopes
of the people and the defects and absurdities of various political
systems. The _Novelle Galanti_ is a series of poetical tales, in the
_ottava rima_--a metre largely used by Italian poets for that class of
compositions. The sole merit of these poems consists in the harmony and
purity of the style, and the liveliness and sarcastic power of many
passages. They are, however, characterized by the grossest
licentiousness; and there is no originality of plot--that, according to
the custom of Italian novelists, being taken from classical mythology or
other ancient legends. Among the other works of Casti is the _Poema
Tartaro_, a mock-heroic satire on the court of Catherine II., with which
he was personally acquainted.
CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE (1478-1529), Italian diplomatist and man of
letters, was born at Casanatico near Mantua, and was educated at Milan
under the famous professors Merula and Chalcondyles. In 1496 he entered
the service of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, returning to Mantua in
1500 when Lodovico was carried prisoner into France. In 1504 he was
attached to the court of Guidobaldo Malatesta, duke of Urbino, and in
1506 he was sent by that prince on a mission to Henry VII. of England,
who had before conferred on Federigo Malatesta, "the Good Duke," the
most famous mercenary of his age, the order of the Garter. Guidobaldo
dying childless in 1508, the duchy of Urbino was given to Francesco
Maria della Rovere, for whom Castiglione, envoy at the court of Leo X.
(Medici), obtained the office of generalissimo of the Papal troops.
Charged with the arrangement of the dispute between Clement VII.
(Medici) and Charles V., Castiglione crossed, in 1524, into Spain, where
he was received with highest honours, being afterwards naturalized, and
made bishop of Avila. In 1527, however, Rome was seized and sacked by
the Imperialists under Bourbon, and in July of the same year the
surrender of the castle of Sant' Angelo placed Clement in their hands.
Castiglione had been tricked by the emperor, but there were not wanting
accusations of treachery against himself. He had, however, placed
fidelity highest among the virtues of his ideal "courtier," and when he
died at Toledo in 1529 it was said that he had died of grief and shame
at the imputation. The emperor mourned him as "one of the world's best
cavaliers." A portrait of him, now at the Louvre, was painted by
Raphael, who disdained neither his opinion nor his advice.
Castiglione wrote little, but that little is of rare merit. His verses,
in Latin and Italian, are elegant in the extreme; his letters (Padua,
1769-1771) are full of grace and finesse. But the book by which he is
best remembered is the famous treatise, _Il Cortegiano_, written in
1514, published at Venice by Aldus in 1528, and translated into English
by Thomas Hoby as early as 1561. This book, called by the Italians _Il
Libra d'oro_, and remarkable for its easy force and undemonstrative
elegance of style no less than for the nobility and manliness of its
theories (see the edition by V. Cian, Florence, 1894), describes the
Italian gentleman of the Renaissance under his brightest and fairest
aspect, and gives a charming picture of the court of Guidobaldo da
Montefeltre, duke of Urbino, "confessedly the purest and most elevated
court in Italy." In the form of a discussion held in the duchess's
drawing-room--with Elizabetta Gonzaga, Pietro Bembo, Bernardo Bibbiena,
Giuliano de' Medici, Emilia Pia, and Ceretino the Unique among the
speakers--the question, What constitutes a perfect courtier? is debated.
With but few differences, the type determined on is the ideal gentleman
of the present day.
See P.L. Ginguene, _Histoire litteraire de l'Italie_, vi., vii.; J.A.
Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_ (London, 1875); C. Hare, _Courts
and Camps of the Italian Renaissance_ (1908); Julia Cartwright, _B.
Castiglione, the Perfect Courtier_ (1908), with good bibliography.
CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO, COUNT (1784-1849), Italian philologist, was
born at Milan of an ancient family. His principal work was done in
connexion with the Arabic and other Oriental languages, but he also
performed good service in several other departments. In 1819 he
published _Monete cufiche del Museo di Milano_, and assisted Cardinal
Mai in his _Ulphilae partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis palimpsestis
repertarum editio_. A learned _Memoire geographique et numismatique sur
la partie orientale de la Barbarie appelee Afrikia par les Arabes_
appeared in 1826, and established his reputation. In 1829 he published
by himself the Gothic version of the second epistle of Paul to the
Corinthians; and this was followed by the Gothic version of the epistle
to the Romans, the first epistle to the Corinthians, and the epistle to
the Ephesians in 1834, by Galatians, Philippians, and 1 Thessalonians in
1835, and by 2 Thessalonians in 1839. He died at Genoa on the 10th of
April 1849.
His _Life_, by Biondelli, appeared at Milan in 1856.
CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO (1616-1670), called in Italy Il
Grechetto, and in France Le Benedette, Italian painter of the Genoese
school, was born in Genoa, and studied for some time under Vandyck. He
painted portraits, historical pieces and landscapes, but chiefly
excelled in fairs, markets and rural scenes with animals. Noah and the
animals entering the Ark was a favourite subject of his. His paintings
are to be found in Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, and more especially
Genoa and Mantua. He also executed a number of etchings, which are
spirited, free and full of taste; "Diogenes searching for a Man" is one
of the principal of these. The etchings are remarkable for light and
shade, and have even earned for Castiglione the name of "a second
Rembrandt." The _Presepio_ (Nativity of Jesus) in the church of San
Luca, Genoa, ranks among his most celebrated paintings, and the Louvre
contains eight characteristic examples. In his closing years he lived in
Mantua, painting for the court; here he received his name of
"Grechetto," from the classic air of his pastorals, and here he died of
gout in 1670. His brother Salvatore and his son Francesco excelled in
the same subjects; and it is thought that many paintings which are
ascribed to Benedetto are only copies after him, or perhaps originals by
his son or brother.
CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Mantua, 20 m. N.W. of Mantua by road. Pop. (1901) 4122 (town), 5940
(commune). It has an old castle, much altered and restored, especially
by the Gonzaga family of Mantua in the 16th century. During the War of
the Spanish Succession, the French under the duke of Vendome occupied
it; and during the siege of Mantua in 1796, the Austrians under Wurmser
were defeated here by the French under Augereau, who was later created
by Napoleon duke of Castiglione.
CASTIGLIONE OLONA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como,
27 m. N.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1901) 1806. The choir of the
collegiate church, erected about 1428 by Cardinal Branda Castiglione,
contains fine frescoes by Masolino of Florence: there are other works by
the same master in the baptistery. The tomb of the cardinal (1443) is
good. The church of S. Sepolcro, in the lower part of the town, has two
large stone figures of saints on its facade (of the end of the 13th
century) and, within, painted wooden figures and the tomb of Guido
Castiglione (d. 1485) with fine sculptures of the school of Amadeo. The
palace erected by Cardinal Castiglione has good terra-cotta decorations.
CASTILE, or CASTILLE (_Castilla_), an ancient kingdom of Spain,
occupying the central districts of the Iberian Peninsula; and bounded on
the N. by the Bay of Biscay, N.E. by the Basque Provinces and Navarre,
E. by Aragon, S.E. by Valencia and Murcia, S. by Andalusia, W. by
Estremadura and Leon, and N.W. by Asturias. Pop. (1900) 3,708,713; area,
55,307 sq. m. The name _Castile_ is commonly said to be derived from the
numerous frontier forts (_castillos_) erected in the middle ages as a
defence against the Moors. The northern part of the kingdom, which was
first freed from Moorish rule, is called Old Castile (_Castilla la
Vieja_); the southern, acquired later, is called New Castile (_Castilla
la Nueva_). These two divisions, with a third known as North Castile,
now rank as military districts or captaincies-general; but the term
"North Castile," which covers the northern extremity of Old Castile, is
not generally used. In 1833 Old Castile was divided into the provinces
of Avila, Burgos, Logrono, Palencia, Santander, Segovia, Soria and
Valladolid; while New Castile was similarly divided into Ciudad Real,
Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid and Toledo. The modern progress of commerce,
communications, &c. in these thirteen provinces is described in the
separate articles upon each of them.
Castile extends for about 300 m. from north to south, and 160 m. from
east to west. It consists of a vast central plateau, with an average
altitude of about 2500 ft. This plateau has a natural frontier of high
mountains on all sides, except on the borders of Leon and Murcia; it is
also bisected by the Sierra de Guadarrama and Sierra de Gredos, which
extend in a south-westerly direction across the central districts, and
form the dividing line between Old and New Castile. Geographically it
includes also the high plains of Leon, towards the north-west, and of
Murcia on the south-east. The existing frontier is marked on the north
by the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.); on the east by the Sierra de la
Demanda with its offshoots, and by the Serrania de Cuenca; on the south
by the Sierra Morena; and on the west by various minor ranges which link
together the three more or less parallel chains of the Sierra de Gredos,
Sierra de Guadalupe and Sierra Morena. Three great rivers, the Douro,
which traverses Old Castile, with the Tagus and Guadiana, which
respectively drain the central and southern regions of New Castile, flow
westward into Portugal, and finally reach the Atlantic; while the Ebro,
which rises in the north of the kingdom, skirts the north-eastern
frontier on its way to the Mediterranean. These rivers are described
under their own names.
The climate of Old Castile is healthy, but liable to severe cold and
heat. Snow falls early and lies late in the mountains, and there is a
heavy rainfall in the north-west. New Castile has a still more rigorous
climate, for although the mean annual temperature is about 59 deg.
Fahr., the summer heat in the valleys is peculiarly oppressive, and the
highlands are swept by scorching or icy gales, laden with dust. The
rainfall rarely exceeds 10 in. in a year.
In both the Castiles the central plateau has a naturally fertile soil,
for after rain a luxuriant vegetation appears; but drought is common,
owing to the insufficient volume of the rivers, and the failure of the
Spaniards to extend the fine system of irrigation which the Moors
originated. Certain districts, indeed, in which a layer of heavy loam
underlies the porous and friable surface, are able to retain the
moisture which elsewhere is absorbed. Such land is found in Palencia,
and in the Mesa de Ocana, where it yields abundant crops; and many of
the northern mountains are well wooded. But vast tracts of land are
useless except as pasture for sheep, and even the sheep are driven by
the severe winters to migrate yearly into Estremadura (q.v.). The normal
Castilian landscape is an arid and sterile steppe, with scarcely a tree
or spring of water; and many even of the villages afford no relief to
the eye, for they are built of sunburnt unbaked bricks, which share the
dusty brownish-grey tint of the soil. Especially characteristic is the
great plain of La Mancha (q.v.).
The transformation of Castile from a small county in the north of what
is now Old Castile into an independent monarchy, was one of the decisive
events in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors. The successful
resistance offered by Asturias to the invaders had been followed by the
liberation of Galicia and Leon, when Ferdinand I. of Castile
(1035-1065), by his marriage with Sancha, widow of the last king of
Leon, was enabled to unite Leon and Castile in a single kingdom, with
its capital at Burgos. New territories were annexed on the south, until,
after the capture of Toledo in 1085, and the consequent formation of a
New Castile, the kingdom comprised the whole of central Spain.
Thenceforward its history is inseparable from that of the whole country;
and it is therefore described in full, together with the language and
literature of Castile, under SPAIN (q.v.).
Castilian, which is the literary language of Spain, and with certain
differences, of Spanish America, is spoken in Old and New Castile,
Aragon, Estremadura, and the greater part of Leon; in Andalusia it is
subject to various modifications of accent and pronunciation. As there
is little, if any, difference of racial origin, character and physical
type, among the inhabitants of this region, except in Andalusia, and, to
a less extent, in Estremadura, the Castilian is justly regarded as the
typical Spaniard. Among the Castilian peasantry, where education and
foreign influence have never penetrated deeply, the national character
can best be studied. Its intense pride, its fatalistic indolence and
ignorance, its honesty and its bigotry, tempered by a keen sense of
humour, are well-known characteristics. Apart from the peasant class,
Castilians have contributed more to the development of Spanish art and
literature than the inhabitants of any other region except, perhaps,
Andalusia, which claims to be regarded as supreme in architecture and
painting. Of the two great Spanish universities, Alcala de Henares
belonged in all respects to Castile, and Salamanca rose to equality with
Paris, Oxford or Bologna, under the purely Castilian influence of
Alphonso X. (1252-1284).
For a general description of Castile and its inhabitants, antiquities,
commerce, &c., see _Castillo la Nueva_, three illustrated volumes in
the series _Espana_, by J.M. Quadrado and V. de la Fuente (Barcelona,
1885-1886), and the _Guia del antiguo reino de Castilla_, by E.
Valverde y Alvarez (Madrid, 1886), which deals with the provinces of
Burgos, Santander, Logrono, Soria, Avila and Segovia. For the history,
see in addition to the works cited under SPAIN (section _History_),
_Cronicas de los reyes de Castilla_, by C. Rosell (Madrid, 1875-1877,
2 vols.); _Coleccion de las cronicas y memorias de los reyes de
Castilla_ (Madrid, 1779-1787, 7 vols.); and _Historia de las
communidades de Castilla_ (Madrid, 1897).
CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE (1800-1875), Portuguese man of letters,
was born at Lisbon. He lost his sight at the age of six, but the
devotion of his brother Augusto, aided by a retentive memory, enabled
him to go through his school and university course with success; and he
acquired an almost complete mastery of the Latin language and
literature. His first work of importance, the _Cartas de Echo e Narciso_
(1821), belongs to the pseudo-classical school in which he had been
brought up, but his romantic leanings became apparent in the _Primavera_
(1822) and in _Amor e Melancholia_ (1823), two volumes of honeyed and
prolix bucolic poetry. In the poetic legends _A noite de Castello_
(1836) and _Cuimes do bardo_ (1838) Castilho appeared as a full-blown
Romanticist. These books exhibit the defects and qualities of all his
work, in which lack of ideas and of creative imagination and an
atmosphere of artificiality are ill compensated for by a certain
emotional charm, great purity of diction and melodious versification.
Belonging to the didactic and descriptive school, Castilho saw nature as
all sweetness, pleasure and beauty, and he lived in a dreamland of his
imagination. A fulsome epic on the succession of King John VI. brought
him an office of profit at Coimbra. On his return from a stay in
Madeira, he founded the _Revista Universal Lisbonense_, in imitation of
Herculano's _Panorama_, and his profound knowledge of the Portuguese
classics served him well in the introduction and notes to a very useful
publication, the _Livraria Classica Portugueza_ (1845-1847, 25 vols.),
while two years later he established the "Society of the Friends of
Letters and the Arts." A study on Camoens and treatises on metrification
and mnemonics followed from his pen. His praiseworthy zeal for popular
instruction led him to take up the study of pedagogy, and in 1850 he
brought out his _Leitura Repentina_, a method of reading which was named
after him, and he became government commissary of the schools which were
destined to put it into practice. Going to Brazil in 1854, he there
wrote his famous "Letter to the Empress." Though Castilho's lack of
strong individuality and his over-great respect for authority prevented
him from achieving original work of real merit, yet his translations of
Anacreon, Ovid and Virgil and the _Chave do Enigma_, explaining the
romantic incidents that led to his first marriage with D. Maria de
Baena, a niece of the satirical poet Tolentino, and a descendant of
Antonio Ferreira, reveal him as a master of form and a purist in
language. His versions of Goethe's _Faust_ and Shakespeare's _Midsummer
Night's Dream_, made without a knowledge of German and English, scarcely
added to his reputation. When the Coimbra question arose in 1865,
Garrett was dead and Herculano had ceased to write, leaving Castilho
supreme, for the moment, in the realm of letters. But the youthful
Anthero de Quental withstood his claim to direct the rising generation
and attacked his superannuated leadership, and after a fierce war of
pamphlets Castilho was dethroned. The rise of Joao de Deus reduced him
to a secondary position in the Portuguese Parnassus, and when he died
ten years later much of his former fame had preceded him to the tomb.
See also "Memorias de Castilho" in the _Instituto_ of Coimbra;
Innocencio da Silva in _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, i. 130
and viii. 132: Latino Coelho's study in the _Revista contemporanea de
Portugal e Brazil_, vols. i. and ii.; Dr Theophilo Braga, _Historia do
Romantismo_ (Lisbon, 1880). (E. Pr.)
CASTILLEJO, CRISTOBAL DE (1490-1556), Spanish poet, was born at Ciudad
Rodrigo in 1490. In 1518 he left Spain with Ferdinand of Austria,
afterwards emperor, whose private secretary he eventually became. While
residing at Vienna in 1528-1530 he wrote the _Historia de Piramo y
Tisbe_, and dedicated it to Anna von Schaumberg, with whom he had a
platonic love-affair. He seems to have visited Venice, to have been
neglected by his patron, to have fallen ill in 1540, and to have passed
his last years in poverty. He died on the 12th of June 1556, and was
buried at Vienna. Castillejo's poems are interesting, not merely because
of their intrinsic excellence, but also as being the most powerful
protest against the metrical innovations imported from Italy by Boscan
and Garcilaso de la Vega. He adheres to the native _quintillas_ or to
the _coplas de pie quebrado_, and only abandons these traditional forms
when he indulges in caustic parody of the new school--as in the lines
_Contra los que dejan los metros castellanos_. He excels by virtue of
his charming simplicity and his ingenious wit, always keen, sometimes
licentious, never brutal. The urbane gaiety of his occasional poems is
delightfully spontaneous, and the cynical humour which informs the
_Dialogo de las condiciones de las mujeres_ and the _Dialogo de la vida
de la corte_ is impregnated with the Renaissance spirit. Castillejo is
the Clement Marot of Spain. His plays are lost; the best text of his
verses is that printed at Madrid in 1792.
CASTILLO SOLORZANO, ALONSO DE (1584?-1647?), Spanish novelist and
playwright, is stated to have been baptized at Tordesillas near
Valladolid on 1st October 1584. Nothing is known of his youth, and he is
next heard of at Madrid in 1619 as a man of literary tastes. While in
the service of the marquis de Villar, he issued his first work,
_Donaires del Parnaso_ (1624-1625), two volumes of humorous poems; his
_Tardes entretenidas_ (1625) and _Jornadas alegres_ (1626) proved that
he was a novelist by vocation. Shortly afterwards he joined the
household of the marquis de los Velez, viceroy of Valencia, and
published in quick succession three clever picaresque novels: _La Nina
de los embustes, Teresa de Manzanares_ (1634), _Las Aventuras del
Bachiller Trapaza_ (1637), and a continuation entitled _La Garduna de
Sevilla y Anzuelo de las bolsas_ (1642). To these shrewd cynical stories
he owes his reputation. He followed the marquis de los Velez in his
disastrous campaign in Catalonia, and accompanied him to Rome, where the
defeated general was sent as ambassador. Castillo Solorzano's death
occurred (probably at Palermo) before 1648, but the exact date is
uncertain. His prolonged absence from Madrid prevented him from writing
as copiously for the stage as he would otherwise have done; but he was
popular as a playwright both at home and abroad. His _Marques del
Cigarral_ and _El Mayorazgo figuron_ are the sources respectively of
Scarron's _Don Jophet d'Armenie_ and _L'Heritier ridicule_. Among his
numerous remaining works may be mentioned _Las Harpias en Madrid_
(1633), _Fiestas del Jardin_ (1634), _Los Alivios de Casandra_ (1640)
and the posthumous _Quinta de Laurel_ (1649); the witty observation of
these books forms a singular contrast to the prim devotion of his
_Sagrario de Valencia_ (1635). His versatility and graceful style
deserve the highest praise. (J. F.-K.)
CASTLE (Lat. _castellum_, a fort, diminutive of _castra_, a camp; Fr.
_chateau_ and _chatel_), a small self-contained fortress, usually of the
middle ages, though the term is sometimes used of prehistoric earthworks
(e.g. Hollingbury Castle, Maiden Castle), and sometimes of citadels
(e.g. the castles of Badajoz and Burgos) and small detached _forts
d'arret_ in modern times. It is also often applied to the principal
mansion of a prince or nobleman, and in France (as _chateau_) to any
country seat, this use being a relic of the feudal age. Under its
twofold aspect of a fortress and a residence, the medieval castle is
inseparably connected with the subjects of fortification (see
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT) and architecture (q.v.). An account of
Roman and pre-Roman _castella_ in Britain will be found under BRITAIN.
The word "castle" (_castel_) was introduced into English shortly before
the Norman Conquest to denote a type of fortress, then new to the
country, brought in by the Norman knights whom Edward the Confessor had
sent for to defend Herefordshire against the inroads of the Welsh.
Richard's castle, of which the earthworks remain and which has given its
name to a parish, was erected at this period on the border of
Herefordshire and Shropshire by Richard Fitz Scrob. The essential
feature of this type was a circular mound of earth surrounded by a dry
ditch and flattened at the top. Around the crest of its summit was
placed a timber palisade. This moated mound was styled in French _motte_
(latinized _mota_), a word still common in French place-names. It is
clearly depicted at the time of the Conquest in the Bayeux tapestry, and
was then familiar on the mainland of western Europe. A description of
this earlier castle is given in the life of John, bishop of Terouanne
(_Acta Sanctorum_, quoted by G.T. Clark, _Medieval Mil.
Architecture_):--"The rich and the noble of that region being much given
to feuds and bloodshed, fortify themselves ... and by these strongholds
subdue their equals and oppress their inferiors. They heap up a mound as
high as they are able, and dig round it as broad a ditch as they can....
Round the summit of the mound they construct a palisade of timber to act
as a wall.... Inside the palisade they erect a house, or rather a
citadel, which looks down on the whole neighbourhood." St John, bishop
of Terouanne, died in 1130, and this castle of Merchem, built by "a lord
of the town many years before" may be taken as typical of the practice
of the 11th century. But in addition to the mound, the citadel of the
fortress, there was usually appended to it a bailey or basecourt (and
sometimes two) of semilunar or horseshoe shape, so that the mound stood
_a cheval_ on the line of the enceinte. The rapidity and ease with which
it was possible to construct castles of this type made them
characteristic of the Conquest period in England and of the Anglo-Norman
settlements in Wales, Ireland and the Scottish lowlands. In later days a
stone wall replaced the timber palisade and produced what is known as
the shell-keep, the type met with in the extant castles of Berkeley,
Alnwick and Windsor.
[Illustration: Section From Clark's _Medieval Military Architecture_, by
permission of Bernard Quaritch.