ANSW. The punishments of sin in the world to come, are everlasting
separation from the comfortable presence of God, and most grievous
torments in soul and body, without intermission, in hell-fire for
ever.
I. In the former of these answers, we have an account of those
punishments which sin exposes men to in this world. These are
distinguished as being either inward or outward, personal or relative;
of which, those that are styled _outward_, which more especially respect
our condition in the world, as we are liable to many adverse
dispensations of providence therein, and are generally reckoned, by
sinners, the greatest, as they are most sensible while they groan under
the many evils and miseries which befall them, in their bodies, names,
estates, relations, and employments, and they end in death, the most
formidable of all evils; though, in reality, the punishments of sin,
which are styled _inward_, such as blindness of mind, hardness of heart,
&c. how little soever they are regarded by those who fall under them, by
reason of that stupidity, which is the natural consequence thereof: yet
they are, by far, the greatest and most dreaded by all, who truly fear
God, and see things in a just light being duly affected with that which
would render them most miserable in the end.
Here we shall consider,
_First_, Those punishments that are called inward, which respect either
the understanding, will, conscience, or affections. Accordingly,
1. We are said to be exposed to blindness of mind: This the apostle
describes in a most moving way, when he speaks of the _Gentiles, as
walking in the vanity of their mind, having the understanding darkened,
being alienated from the life of God, through the ignorance that is in
them, because of the blindness of their heart_, Eph. iv. 17, 18.
Ignorance and error are defects of the understanding, whereby it is not
able to find out, nor desirous to enquire after the way of truth and
peace; and accordingly the apostle says, _The way of peace have they not
known_, Rom. iii. 17. and by reason hereof, we are naturally inclined to
deny those doctrines, which are of the greatest importance, namely, such
as more immediately concern the glory of God, and our own salvation.
This ignorance is certainly most dangerous, and cannot be exempted from
the charge of sin, much more when we are judicially left to it, as a
punishment for other sins committed by us.
2. Another punishment of sin, mentioned in this answer, is strong
delusion, which is the consequence of the former. This is taken from the
apostle’s words, _For this cause God shall send them strong delusion,
that they should believe a lie_, 2 Thess. ii. 11. the meaning of which
is nothing else but this, that God suffers them, who receive not the
love of the truth, but take pleasure in unrighteousness, to be deluded,
by denying them that spiritual and saving illumination, which would have
effectually prevented it. Now, that we may consider what the apostle
means by these _strong delusions_, we may observe, that every error, or
mistake in lesser matters of religion, is not intended hereby; for then
few or none, would be exempted from this judgment; but it includes in it
a person’s entertaining the most abominable absurdities in matters of
religion, which are contrary to the divine perfections, and the whole
tenor of scripture, and subversive of those truths, which are of the
greatest importance; or, when persons pretend to revelations, or are
turned away from the truth by giving credit to the amusements of signs,
and lying wonders; with which Antichrist is said to come, _after the
working of Satan_; and the consequence hereof is, that _they believe a
lye_, which they suppose to be confirmed hereby.
Errors, in matter of religion, are sometimes invincible and unavoidable,
for want of objective light, or scripture-revelation, as in the Heathen,
Mahometans, and others, who through the disadvantages and prejudices of
education, are estranged from the truth: but even this in some respects,
may be said to be judicial; for, though such do not sin against the
gospel-light, yet they are guilty of other sins, which justly provoke
God to leave them in this state of darkness and ignorance. But the
punishment of sin, when God gives men up to this judgment, is more
visible in those, who have had the advantages of education, above
others, and have had early instructions in the doctrines of the gospel;
yet, by degrees, they are turned aside from, and have denied them, and
so _forsaken the guide of their youth_, Prov. ii. 17. These sometimes
call those sentiments about religious matters, which once they received,
implicit faith, and please themselves with their new schemes of
doctrine, looking, as they call it, with pity, or, I might rather say,
disdain, on others, who are not disentangled from their fetters, or have
not shook off the prejudices of education, nor arrived to so free and
generous a way of thinking, as they pretend to have done. But how much
soever they may glory in it, it is a sad instance of God’s giving them
up, in a judicial way, to the vanity and delusion of their minds; and
accordingly they believe that to be a truth, which others can prove to
be a lie, and which they themselves once thought so. Now this appears to
be a punishment of sin, in that the gospel, which once they professed to
believe, had not that effect, or tendency, as it ought, to subdue their
lusts and corruptions; but they rebelled against the light, and were
under the power of presumptuous sins: their understanding, and talents
of reasoning, have been enlarged, and, at the same time, the pride and
vanity of their minds hath not been subdued, and mortified, by the grace
of God; whereupon, they have been given up first to question, then to
deny, and afterwards to oppose, and, in the most profane and invidious
manner, to ridicule those sacred and important truths, which they once
received. This is a sad instance of the punishment of sin; and the use
that I would make of it, may be in the following inferences.
(1.) That we ought not to be content with a bare speculative knowledge
of divine truths, but should endeavour to improve them, to promote
practical godliness, as they have a tendency to do in all those, who, as
the apostle saith, _have so learned Christ_, as that they have been
_taught by him, as the truth is in Jesus_, Eph. iv. 21.
(2.) We ought not to content ourselves with an implicit faith, or
believe the doctrines of the gospel, merely because they have been
received by wise and good men, in former or later ages, but should be
able to render a reason of the faith and hope that is in us, as built
upon clear scripture evidence; so, on the other hand, we must take heed
that we do not despise the many testimonies which God’s people have
given to the truth, or forsake the footsteps of the flock, as though God
had left his servants to delusions, or groundless doctrines, and there
were no light in the world, or the church, till those, who have
studiously endeavoured to overthrow the faith delivered to, and
maintained by the saints, brought in that which they, with
vain-boasting, call new light, into it.
(3.) Let us strive against the pride of our understanding, which
oftentimes tempts us to disbelieve any doctrine which we cannot fully
account for, by our shallow methods of reasoning, as though we were the
only men that knew any thing; and, as Job says, _Wisdom must die with
us_, Job xii. 2.
(4.) If we are in doubt concerning any important truth, let us apply
ourselves, by faith and prayer, to Christ, the great prophet of his
church, who has promised his Spirit to lead his people into all
necessary truth, to establish them in, and to keep them from being
turned aside from it, by every wind of doctrine, through the management
and sophistry of those who lie in wait to deceive. And to this we may
add, that we ought to bless God for, and to make a right use of the
labours of others, who have not only been led into the knowledge of the
gospel themselves, but have taken a great deal of pains, and that with
good success, to establish the faith of others therein.
(5.) If we have attained to a settled knowledge of the truth, and, more
especially, if we have been blessed with a spiritual and practical
discerning thereof, let us bless God for it, and endeavour to improve it
to the best purposes, which will be a preservative against this sore
judgment of being given up to the blindness of our minds, or strong
delusions, and thereby to forsake our first faith.
3. Another punishment of sin, which more especially respects the will,
is hardness of heart, and a reprobate sense, when men are given up to
the perverseness and obstinacy of their natures, so that they are
fixedly resolved to continue in sin, whatever be the consequence
thereof, when they cannot bear reproof for, and refuse to be reclaimed
from it, whatever methods are used in order thereunto. Thus the prophet
speaks, concerning a people, which had had forewarnings by sore
judgments, and were, at that time, under sad rebukes of providence; yet
God says, concerning them, _They will not hearken unto me; for all the
house of Israel are impudent and hard-hearted_, Ezek. iii. 7. and the
apostle speaks of some, who _have their consciences seared with a hot
iron_, 1 Tim. iv. 2. and others, who are described, as _sinning
wilfully_, Heb. v. 26. that is, resolutely, being head-strong, and
determined to persist therein; and are as the man described in Job, _Who
stretcheth out his hand against God, and strengtheneth himself against
the Almighty; he runneth upon him, even upon his neck, upon the thick
bosses of his bucklers_, Job xv. 25. Thus corrupt nature expresses its
enmity and opposition to God; and, as sinners are suffered to go on in
this way, it may well be reckoned a punishment of sin, or an instance of
God’s judicial hand against them for it. This hardness of heart is
sometimes compared to a _stone_, Ezek. xxxvi. 26. or a _rock_, Jer.
xxiii. 19. or an _adamant_, which is hardly broken with a hammer, Zech.
vii. 12. or an _iron sinew_, and their _brow_ is said to be as _brass_,
Isa. xlviii. 4. and sometimes they are compared to _a swift dromedary,
traversing her ways; or the wild ass, used to the wilderness, that
snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure_, Jer. ii. 23, 24. _and the bullock
unaccustomed to the yoke_, Jer. xxxi. 18. _or to the deaf adder, that
stoppeth her ears; that will not hearken to the voice of the charmers,
charming never so wisely_, Psal. lviii. 4, 5. This stupidity of the
heart of man is so great, that it inclines him to go on in a course of
rebellion against God, and, at the same time, to conclude all things to
be well; whereas, this is the most dangerous symptom, and a visible
instance of God’s judicial hand, as a punishment of sin in this life.
There are several instances, in which this hardness of heart discovers
itself; as,
(1.) When men are not afraid of God’s judgments threatened, nor regard
the warnings given thereof before-hand, or when they refuse to humble
themselves under them, as God says to Pharaoh, _How long wilt thou
refuse to humble thyself before me?_ Exod. x. 3.
(2.) When they stifle, and do not regard those convictions of
conscience, which they sometimes have; and, though they know that what
they do is sinful, and displeasing to God, yet they break through all
those fences, which should have prevented their committing it, as the
apostle speaks of some, _Who knowing the judgment of God, that they who
commit such things, are worthy death; not only do the same, but have
pleasure in them that do them_, Rom. i. 32.
(3.) Men may be said to be hardened in sin, when they do not mourn for,
or repent of it, after they have committed it: but, on the other hand,
endeavour to conceal, extenuate, and plead for it, rather than to
forsake it. And here we may take occasion to enquire,
[1.] What are those sins which more especially lead to this judgment of
hardness of heart. These are,
_1st_, A neglect of ordinances, such as the word preached, as though we
counted it an indifferent matter, whether we wait at wisdom’s gate, or
no, or make a visible profession of subjection to Christ, and desire of
communion with him herein; and particularly when we live in the constant
neglect of secret prayer: thus the hardened sinner is described, when it
is said, _Yea, thou castest off fear, and restrainest prayer before
God_, Job xv. 4.
_2dly_, Another sin leading to it, is, a person’s delighting in, or
associating himself with such companions, as are empty and vain, express
an enmity to the power of godliness, and frequently make things sacred,
the subject of their wit and ridicule, choosing such for his
bosom-friends, who cannot bear to converse about divine things, but
rather depreciate, or cast contempt upon them; such an one is called, _A
companion of fools_, and is opposed to those that _walk with wise men,
who shall be wise_, Prov. xiii. 20. and there is no method which will
have a more direct tendency to harden the heart, or root out any of the
remains of serious religion, than this.
_3dly_, A shunning faithful reproof, or concluding those our enemies,
who are, in this respect, our best friends. He that cannot bear to be
told of his crimes, by others, will, in a little while, cease to be a
reprover to himself, and hereby will be exposed to this judgment of
hardness of heart.
_4thly_, Our venturing on the occasions of sin, or committing it
presumptuously, without considering the heinous aggravations thereof, or
the danger that will ensue to us thereby; these things will certainly
bring on us a very great degree of hardness of heart.
But, since there are some who are afraid of falling under this judgment,
and are ready to complain, that the hardness, which they find in their
own hearts, is of a judicial nature; this leads us to enquire,
[2.] What is the difference between that hardness of heart, which
believers often complain of, and judicial hardness, which is considered,
in this answer, as a punishment of sin. There is nothing that a believer
more complains of, than the hardness and impenitency of his heart, its
lukewarmness and stupidity under the ordinances; and there is nothing
that he more desires, than to have this redressed, and is sometimes not
without a degree of fear, lest he should be given up to judicial
hardness; and therefore, to prevent discouragements of this nature, let
it be considered,
(1.) That judicial hardness is very seldom perceived, and never
lamented; a broken and a contrite heart is the least thing that such
desire: But it is otherwise with believers; for, as it is said of
Hezekiah, that _he was humbled for the pride of his heart_, 2 Chron.
xxxii. 26. so all they, who have the truth of grace, and none but such,
are exceedingly grieved for the hardness of their heart, which is an
argument that it is not judicial, how much soever it be, in common with
every sin, the result of the corruption of nature, and the imperfection
of this present state.
(2.) Judicial hardness is perpetual; or, if ever there be any remorse,
or relenting, or the soul is distressed, by reason of its guilt, or the
prevalency of sin, it is only at such times when he is under some
outward afflictions, or filled with a dread of the wrath of God; and, as
this wears off, or abates, his stupidity returns as much, or more, than
ever: Thus it was with Pharaoh, when he was affrighted with the mighty
thundering and hail, with which he was plagued, he _sent for Moses and
Aaron, and said unto them, I have sinned; the Lord is righteous, and I
and my people are wicked_, Exod. ix. 27. but, when the plague was
removed, it is said, that _he sinned yet more, and hardened his heart_.
But it is otherwise with a believer; for sometimes, when no adverse
dispensations, with respect to his outward circumstances in the world,
trouble him, yet he is full of complaints, and greatly afflicted, that
his heart is no more affected in holy duties, or inflamed with love to
God, or zeal for his glory, or that he cannot delight in him as he
would, or obtain a compleat victory over in-dwelling sin, which is his
constant burden; and, whenever he has a degree of tenderness, or
brokenness of heart, under a sense of sin, it is not barely the fear
that he has of the wrath of God, as a sin-revenging judge, or the
dreadful consequences of sin committed, that occasion it, but a due
sense of that ingratitude and disingenuity, which there is in every act
of rebellion against him, who has laid them under such inexpressible
obligations to obedience.
(3.) Judicial hardness is attended with a total neglect of all holy
duties, more especially those that are secret; but that hardness of
heart which a believer complains of, though it occasions his going on
very uncomfortably in duty, yet it rather puts him upon, than drives him
from it.
(4.) When a person is judicially hardened, he makes use of indirect and
unwarrantable methods to maintain that false peace, which he thinks
himself happy in the enjoyment of; that, which he betakes himself to,
deserves no better character than a refuge of lies; and the peace he
rejoices in, deserves no better a name than stupidity: but a believer,
when complaining of the hardness of his heart, cannot take up with any
thing short of Christ, and his righteousness; and it is his presence
that gives him peace; and he always desires that faith may accompany his
repentance, that so, whenever he mourns for sin, the comfortable sense
of his interest in him, may afford him a solid and lasting peace, which
is vastly different from that stupidity and hardness of heart, which is
a punishment of sin.
There is another expression in this answer, which denotes little more
than a greater degree of judicial hardness, when it is styled, _A
reprobate sense_, or, as the apostle calls it, _A reprobate mind_, Rom.
i. 28. which God is said to have given them up to, _who did not like to
retain him in their knowledge_; the meaning of which is, that persons,
by a course of sin, render their hearts so hard, their wills so
obstinate and depraved, as well as their understandings so dark and
defiled, that they hardly retain those notices of good and evil, which
are enstamped on the nature of man, and, at some times, have a tendency
to check for, and restrain from sin, till they are entirely lost, and
extinguished by the prevalency of corrupt nature, and a continued course
of presumptuous sins; and, as the result hereof, they extenuate and
excuse the greatest abominations: Thus Ephraim is represented, as
saying, _In all my labours, they shall find none iniquity in me that
were sin_, Hos. xii. 8. whereas God says in a following verse, that
_they provoked him to anger most bitterly_, ver. 14. and, after this,
they entertain favourable thoughts of the vilest actions, as some are
represented doing, _Who call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness
for light, and light for darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet
for bitter_, Isa. v. 20.
4. The next spiritual judgment mentioned in this answer, as a punishment
for sin, is a person’s being given up to _vile affections_. This God is
said to have done, to those whom the apostle describes, as _giving
themselves over to the committing of those sins_, which are contrary to
nature, Rom. i. 26. such as all men generally abhor, who do not abandon
themselves to the most notorious crimes: This is a contracting that
guilt, which is repugnant to those natural ideas of virtue and vice,
which even an unregenerate man, who has not arrived to this degree of
impiety, cannot but abhor. These are such as are not to be named among
Christians, or thought of, without the utmost regret, and an afflictive
sense of the degeneracy of human nature.
5. The last thing mentioned in this answer, in which the inward
punishment of sin, in this life, consists, is, _Horror of conscience_.
Under the foregoing instances of spiritual judgments, conscience seemed
to be asleep, but now it is awakened, and that by the immediate hand of
God, and this is attended with a dread of his wrath falling upon it:
horror and despair are the result hereof; _The arrows of the Almighty
are within him, the poison whereof drinketh up his spirit; the terrors
of God do set themselves in array against him_, Job vi. 4. and, _Terrors
take hold on him as waters; a tempest stealeth him away in the night.
The east wind carrieth him away, and he departeth; and, as a storm,
hurleth him out of his place. For God shall cast upon him, and not
spare; he would fain flee out of his hand_, chap. xxvii. 20-22.
This differs from those doubts and fears, which are common to believers,
inasmuch as it is attended with despair, and a dreadful view of God, as
a God _to whom vengeance belongeth_, and is attended, as the apostle
says, _with a certain fearful looking for of judgment, and fiery
indignation, which shall devour the adversaries_, Heb. x. 27. Before
this, he took a great deal of pains to stifle convictions of conscience,
but now he would fain do it, but cannot; which is a sad instance of the
wrath of God pouring forth gall and wormwood into it, when he says, to
use the prophet’s words, _Thine own wickedness shall correct thee, and
thy backslidings shall reprove thee_, Jer. ii. 19.
But, now we are speaking concerning horror of conscience, we must take
heed, lest we give occasion to doubting believers, who are under great
distress of soul, through a sense of sin, to apply what has been said,
to themselves, for their farther discouragement, and conclude, that this
is a judicial act of God, and a certain evidence, that they have not the
truth of grace: Therefore we may observe, that there is a difference
between this horror of conscience, which we have been describing, and
that distress of soul, which believers are often liable to, in three
respects.
(1.) The former, under horror of conscience, flee from God, as from an
enemy, and desire only to be delivered from his wrath, and not from sin,
the occasion of it; whereas the believer desires nothing so much, as
that his iniquity, which is the occasion of it, may be subdued and
forgiven, and that he may have that communion with God which he is
destitute of; and, in order thereunto, he constantly desires to draw
nigh to him in ordinances, and, if he cannot enjoy him he mourns after
him: Thus the Psalmist complaineth, as one in the utmost degree of
distress, _Thy wrath lieth hard upon me, and thou hast afflicted me with
all thy waves_, Psal. lxxxviii. 7. yet he says, _Unto thee have I cried,
O Lord, and in the morning shall my prayer prevent thee_, ver. 13.
(2.) The one reproaches God, and entertains unworthy thoughts of him, as
though he were severe, cruel, and unjust to him; whereas the other, with
an humble and penitent frame of spirit, complains only of himself,
acknowledges that there is no unrighteousness with God, and lays all the
blame to his own iniquity.
(3.) Horror of conscience, when it is judicial, seldom continues any
longer, than while a person is under some outward afflictive
dispensation of providence, under which sin is increased, and the
removal thereof leaves him as stupid as he was before: whereas it is
otherwise with a believer; for the removal of God’s afflicting hand, as
to outward troubles, will not afford him any remedy against his fears,
unless sin be mortified, and God is pleased to lift up the light of his
countenance upon him, and give him joy and peace in believing.
_Secondly_, Having considered the _inward_ punishments of sin in this
life we are now to speak something concerning those, which, in this
answer, are styled _outward_, of which some are the immediate
consequence of the first entrance of sin into the world, and others are
increased by the frequent commission thereof; the former includes in it
the curse of God upon the creature for our sakes, and our liableness to
death; the latter respects those various other evils that befal us, of
which some are personal, and others relative; accordingly, many evils
are said to befal us, in our bodies, names, estates, relations, and
employments.
1. The curse of God was denounced against the creatures, immediately
after man’s apostasy from him: This is, in part, contained in the
threatning, _Cursed be the ground for thy sake. Thorns and thistles
shall it bring forth to thee; by the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat
bread, till thou return to the ground_, Gen. iii. 17-19. and it is very
elegantly described by the apostle, who speaks of[83] _the creature as
subject to vanity, not willingly but by reason of him, who hath
subjected the same in hope_;[84] and of _the whole creation’s groaning
and travelling in pain together until now_, Rom. viii. 20-22. the
general scope and design whereof seems to be this, that it retains the
visible marks of the curse of God, which followed upon man’s sin. This I
rather think to be the sense thereof, than to suppose, as some do, that
_the creature_, here spoken of, is the Gentile world, and _the vanity_,
which they were subject to, that idolatry which they were universally
addicted to; for that does not seem to agree with what the apostle says,
when he supposes that their subjection to this vanity was not
_willingly_, neither can it well be called _the bondage of corruption_.
But if, on the other hand, we take it for that part of the creation,
which was more immediately designed for the use of man, being abused,
and so subject to that vanity, which is the consequence of his fall,
this agrees very well with its being _not willingly_; for he is speaking
here of creatures not endowed with understanding and will, yet abused by
those that are, and therefore their subjection to man’s vanity, is not
so much from themselves, as from man’s sin; and then he speaks of the
liableness of all these things to corruption, as the world is decaying
and growing toward a dissolution. How far this curse of God, on the
creature, extended itself, whether only to this lower world, or to the
heavenly bodies themselves, such as the sun, moon, and stars, I pretend
not to determine; for I desire not to extend my conjectures beyond the
line of scripture, which speaks of _the earth, as cursed for man’s
sake_; and how far the other parts of nature, are liable to corruption,
or inclined towards a dissolution, it is hard to say. All that I shall
add, on this head, is, that, when this is called a punishment, which is
consequent on man’s sin, it more especially respects man, who is the
only subject of punishment in this world: inanimate creatures are the
matter, in which he is punished, but he alone is the subject thereof.
2. There are other evils that befal us, in which we are more immediately
concerned, and these are either personal or relative; and, accordingly,
(1.) We are liable to bodily diseases, which are a continual weakness,
or decay of nature; and afterwards to death, which is the dissolution of
the frame thereof. All the pains and disorders of nature, whereby our
health is impaired, and our passage, through this world, rendered
uneasy, are the consequence of our sinful and fallen state, and, in that
respect, are sometimes styled, a punishment of sin: thus, when our
Saviour healed the man that was sick of the palsy, he intimates, that
his sickness was the consequence of sin, by the mode of expression used,
_Thy sins are forgiven thee_, Mat. ix. 2. and the Psalmist speaks of
God’s _pardoning the iniquities of his people, and healing all their
diseases_, Psal. ciii. 3. at the same time; in this respect, they are
styled, in a more large sense, a punishment of sin: but, when they have
a mixture of the wrath of God in them, and are not rendered subservient
to our good, nor included among those dispensations, which are called
fatherly chastisements, as they are not in those that are in an
unjustified state, they are, in a more proper sense, punishments of sin.
Thus the diseases that God brought on the Egyptians, are reckoned among
the plagues of Egypt, and so were a visible instance of the vindictive
justice of God. The same thing may be said of death, which is the
dissolution of the frame of nature, which is a consequence of sin, in
all, and in the most proper sense, a punishment of sin, in those, who
are liable not only to the stroke, but the sting of death, and thereby
are brought under the power of the second death.
(2.) There are many evils that befal us in our names, when we meet with
reproaches and injurious treatment, as to what concerns our character in
the world, from those who act as though their tongues were their own,
and they were not accountable to God, for those slanders and revilings,
which they load us with. We are, in this case, very ready to complain of
the injustice done us, by their endeavouring to deprive us of that,
which is equally valuable with our lives: but we ought to consider, that
sin is the cause of all this, and God’s suffering them thus to treat us,
and thereby to hinder our usefulness in the world, must be reckoned a
punishment of sin.
(3.) There are other evils that befal us in our secular concerns,
namely, our estates and employments in the world, which are entirely at
the disposal of providence, which renders us rich, or poor, succeeds, or
blasts, our lawful undertakings. This God may do, out of his mere
sovereignty, without giving an account of his matters to any one. But
yet, when we meet with nothing but disappointments, or want of success
in business, and whatever diligence, or industry, we use, appears to be
to no purpose, and adverse providences, like a torrent, sweep away all
that we have in the world, and poverty comes upon us, like an armed man,
this is to be reckoned no other than a punishment of sin.
(4.) There are other evils, which we are exposed to, in our relations,
by which we understand, the wickedness of those who are nearly related
to us, or the steps they take to ruin themselves, and cast a blemish on
the whole family to which they belong. The bonds of nature, and that
affection, which is the result thereof, render this very afflictive: and
especially when they, who are related to us, attempt any thing against
us to our prejudice, this is a circumstance that sharpeneth the edge of
the affliction. And, as it is a sin in them, which is contrary to the
dictates of nature; so sometimes we may reckon it a punishment which we
are liable to, as the consequence of our sin in general. But, if we have
occasion to reflect on our former conversation, as not having filled up
every relation with those respective duties, that it engages to; if we
have been undutiful to our parents, or unfaithful servants to our
masters, or broke the bonds of civil society, by betraying or deserting
our friends, and setting aside all those obligations which they have
laid us under; this oftentimes exposes us to afflictive evils of the
like nature, whereby the affliction we meet with in others, appears to
be a punishment of our own sin. Thus concerning the punishment of sin in
this life; from whence we may make the following remarks.
1. Whatever evils we are exposed to in this world, we ought to be very
earnest with God, that he would not give us up to spiritual judgments.
The punishments of sin, which are outward, may be alleviated and
sweetened with a sense of God’s love, and made subservient to our
spiritual and eternal advantage. But blindness of mind, hardness of
heart, and those other evils, which tend to vitiate and defile the soul,
which have in them the formal nature of punishment, these are to be
dreaded like hell; and, as we are to be importunate with God to prevent
them, so we ought to watch against those sins that lead to them; and
therefore let us take heed of being insensible, or stupid, under any
afflictive evils, as neglecting to hear the voice of God, who speaks by
them, or refusing to receive instruction by correction.
2. Let us not be too much dejected, or sink under those outward
afflictive providences, which we are liable to; for, though they be the
consequence of sin, yet, if we have ground to conclude, by faith, that
our sins are forgiven, they are not to be reckoned the stroke of
justice, demanding satisfaction, and resolving never to remove its hand
from us, till we are consumed thereby; since believers often experience,
what the prophet prays for, that God _in wrath remembers mercy_, Hab.
iii. 2.
3. Let us take heed that we do not ascribe afflictive providences to
chance, or content ourselves with a bare reflection on them, as the
common lot of man in this world, who is _born to trouble as the sparks
fly upwards_: For, this we may do, and not be humbled for that sin,
which they are designed to bring to remembrance, as they are to be
reckoned a punishment thereof.
4. Let us not murmur, or quarrel with God, as though he dealt hardly
with us, in sending afflictive evils; but rather let us bless him, how
heavy soever they appear to be, that they are not extreme, but
mitigated, and have in them a great mixture of mercy. Thus God says,
concerning the evils that he had brought upon Israel, that _in measure
he would debate with them, who stayeth his rough wind in the day of the
east wind: and by this shall the iniquity of Jacob be purged_, Isa.
xxvii. 8, 9. and, by this means, God not only afflicts us less than our
iniquities deserve, but brings good to us thereby in the end. If the
guilt of sin is taken away, we have ground to conclude, that all these
things _shall work together for good_, as he has promised they shall, to
those that _love him_. This leads us to consider,
II. The punishment of sin in the world to come. Though the wrath of God
be revealed, in many instances, in a very terrible manner, as a
punishment of sin in this life, yet there is a punishment unspeakably
greater, which sinners are liable to, in the world to come. That this
may appear, let us consider the following propositions.
1. That the soul exists after its separation from the body by death;
which is evident, from the immateriality thereof, and its being of a
different nature from the body. This was known and proved by the light
of nature; so that the very heathen, who had no other light than that to
guide them, discover some knowledge of it. But this is more plain from
scripture; as when it is said, _Fear not them which kill the body, but
are not able to kill the soul; but rather fear him, which is able to
destroy both soul and body in hell_, Matt. x. 28.
2. The soul thus existing, though separate from its body, must be
supposed to retain those powers and capacities it had, while united to
it, which are proper to it, as a spirit, and particularly as the subject
of moral government; and those powers and capacities may also be
supposed to be in it in a greater degree, when dislodged from the body,
which is a great hindrance to it in its actings, as every one sensibly
experiences; therefore it follows,
3. That it cannot but be happy, or miserable, in another world; for
there is no middle state between these two. This is farther evident from
what was observed in the last proposition, concerning the continuance
and increase of its powers and faculties, whereby it is rendered more
capable thereof, than it is now.
4. If it goes out of this world, under the weight and guilt of sin upon
it, it must retain that guilt, because there is no sacrifice for sin,
extending itself to that world; no mediator, no gospel, or means of
grace; no promises of, or way to obtain forgiveness; therefore,
5. Wicked men, whose sins are not forgiven in this world, are the
subjects of punishment in the other.
6. This punishment cannot be castigatory, or paternal, or consistent
with the special love of God, or, for their advantage, as the
punishments of the sins of believers are in this world, since it is
always expressed as the stroke of vindictive justice, demanding
satisfaction for sins committed.
7. Some are happy in a future state, namely, those who are justified;
for, _whom he justified, them he also glorified_, Rom. viii. 30. But
this is not the privilege of all; therefore they who are not justified,
or whose sins are not pardoned, are the subjects of the punishment of
sin in the world to come. This is a very awful subject, and should be
duly improved, to awaken our fears, and put us upon using those means,
which God has ordained to escape it. But I shall not, in this place,
enlarge upon it, since it is particularly insisted on under another
answer,[85] and therefore I shall only observe, that, as sin is
objectively infinite, as being against an infinite God, it deserves
eternal punishment. And therefore all the punishments inflicted on
sinners, in this world are not proportioned to it; and consequently
there are vials of wrath, reserved in store, to be poured on those, who
wilfully and obstinately persist in their rebellion against God, and the
punishment will be agreeable to the nature of the crime; so that as sin
is a separation of the heart and affections from God, and contains in it
a disinclination to converse with him, as well as unmeetness for it, the
punishment thereof will consist in a separation from his comfortable
presence, and that is to be separated from the fountain of blessedness,
which must render the soul beyond expression, miserable. This is
generally called a punishment of loss; and there is besides it, a
punishment of sense, expressed by those grievous torments, which are to
be endured in soul and body; the soul, in a moral sense, may be said to
be capable of pain, as it has an afflictive sensation of those miseries
which it endures; and the body is so in a natural sense, which, as it
has been a partner with the soul in sinning, must likewise be so in
suffering. And this farther appears inasmuch as the body endures several
pains and evils, as punishments of sin in this life, which shall be
continued, and increased in another. This is usually expressed by that
punishment, which is most terrible, namely, of fire; and the place in
which it is inflicted, is hell, and the duration thereof is to eternity.
But of these things elsewhere.[86]
Footnote 83:
χισις, means animal nature in man. The relief of the body is spoken
of.
Footnote 84:
Ver. 20. is a parenthesis, except, “_in hope_,” “_Waiteth &c. sons of
God ... in hope that the creature, &c._”
Footnote 85:
_See Quest._ lxxxix.
Footnote 86:
The faculties of the soul speak it made for eternity; particularly
conscience points to a time of retribution. The same truth may be
deduced from the holiness, justice, and even the goodness of God; from
the moral agency of man; from the course of the conduct of men; and
from the unequal administration of justice: but the solid and clear
proofs are found in the word of God. How pitiable the condition of
that man, who having spent his life without a view to a final account,
has no other hope in the hour of death, except that which is founded
upon the groundless supposition, that God will cease to be holy, just,
and true; that he will change from his original purpose, subvert the
order of his government, and surrender the demands of religion,
conscience, and reason, to save the guilty in their sins.
Humanity would lead us to entertain a secret wish, that the impenitent
should be permitted to drop into non-existence, and that the demands
of justice should be waved; but this sentiment is unadvised, and
springs from an ignorance of the demerit of sin; defective views of
the importance of rectitude in the administration of the divine
government; from imperfect conceptions of God’s perfections; from our
own interest, or from a faulty sympathy for the undeserving. Existence
is a blessing; but when prostituted to the dishonour of the Creator,
the party will not be at liberty to throw it up when he chooses, and
thus elude the demands of justice.
The minds of the unrenewed are directed prevailingly to temporal
things; a total separation from them, is, perhaps, the first sense of
punishment which is felt. They have not in life sought eternal
happiness, yet they generally have supposed it possible to be
attained, or that mercy would bestow it. The discovery of their
eternal separation from heaven, the society of the blessed, the
beatific vision of God, from fulness of joys, and rivers of pleasures,
will produce abject despair. This will be aggravated by the reflection
that they might have been happy. The blessings of providence, the
mercy of God in making provision for their recovery, the love and
compassion of Christ, the means of grace, the invitations and warnings
of the Gospel, all abused and lost, will augment their remorse to an
inconceivable degree. The malice and horrors of their cursed society
of fiends and damned spirits, will be another source of torment.
Great as these distresses may be, the separate spirits are dreading
greater evils. “_Hast thou come to torment us before the time?_” When
the judgment has passed, “_death_,” the bodies which had been dead,
“_and hell_,” the spirits which had been in Hades, “_shall be cast
into the lake of fire_.” If their bodies shall be raised spiritual,
incorruptible, and immortal, which is affirmed of the righteous; and
seems probable, because the earth will be destroyed, and they will be
associated with spirits, yet the sense of the pain, which arises from
burning, may be given and continued in them by the application of
fire, or even without it.
But that which imbitters all their distresses in the highest degree,
is, that they shall be eternal. The original words of the scripture
expressive of their perpetuity, being unrestrained by any implied or
expressed limitation, should be understood as when applied to Deity,
or the happiness of the saints. The same perpetual duration is also
shown by negation, which is the strongest language. “_The worm dieth
not, and the fire is not quenched_;” it is “_unquenchable fire_,” and
“_their end_,” (or final state,) “_is to be burned_.” We read of a sin
which shall “_not be forgiven_.” “_Not every one—shall enter into the
kingdom_;” and where Christ is, they “_cannot come_.” They will “_have
judgment without mercy_.” None of these things are true, if all men
shall be saved.
Perhaps justice required that these evils should be disclosed; but if
they be unjust, it was improper to threaten them. Our aversion to them
springs from our ignorance of the evil of sin. Nevertheless, the
sacrifice of Christ, and the warnings of scripture, speak their
extent; and the continuance of the damned in sin, establishes their
certainty.
Quest. XXX.
QUEST. XXX. _Doth God leave all mankind to perish in the state of
sin and misery?_
ANSW. God will not leave all mankind to perish in the state of sin
and misery, into which they fell by the breach of the first
covenant, commonly called, the covenant of works; but of his mere
love and mercy, delivereth his elect out of it, and bringeth them to
an estate of salvation by the second covenant, commonly called the
covenant of grace.
Hitherto we have considered man as made upright, and having many
blessings in possession, and more in expectation, according to the tenor
of the covenant he was under. We have also observed the first entrance
of sin into the world, with all those miseries that attended it; and we
are now led to speak of that inestimable display of divine love and
grace, which appears in our salvation, which is considered more
generally in this answer; wherein there is,
I. Something supposed, namely, that if God had left man in the state
into which he brought himself by sin, he would have perished for ever.
He was not only in danger of ruin and destruction, but sunk into it. He
was like a brand in the fire, that would soon have been consumed, had he
not been plucked out of it. His state was not only miserable, but
hopeless, inasmuch as he could not think of any expedient how he might
recover himself. He was guilty, and no creature could make atonement for
him; separated from the comfortable presence of God, whose terrors made
him afraid, and whose hand was heavy upon him; neither could he apply
himself to any one, who would interpose or appear in his behalf, whereby
he might be restored to the enjoyment of those privileges, which he had
forfeited and lost. What tongue can express, or heart be suitably
affected with the misery of this condition! And this would have been our
deplorable case for ever, had we been left of God in our fallen state.
But we have, in the gospel, a door of salvation opened, or glad tidings
proclaimed therein, to those who were sunk as low as hell, which is the
only spring and hope of comfort, to those who are afflicted with a sense
of their sin and misery. Accordingly, it is farther observed,
II. That God will not leave all mankind to perish in that state, but
designed to deliver his elect out of it, and bring them into a state of
salvation. That God designed not to leave mankind in this miserable
condition, appears from the discovery he has made of the way of
salvation which was contained in that promise, which God gave to our
first parents, respecting the _seed of the woman_, who was to break the
_serpent’s head_; or the Saviour’s being _manifested that he might
destroy the works of the devil_; and all the promises contained in the
gospel, are, as it were, a farther improvement on it, or a continued
declaration of God’s purpose relating to the salvation of his people.
The work of redemption wrought out by Christ, as God incarnate, was a
wonderful discovery of this great truth, that God had a design to
recover and save lost sinners; and all the gifts and graces of the
Spirit, by whom the redemption purchased by Christ, is applied, and that
joy and peace, which they have in believing, which are, as it were, the
first fruits of eternal life, these are all a convincing proof that God
determined not to leave man to perish in his fallen state. And to this
we may add, that even the malice and rage of Satan, and all the
endeavours used by him, to defeat this design, and the glorious victory
which God enables his people to obtain over him, _who are made more than
conquerors through him that loved them_; these are so many convincing
proofs, that God designed not to leave man, in his ruined condition, but
to make known to him the way of salvation; first, to make him meet for
it, and then to bring him to the possession of it.
Salvation is an inestimable privilege, containing in it all the
ingredients of blessedness, such as are adapted to the condition of
miserable sinners; and it is a very comprehensive one; which will
appear, if we consider what we are hereby delivered from, and what we
are possessed of. There is a great variety of blessings contained in the
former of these; as, we are saved from sin, namely, from the guilt
thereof in justification, and from the dominion thereof in
sanctification, and from that bondage we were liable to, whereby we were
in perpetual dread of the wrath of God, desiring to fly from his
presence, and naturally inclined to yield ourselves subjects and slaves
to his greatest enemy: all these we are delivered from. And there are
many positive blessings and privileges, which we are made partakers of;
such as, grace and peace begun here, and perfected in glory hereafter;
and these are not only such as exceed our highest desert, but tend to
make us completely and eternally happy. Here we are to consider,
1. The subjects of this privilege. Salvation is not extended to all
miserable creatures; for, fallen angels, who were the first that
rebelled against God, were left to perish, without hope of salvation,
being reserved for ever in chains under darkness. And as for fallen man,
how extensive soever the proclamation of salvation in the gospel is, as
it is now preached to all nations, and all who sit under the sound
thereof, are commanded and encouraged to press after it; yet this
privilege is applied only to those who were ordained to eternal life.
The purpose of God, relating hereunto, and the application thereof, are
joined together in that golden chain of salvation, _Whom he
predestinated, them he also called; and whom he called, them he also
justified; and whom he justified, them he also glorified_, Rom. viii.
30. But this has been more particularly considered elsewhere[87].
2. Here is the only moving cause, or reason, why God bestows this great
salvation, or why he has designed to bring any of the sons of men to it;
and that is his mere love and mercy. Salvation, whether considered in
its first rise, in God’s eternal purpose, or in the execution thereof in
the work of conversion and sanctification, as well as in the completing
of it in glorification, is ascribed to the sovereign grace and mercy of
God. Are we _Chosen in Christ to be holy_, or _predestinated to the
adoption of children by him?_ this is said to be _to the praise of the
glory of his grace_, Eph. i. 4-6. And the apostle elsewhere, when
resolving this great privilege of salvation, in all the branches of it,
namely, regeneration, renovation, and justification, into the same
original cause and ground thereof, to wit, the kindness, love, and grace
of God, excludes all those works of righteousness which we have done,
from being the inducement, or moving cause leading to it, Tit. iii. 4-7.
so that it was the grace of God that laid the foundation stone, and it
is that that brings the work to perfection.
To make this farther appear, let it be considered, that salvation must
either be of grace, or of debt; either the result of God’s free favour
to us, or it must proceed from some obligation, which he is laid under
by us, to confer this privilege upon us. Now it is certain, that it
cannot take its rise from any obligation that we can lay on him; for
whatever difference there is between the best of saints and the worst of
sinners, it is from God, and not from the sinner himself. We have
nothing but what _we first received_ from him, _of whom, and through
whom, and to whom are all things_, Rom. xi. 35, 36.
Moreover, this salvation must be conferred, in such a way, as redounds
to the glory of him, who is the author of it, whereby all the boasting
in the creature is excluded, and therefore it cannot take its rise from
any thing done by us; it is _not of works, lest any man should boast_,
Eph. ii. 9. And, indeed, this is contrary to the main design of the
gospel, which is, that no flesh should glory in his presence. And the
circumstances in which those are, who are said to be the objects of
salvation, are such as argue it to be altogether of grace; for, whom did
the Son of Man come to seek and to save, but them that were lost? or, to
whom was the way of salvation discovered, but to those who were going
astray from God, and were neither inclined to return to him, nor apply
themselves to any one, who might direct them how to regain his lost
favour? And, if they had, it would have been to no purpose; since no
creature could make known the way of salvation, any more than apply the
blessings contained therein.
Were man only to be considered as a creature, and so not properly the
object of salvation, which is no other than a lost sinner; or did he
expect nothing else but some effects of common goodness, or the
blessings of nature, he could not expect them in a way of merit; for
that is contrary to the dependance of the creature on God; therefore the
blessings of Providence must be considered as the result of his free
favour. And were man in a sinless state, and able to perform perfect
obedience, as he was at first, his ability hereunto must be supposed to
be an unmerited favour; and accordingly the obedience performed would be
no other than a just debt due to God, and therefore would afford him no
plea, from any merit of condignity, for the conferring any privilege, as
a reward thereof: this therefore, must be the result of the divine
favour.
But, when we consider him as a sinner, he is altogether unable to do
what is good; and therefore, if salvation were entirely to depend on our
performing obedience, so that any failure therein would deprive us of
it, we should never attain it; for this obedience would be so imperfect,
that God could not, in honour, accept of it. But alas! fallen man is so
far from any disposition, or inclination to perform obedience, that his
heart is naturally averse to it; _The carnal mind is enmity against God;
for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be_, Rom.
viii. 7. If therefore, such an one is saved, and that in such a way,
that God is pleased to love him, and manifest himself to him, it must be
a wonderful instance of divine grace, which no one, who has experienced
it, can think on, but with admiration, especially when considering how
discriminating it is; as one of Christ’s disciples said unto him, _How
is it that thou wilt manifest thyself unto us, and not unto the world?_
John xiv. 22.
3. Having considered salvation, as designed for all the elect, we
proceed to consider the means of their attaining it; or their being
brought into a state of salvation by the second covenant, commonly
called the covenant of grace. As salvation is ascribed to the grace of
God; so it is an instance of condescending goodness, that our faith,
relating hereunto, should be confirmed by such a dispensation, as is
generally styled a covenant. Thus David, speaking concerning it, says,
_He hath made with me an everlasting covenant, ordered in all things,
and sure; for this is all my salvation, and all my desire_, 2 Sam.
xxiii. 5. This covenant, as to what respects the parties concerned
therein, and the manner in which the grace of God is displayed in it,
together with the various dispensations, or administrations thereof, is
particularly considered under the five following answers. The only
thing, that remains to be insisted on in this, is its being called the
_Second Covenant_, as opposed to the covenant of works, which is styled
the _First_. The covenant of works has been considered under a foregoing
answer[88]; and therefore all that I shall observe, concerning it, at
present, is, that though life was promised therein, as including all
those blessings, which were suited to the state of man in innocency, yet
there was no promise of salvation in it, which is the restoring of
forfeited blessings, or a recovery from a state of death and ruin. In
this respect, the covenant of grace is opposed to it.
Again, though Adam was the head of that covenant, whose obedience, or
apostacy, would convey life or death to all his posterity, whom he
represented, yet he stood not in the relation of a Mediator, or surety,
to them, for that was inconsistent with the dispensation he was under,
and is applicable to no other covenant, than that which we are
considering, as thus opposed to it.
Moreover, perfect obedience was demanded, as a condition of man’s
attaining life, and this he was thoroughly furnished to perform;
whereas, in the covenant of grace, if God should insist on our
performing perfect obedience, the condition would be in its own nature
impossible, and therefore we should hereby rather be excluded from, than
brought into a state of salvation; and whatever obedience we are engaged
to perform, as expectants of salvation, this is entirely owing to the
grace of God, by which _we are what we are_, as well as attain to the
blessings we hope for: Herein the covenant of works, and the covenant of
grace, differ.
The next thing that we are to observe, is, that the covenant of grace is
called the _Second Covenant_; and this leads us to enquire, whether we
have any ground, from scripture, to conclude, that there are more
covenants than these two; or, at least, whether what we call the _Second
Covenant_, or the covenant of grace, may not be subdivided into two
covenants; since the apostle seems to speak of two covenants made with
fallen man, _viz._ one that was made with the Israelites, given from
mount Sinai, which was designed to continue no longer than that
dispensation they were under, lasted; and the other is, that which the
church has been under, ever since the gospel dispensation was erected,
which is to continue to the end of the world. These are described by
their respective properties, in an allegorical way, and illustrated by a
similitude, taken from two mountains, Sinai and Sion; and two persons,
mentioned in scripture, Agar and Sarah: The former of these is said _to
gender unto bondage_; the latter brings those, who are under it into a
state of liberty, Gal. iv. 24. _& seq._ and one of these covenants is
said to be better than the other, and particularly called a new
covenant; the other is represented as _decaying, waxing old, and ready
to vanish away_, Heb. viii. 6, 8, 13.
Moreover, the apostle seems to speak of more covenants than one, made
with the Jewish church; for he says, that _to them pertaineth the
adoption, and the glory, and the covenants_, Rom. ix. 4. &c. and
elsewhere, speaking concerning the Gentiles, as _aliens from the
commonwealth of Israel_, he adds, that _they were also strangers from
the covenants of promise_, Eph. ii. 12. which seems to argue, that there
were more than two covenants with man; one with innocent man; the other,
the gospel-covenant, which we are under; and, besides these, there were
other covenants, made with Israel, which seems to carry in it the
appearance of an objection, to what was before observed, that there was,
in reality, but two covenants, and that whenever we read of any covenant
in scripture, it is reducible to one of them.
This may, without much difficulty, be accounted for, consistently
therewith, if we consider the sense of those scriptures above mentioned.
_First_, As to those scriptures, that seem to speak of two distinct
covenants, made with fallen man, to wit, one with the Israelites, the
other, that which we are under, they really intend nothing more than two
different dispensations of the covenant of grace; in which sense we are
to understand the apostle, when he speaks of the two covenants, the
_Old_ and the _New_, the _First_ and the _Second_: the covenant is the
same, though the dispensation of the grace of God therein, or the way of
revealing it to men, differs. But this will be more particularly
insisted on in those following answers, which respect the various
administrations of grace, under the Old and New Testament; therefore we
proceed,
_Secondly_, To enquire into the meaning of those other scriptures,
before-mentioned, which seem to speak of more covenants than one, which
the Jewish nation was under. By the covenants there mentioned, the
apostle seems to refer to some different times, or periods of the
church, before our Saviour’s incarnation, of which some divines take
notice of four; in each of which, there was something new and distinct
from the rest, in the dispensation of divine providence towards the
church. The first of these took its rise from the promise which God gave
to man, as soon as he fell, relating to that salvation, which was to be
brought about, in its proper time, by the seed of the woman. The second
period of the church began after the flood, when God is said to have
revealed his covenant to Noah, which he _established between him and all
flesh upon the earth_, Gen. ix. 17. A third remarkable period, or change
of affairs in the church, was, when God called Abraham out of an
idolatrous country, _to sojourn in the land of promise, as in a strange
country_, at which time he established his covenant with him, promising
to be a _God to him, and his seed_, and instituting _circumcision as a
token thereof_, Gen. xvii. 7-11. upon which occasion, this particular
dispensation thereof is called, _The covenant of circumcision_, Acts
vii. 8. The fourth and last dispensation, or period, which more
especially respected the seed of Abraham, as increased to a great
nation, is what we read of, soon after they were delivered from the
Egyptian bondage, when God was pleased to separate that nation, as a
peculiar people to himself, and sent Moses from mount Sinai, where he
appeared to them, to demand their explicit consent to be his people;
upon which occasion, when they had promised, that all that _the Lord had
said, they would do and be obedient_, and a public and solemn _sacrifice
was offered_, and the people _sprinkled with the blood thereof_, it is
said, _They saw God, and did eat and drink_, as a farther sign and
ratification of this dispensation of the covenant, Exod. xxiv. 1-11. and
afterwards many statutes and ordinances were given them, containing
those laws, which God required of them, as a covenant people; and this
continued till the gospel-dispensation, which succeeded it, was erected.
This seems to be the meaning of what the apostle speaks, in the
scriptures before cited, when he says, that the church of the Jews had
the covenants, as intending nothing else thereby, but the dispensation
of the covenant of grace, as subdivided into several periods, during the
various ages of the church, from the fall of Adam to our recovery by
Christ. Therefore, though those dispensations were various, yet whatever
God has transacted with man, in a federal way, may be considered under
two general heads; the first called the covenant of works; the other,
the covenant of grace; the latter of which is to be farther considered,
under the following answers.
Footnote 87:
_See_ Vol. I. _Page 462._
Footnote 88:
_See Quest._ xx. _Page 70. Ante._
Quest. XXXI.