many embassies to ask him to return, telling him that their kings had
indeed the royal name and state, but nothing else to distinguish them
from the common people, and that he alone had the spirit of a ruler and
the power to influence men's minds. Even the kings desired his presence,
as they hoped that he would assist in establishing their authority and
would render the masses less insolent. Returning to a people in this
condition, he at once began alterations and reforms on a sweeping scale,
considering that it was useless and unprofitable to do such work by
halves, but that, as in the case of a diseased body, the original cause
of the disorder must be burned out or purged away, and the patient begin
an entirely new life. After reflecting on this, he made a journey to
Delphi. Here he sacrificed to the god, and, on consulting the oracle,
received that celebrated answer in which the Pythia speaks of him as
beloved by the gods, and a god rather than a man, and when he asked for
a good system of laws, answered that the god gives him what will prove
by far the best of all constitutions. Elated by this he collected the
leading men and begged them to help him, first by talking privately to
his own friends, and thus little by little obtaining a hold over more
men and banding them together for the work. When the time was ripe for
the attempt, he bade thirty of the nobles go into the market-place early
in the morning completely armed, in order to overawe the opposition. The
names of twenty of the most distinguished of these men have been
preserved by Hermippus, but the man who took the greatest part in all
Lykurgus's works, and who helped him in establishing his laws, was
Arthmiades. At first King Charilaus was terrified at the confusion,
imagining that a revolt had broken out against himself, and fled for
refuge to the temple of Minerva of the Brazen House; but, afterward
reassured and having received solemn pledges for his safety, returned
and took part in their proceedings. He was of a gentle nature, as is
proved by the words of his colleague, King Archelaus, who, when some
were praising the youth, said, "How can Charilaus be a good man, if he
is not harsh even to wicked men?"
Of Lykurgus's many reforms, the first and most important was the
establishment of the Council of Elders, which Plato says by its
admixture cooled the high fever of royalty, and, having an equal vote
with the kings on vital points, gave caution and sobriety to their
deliberations. For the state, which had hitherto been wildly oscillating
between despotism on the one hand and democracy on the other, now, by
the establishment of the Council of the Elders, found a firm footing
between these extremes, and was able to preserve a most equable balance,
as the eight-and-twenty elders would lend the kings their support in the
suppression of democracy, but would use the people to suppress any
tendency to despotism. Twenty-eight is the number of Elders mentioned by
Aristotle, because of the thirty leading men who took the part of
Lykurgus two deserted their post through fear. But Sphairus says that
those who shared his opinions were twenty-eight originally. A reason may
be found in twenty-eight being a mystic number, formed by seven
multiplied by four, and being the first perfect number after six, for
like that, it is equal to all its parts.[A] But I think that he probably
made this number of elders, in order that with the two kings the council
might consist of thirty members in all.
[Footnote A: 14, 2, 7, 4, 1, make by addition 28; as 3, 2, and 1 make
6.]
VI. Lykurgus was so much interested in this council as to obtain from
Delphi an oracle about it, called the _rhetra_, which runs as follows:
"After you have built a temple to Zeus of Greece and Athene of Greece,
and have divided the people into _tribes_ and _obes_, you shall found a
council of thirty, including the chiefs, and shall from season to season
_apellazein_ the people between Babyka and Knakion, and there propound
measures and divide upon them, and the people shall have the casting
vote and final decision." In these words tribes and obes are divisions
into which the people were to be divided; the chiefs mean the kings;
_apellazein_ means to call an assembly, in allusion to Apollo, to whom
the whole scheme of the constitution is referred. Babyka and Knakion
they now call Oinous; but Aristotle says that Knakion is a river and
Babyka a bridge. Between these they held their assemblies, without any
roof or building of any kind; for Lykurgus did not consider that
deliberations were assisted by architecture, but rather hindered, as
men's heads were thereby filled with vain unprofitable fancies, when
they assemble for debate in places where they can see statues and
paintings, or the proscenium of a theatre, or the richly ornamented roof
of a council chamber. When the people were assembled, he permitted no
one to express an opinion; but the people was empowered to decide upon
motions brought forward by the kings and elders. But in later times, as
the people made additions and omissions, and so altered the sense of the
motions before them, the kings, Polydorus and Theopompus, added these
words to the _rhetra_, "and if the people shall decide crookedly, the
chiefs and elders shall set it right." That is, they made the people no
longer supreme, but practically excluded them from any voice in public
affairs, on the ground that they judged wrongly. However these kings
persuaded the city that this also was ordained by the god. This is
mentioned by Tyrtaeus in the following verses:
"They heard the god, and brought from Delphi home,
Apollo's oracle, which thus did say:
That over all within fair Sparta's realm
The royal chiefs in council should bear sway,
The elders next to them, the people last;
If they the holy _rhetra_ would obey."
VII. Though Lykurgus had thus mixed the several powers of the state, yet
his successors, seeing that the powers of the oligarchy were unimpaired,
and that it was, as Plato calls it, full of life and vigour, placed as a
curb to it the power of the Ephors. The first Ephors, of whom Elatus was
one, were elected about a hundred and thirty years after Lykurgus, in
the reign of Theopompus. This king is said to have been blamed by his
wife because he would transmit to his children a less valuable crown
than he had received, to which he answered: "Nay, more valuable, because
more lasting." In truth, by losing the odium of absolute power, the King
of Sparta escaped all danger of being dethroned, as those of Argos and
Messene were by their subjects, because they would abate nothing of
their despotic power. The wisdom of Lykurgus became clearly manifest to
those who witnessed the revolutions and miseries of the Argives and
Messenians, who were neighbouring states and of the same race as the
Spartans, who, originally starting on equal terms with them, and indeed
seeming in the allotment of their territories to have some advantage,
yet did not long live happily, but the insolent pride of the kings and
the unruly temper of the people together resulted in a revolution, which
clearly proved that the checked and balanced constitution established
among the Spartans was a divine blessing for them. But of this more
hereafter.
VIII. The second and the boldest of Lykurgus's reforms was the
redistribution of the land. Great inequalities existed, many poor and
needy people had become a burden to the state, while wealth had got into
a very few hands. Lykurgus abolished all the mass of pride, envy, crime,
and luxury which flowed from those old and more terrible evils of riches
and poverty, by inducing all land-owners to offer their estates for
redistribution, and prevailing upon them to live on equal terms one with
another, and with equal incomes, striving only to surpass each other in
courage and virtue, there being henceforth no social inequalities among
them except such as praise or blame can create.
Putting his proposals immediately into practice, he divided the outlying
lands of the state among the Perioeki, in thirty thousand lots, and that
immediately adjoining the metropolis among the native Spartans, in nine
thousand lots, for to that number they then amounted. Some say that
Lykurgus made six thousand lots, and that Polydorus added three thousand
afterwards; others that he added half the nine thousand, and that only
half was allotted by Lykurgus.
Each man's lot was of such a size as to supply a man with seventy
medimni of barley, and his wife with twelve, and oil and wine in
proportion; for thus much he thought ought to suffice them, as the food
was enough to maintain them in health, and they wanted nothing more. It
is said that, some years afterwards, as he was returning from a journey
through the country at harvest-time, when he saw the sheaves of corn
lying in equal parallel rows, he smiled, and said to his companions that
all Laconia seemed as if it had just been divided among so many
brothers.
IX. He desired to distribute furniture also, in order completely to do
away with inequality; but, seeing that actually to take away these
things would be a most unpopular measure, he managed by a different
method to put an end to all ostentation in these matters. First of all
he abolished the use of gold and silver money, and made iron money alone
legal; and this he made of great size and weight, and small value, so
that the equivalent for ten minae required a great room for its stowage,
and a yoke of oxen to draw it. As soon as this was established, many
sorts of crime became unknown in Lacedaemon. For who would steal or take
as a bribe or deny that he possessed or take by force a mass of iron
which he could not conceal, which no one envied him for possessing,
which he could not even break up and so make use of; for the iron when
hot was, it is said, quenched in vinegar, so as to make it useless, by
rendering it brittle and hard to work?
After this, he ordered a general expulsion of the workers in useless
trades. Indeed, without this, most of them must have left the country
when the ordinary currency came to an end, as they would not be able to
sell their wares: for the iron money was not current among other Greeks,
and had no value, being regarded as ridiculous; so that it could not be
used for the purchase of foreign trumpery, and no cargo was shipped for
a Laconian port, and there came into the country no sophists, no
vagabond soothsayers, no panders, no goldsmiths or workers in silver
plate, because there was no money to pay them with. Luxury, thus cut off
from all encouragement, gradually became extinct; and the rich were on
the same footing with other people, as they could find no means of
display, but were forced to keep their money idle at home. For this
reason such things as are useful and necessary, like couches and tables
and chairs, were made there better than anywhere else, and the Laconian
cup, we are told by Kritias, was especially valued for its use in the
field. Its colour prevented the drinker being disgusted by the look of
the dirty water which it is sometimes necessary to drink, and it was
contrived that the dirt was deposited inside the cup and stuck to the
bottom, so as to make the drink cleaner than it would otherwise have
been. These things were due to the lawgiver; for the workmen, who were
not allowed to make useless things, devoted their best workmanship to
useful ones.
X. Wishing still further to put down luxury and take away the desire for
riches, he introduced the third and the most admirable of his reforms,
that of the common dining-table. At this the people were to meet and
dine together upon a fixed allowance of food, and not to live in their
own homes, lolling on expensive couches at rich tables, fattened like
beasts in private by the hands of servants and cooks, and undermining
their health by indulgence to excess in every bodily desire, long sleep,
warm baths, and much repose, so that they required a sort of daily
nursing like sick people. This was a great advantage, but it was a
greater to render wealth valueless, and, as Theophrastus says, to
neutralise it by their common dining-table and the simplicity of their
habits. Wealth could not be used, nor enjoyed, nor indeed displayed at
all in costly apparatus, when the poor man dined at the same table with
the rich; so that the well-known saying, that "wealth is blind and lies
like a senseless log," was seen to be true in Sparta alone of all cities
under heaven. Men were not even allowed to dine previously at home, and
then come to the public table, but the others, watching him who did not
eat or drink with them, would reproach him as a sensual person, too
effeminate to eat the rough common fare.
For these reasons it is said that the rich were bitterly opposed to
Lykurgus on this question, and that they caused a tumult and attacked
him with shouts of rage. Pelted with stones from many hands, he was
forced to run out of the market-place, and take sanctuary in a temple.
He outstripped all his pursuers except one, a hot-tempered and spirited
youth named Alkander, who came up with him, and striking him with a club
as he turned round, knocked out his eye. Lykurgus paid no heed to the
pain, but stood facing the citizens and showed them his face streaming
with blood, and his eye destroyed. All who saw him were filled with
shame and remorse. They gave up Alkander to his mercy, and conducted him
in procession to his own house, to show their sympathy. Lykurgus thanked
them and dismissed them, but took Alkander home with him. He did him no
harm and used no reproachful words, but sent away all his servants and
bade him serve him. Alkander, being of a generous nature, did as he was
ordered, and, dwelling as he did with Lykurgus, watching his kind
unruffled temper, his severe simplicity of life, and his unwearied
labours, he became enthusiastic in his admiration of him, and used to
tell his friends and acquaintances that Lykurgus, far from being harsh
or overbearing, was the kindest and gentlest of men. Thus was Alkander
tamed and subdued, so that he who had been a wicked and insolent youth
was made into a modest and prudent man.
As a memorial of his misfortune, Lykurgus built the temple of Athene,
whom he called Optilitis, for the Dorians in that country call the eyes
_optiloi_. Some writers, however, among whom is Dioskorides, who wrote
an 'Account of the Spartan Constitution,' say that Lykurgus was struck
upon the eye, but not blinded, and that he built this temple as a
thank-offering to the goddess for his recovery.
At any rate, it was in consequence of his mishap that the Spartans
discontinued the habit of carrying staffs when they met in council.
XI. The Cretans call this institution of taking meals in common
_andreia_, which means _men's_ repast; but the Lacedaemonians call it
_phiditia_, which can either be explained as another form of _philia_,
friendship, putting a _d_ for an _l_, from the friendly feelings which
prevailed at them, or else because it accustomed them to frugality,
which is called _pheido_. Possibly the first letter was an addition, and
the word may have originally been _editia_, from _edodé_, food.
They formed themselves into messes of fifteen, more or less. Each member
contributed per month a _medimnus_ of barley, eight measures of wine,
five minas' weight of cheese, and half as much of figs; and in addition
to this a very small sum of money to buy fish and other luxuries for a
relish to the bread. This was all, except when a man had offered a
sacrifice, or been hunting, and sent a portion to the public table. For
persons were allowed to dine at home whenever they were late for dinner
in consequence of a sacrifice or a hunting expedition, but the rest of
the company had to be present. This custom of eating in common lasted
for very many years. When King Agis returned from his victorious
campaign against the Athenians, and wished to dine at home with his
wife, he sent for his share of the public dinner, and the polemarchs
refused to let him have it. As next day, through anger, he did not offer
the customary sacrifice, they fined him. Boys were taken to the public
tables, as though they were schools of good manners; and there they
listened to discourses on politics, and saw models of gentlemanly
behaviour, and learned how to jest with one another, joking without
vulgarity, and being made the subjects of jokes without losing their
temper. Indeed, it was considered peculiarly Laconian to be able to take
a joke; however, if the victim could not, he was entitled to ask that it
should go no farther. As they came in, the eldest present said to each
man, pointing to the door, "Through this no tale passes."
It is said that they voted for a new member of a mess in this manner.
Each man took a piece of bread crumb and threw it in silence into a
vessel, which a servant carried on his head. Those who voted for the new
member threw in their bread as it was, those who voted against, crushed
it flat in their hands. If even one of these crushed pieces be found,
they rejected the candidate, as they wished all members of the society
to be friendly. The candidate was said to be rejected by the
_kaddichus_, which is their name for the bowl into which the bread is
thrown.
The "black broth" was the most esteemed of their luxuries, insomuch that
the elder men did not care for any meat, but always handed it over to
the young, and regaled themselves on this broth. It is related that, in
consequence of the celebrity of this broth, one of the kings of Pontus
obtained a Laconian cook, but when he tasted it he did not like it. His
cook thereupon said, "O king, those who eat this broth must first bathe
in the Eurotas." After drinking wine in moderation the guests separate,
without any torches; for it is not permitted to walk with a light on
this or any other occasion, in order that they may accustom themselves
to walk fearlessly and safely in the dark. This then is the way in which
the common dining-tables are managed.
XII. Lykurgus did not establish any written laws; indeed, this is
distinctly forbidden by one of the so-called Rhetras.
He thought that the principles of most importance for the prosperity and
honour of the state would remain most securely fixed if implanted in the
citizens by habit and training, as they would then be followed from
choice rather than necessity; for his method of education made each of
them into a lawgiver like himself. The trifling conventions of everyday
life were best left undefined by hard-and-fast laws, so that they might
from time to time receive corrections or additions from men educated in
the spirit of the Lacedaemonian system. On this education the whole
scheme of Lykurgus's laws depended. One _rhetra_, as we have seen,
forbade the use of written laws. Another was directed against
expenditure, and ordered that the roof of every house should consist of
beams worked with the axe, and that the doors should be worked with the
saw alone, and with no other tools. Lykurgus was the first to perceive
the truth which Epameinondas is said in later times to have uttered
about his own table, when he said that "such a dinner has no room for
treachery." He saw that such a house as that has no place for luxury and
expense, and that there is no man so silly and tasteless as to bring
couches with silver feet, purple hangings, or golden goblets into a
simple peasant's house, but that he would be forced to make his
furniture match the house, and his clothes match his furniture, and so
on. In consequence of this it is said that the elder Leotychides when
dining in Corinth, after looking at a costly panelled ceiling, asked his
host whether the trees grew square in that country. A third _rhetra_ of
Lykurgus is mentioned, which forbids the Spartans to make war frequently
with the same people, lest by constant practice they too should become
warlike. And this especial accusation was subsequently brought against
King Agesilaus in later times, that, by his frequent and long-continued
invasions of Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match for the
Lacedaemonians; for which cause Antalkidas, when he saw him wounded,
said, "The Thebans pay you well for having taught them to fight, which
they were neither willing nor able to do before."
Maxims of this sort they call _rhetras_, which are supposed to have a
divine origin and sanction.
XIII. Considering education to be the most important and the noblest
work of a lawgiver, he began at the very beginning, and regulated
marriages and the birth of children. It is not true that, as Aristotle
says, he endeavoured to regulate the lives of the women, and failed,
being foiled by the liberty and habits of command which they had
acquired by the long absences of their husbands on military expeditions,
during which they were necessarily left in sole charge at home,
wherefore their husbands looked up to them more than was fitting,
calling them Mistresses; but he made what regulations were necessary for
them also. He strengthened the bodies of the girls by exercise in
running, wrestling, and hurling quoits or javelins, in order that their
children might spring from a healthy source and so grow up strong, and
that they themselves might have strength, so as easily to endure the
pains of childbirth. He did away with all affectation of seclusion and
retirement among the women, and ordained that the girls, no less than
the boys, should go naked in processions, and dance and sing at
festivals in the presence of the young men. The jokes which they made
upon each man were sometimes of great value as reproofs for ill-conduct;
while, on the other hand, by reciting verses written in praise of the
deserving, they kindled a wonderful emulation and thirst for distinction
in the young men: for he who had been praised by the maidens for his
valour went away congratulated by his friends; while, on the other hand,
the raillery which they used in sport and jest had as keen an edge as a
serious reproof; because the kings and elders were present at these
festivals as well as all the other citizens. This nakedness of the
maidens had in it nothing disgraceful, as it was done modestly, not
licentiously, producing simplicity, and teaching the women to value good
health, and to love honour and courage no less than the men. This it was
that made them speak and think as we are told Gorgo, the wife of
Leonidas, did. Some foreign lady, it seems, said to her, "You Laconian
women are the only ones that rule men." She answered, "Yes; for we alone
bring forth men."
XIV. These were also incentives to marriage, I mean these processions,
and strippings, and exercises of the maidens in the sight of the young
men, who, as Plato says, are more swayed by amorous than by mathematical
considerations; moreover, he imposed certain penalties on the unmarried
men. They were excluded from the festival of the Gymnopaedia, in honour
of Athene; and the magistrates ordered them during winter to walk naked
round the market-place, and while doing so to sing a song written
against themselves, which said that they were rightly served for their
disobedience to the laws; and also they were deprived of the respect and
observance paid by the young to the elders.
Thus it happened that no one blamed the young man for not rising before
Derkyllidas, famous general as he was. This youth kept his seat, saying,
"You have not begotten a son to rise before me."
Their marriage custom was for the husband to carry off his bride by
force. They did not carry off little immature girls, but grown up women,
who were ripe for marriage. After the bride had been carried off the
bridesmaid received her, cut her hair close to her head, dressed her in
a man's cloak and shoes, and placed her upon a couch in a dark chamber
alone. The bridegroom, without any feasting and revelry, but as sober as
usual, after dining at his mess, comes into the room, looses her virgin
zone, and, after passing a short time with her, retires to pass the
night where he was wont, with the other young men. And thus he
continued, passing his days with his companions, and visiting his wife
by stealth, feeling ashamed and afraid that any one in the house should
hear him, she on her part plotting and contriving occasions for meeting
unobserved. This went on for a long time, so that some even had children
born to them before they ever saw their wives by daylight. These
connections not only exercised their powers of self-restraint, but also
brought them together with their bodies in full vigour and their
passions unblunted by unchecked intercourse with each other, so that
their passion and love for each other's society remained unextinguished.