THE KNIGHT'S EDUCATION.
The manner of bringing up a youth of good family in the Middle Ages was
not to send him to a public school and the university, nor to keep him at
home under a private tutor, but to put him into the household of some
nobleman or knight of reputation to be trained up in the principles and
practices of chivalry.[382] First, as a page, he attended on the ladies of
the household, and imbibed the first principles of that high-bred courtesy
and transcendental devotion to the sex which are characteristic of the
knight. From the chaplain of the castle he gained such knowledge of
book-learning as he was destined to acquire--which was probably more
extensive than is popularly supposed. He learnt also to sing a romance,
and accompany himself on the harp, from the chief of the band of minstrels
who wore his lord's livery. As a squire he came under the more immediate
supervision of his lord; was taught by some experienced old knight or
squire to back a horse and use his weapons; and was stirred to emulation
by constant practice with his fellow-squires. He attended upon his lord in
time of peace, carved his meat and filled his cup, carried his shield or
helmet on a journey, gave him a fresh lance in the tournament, raised him
up and remounted him when unhorsed, or dragged him out of the press if
wounded; followed him to battle, and acted as subaltern officer of the
troop of men-at-arms who followed their lord's banner.
It is interesting to see how the pictures in the illuminated MSS. enable
us to follow the knight's history step by step. In the following woodcut
we see him as a child in long clothes, between the knight his father, and
his lady mother, who sit on a bench with an embroidered _banker_[383]
thrown over its seat, making an interesting family group.
[Illustration]
The woodcut on the next page shows us a group of pages imbibing chivalrous
usages even in their childish sports, for they are "playing at jousting."
It is easy to see the nature of the toy. A slip of wood forms the
foundation, and represents the lists; the two wooden knights are movable
on their horses by a pin through the hips and saddle; when pushed together
in mimic joust, either the spears miss, and the course must be run again,
or each strikes the other's breast, and one or other gives way at the
shock, and is forced back upon his horse's back, and is vanquished. This
illustration is from Hans Burgmair's famous illustrations of the life of
the Emperor Maximilian. A similar illustration is given in Strutt's
"Sports and Pastimes." A third picture, engraved in the _Archæological
Journal_, vol. ii. p. 173, represents a squire carving before his lord at
a high feast, and illustrates a passage in Chaucer's description of his
squire among the Canterbury Pilgrims, which we here extract (with a few
verbal alterations, to make it more intelligible to modern ears) as a
typical picture of a squire, even more full of life and interest than the
pictorial illustrations:--
"With him ther was his son, a younge squire,
A lover and a lusty bacheler;
His lockes crull as they were laide in presse,
Of twenty yere of age he was I guess.
Of his stature he was of even lengthe,
And wonderly deliver, and grete of strengthe.
He hadde be some time in chevachie,
In Flanders, in Artois, and in Picardie,
And borne him wel, as of so litel space,
In hope to standen in his ladies grace.
Embroidered was he, as it were a mede
Alle ful of freshe flowres, white and rede.
Singing he was or floyting alle the day,
He was as freshe as is the moneth of May.
Short was his gowne, with sleves long and wide,
Wel coude he sitte on hors, and fayre ride.
He coude songes make, and wel endite,
Juste and eke dance, and wel poutraie and write.
So hot he loved that by nightertale
He slep no more than doth a nightingale.
Curteis he was, lowly and servisable,
And carf before his fader at the table."
[Illustration]
Young noblemen and eldest sons of landed gentlemen were made knights, as a
matter of course, when they had attained the proper age. Many others won
for themselves this chivalric distinction by their deeds of arms in the
field, and sometimes in the lists. The ceremony was essentially a
religious one, and the clergy used sometimes to make a knight. In the
Royal 14. E. IV. f. 89, we see a picture of Lancelot being made a knight,
in which an abbess even is giving him the accolade by a stroke of the
hand. But usually, though religious ceremonies accompanied the initiation,
and the office for making a knight still remains in the Roman Office Book,
some knight of fame actually conferred "the high order of knighthood." It
was not unusual for young men of property who were entitled to the honour
by birth and heirship to be required by the king to assume it, for the
sake of the fine which was paid to the crown on the occasion. Let us here
introduce, as a pendant to Chaucer's portrait of the squire already given,
his equally beautiful portrait of a knight; not a young knight-errant,
indeed, but a grave and middle-aged warrior, who has seen hard service,
and is valued in council as well as in field:--
"A knight ther was, and that a worthy man,
That from the time that he firste began
To riden out, he loved chivalry,
Trouthe and honour, fredom and curtesie.
Ful worthie was he in his lorde's werre,
And thereto hadde he ridden, no man ferre,
As wel in Christendom as in Hethenesse,
And ever honoured for his worthinesse.
At Alesandre he was when it was wonne,
Ful oftentime he hadde the bord begonne,
Aboven all nations in Pruce.
* * * * *
At many a noble army hadde he be,
At mortal batailles had he been fiftene,
And foughten for our faith in Tramisene
In listes thries, and ever slaine his fo.
* * * * *
And tho that he was worthy he was wise,
And of his port as meke as is a mayde:
He never yet no vilanie had sayde
In alle his lif unto any manere wyht.
He was a very parfit gentle knight.
But for to tellen you of his arraie,
His hors was good, but he was not gaie;
Of fustian he wered a jupon,
All besmotred with his habergeon.
For he was late ycom fro his viage,
And wente for to don his pilgrimage."
Men who are in the constant habit of bearing arms are certain to engage in
friendly contests with each other; it is the only mode in which they can
acquire skill in the use of their weapons, and it affords a manly pastime.
That such men should turn encounters with an enemy into trials of skill,
subject to certain rules of fairness and courtesy, though conducted with
sharp weapons and in deadly earnest, is also natural.[384] And thus we are
introduced to a whole series of military exercises and encounters, from
the mere holiday pageant in which the swords are of parchment and the
spears headless, to the wager of battle, in which the combatants are clad
in linen, while their weapons are such as will lop off a limb, and the
gallows awaits the vanquished.
Homer shows us how the Greek battles were little else than a series of
single combats, and Roman history furnishes us with sufficient examples
of such combats preluding the serious movements of opposing armies, and
affording an augury, it was believed, of their issue. Sacred history
supplies us with examples of a similar kind. In the story of Goliath we
have the combat of two champions in the face of the hosts drawn up in
battle array. A still more striking incident is that where Abner and the
servants of Ishbosheth, and Joab and the servants of David, met
accidentally at the pool of Gibeon. "And they sat down the one on the one
side of the pool, and the other on the other. And Abner said to Joab, Let
the young men now arise and play before us. And Joab said, Let them
arise." So twelve men on each side met, "and they caught every one his
fellow by the head, and thrust his sword in his fellow's side, so they
fell down together." And afterwards the lookers-on took to their arms, and
"there was a very sore battle that day; and Abner was beaten, and the men
of Israel, before the servants of David."[385]
Our own history contains incidents enough of the same kind, from Tailefer
the minstrel-warrior, who rode ahead of the army of Duke William at
Hastings, singing the song of Roland and performing feats of dexterity in
the use of horse and weapons, and then charging alone into the ranks of
the Saxon men, down to the last young aide-de-camp who has pranced up to
the muzzle of the guns to "show the way" to a regiment to which he had
brought an order to carry a battery.
In the Middle Ages these combats, whether they were mere pageants[386] or
sportive contests with more or less of the element of danger, or were
waged in deadly earnest, were, in one shape or other, of very common
occurrence, and were reduced to system and regulated by legislation.
When only two combatants contended, it was called jousting. If only a
friendly trial of skill was contemplated, the lances were headed with a
small coronal instead of a sharp point; if the sword were used at all it
was with the edge only, which would very likely inflict no wound at all
on a well-armed man, or at most only a flesh wound, not with the point,
which might penetrate the opening of the helmet or the joints of the
armour, and inflict a fatal hurt. This was the _joute à plaisance_. If the
combatants were allowed to use sharp weapons, and to put forth all their
force and skill against one another, this was the _joute à l'outrance_,
and was of common enough occurrence.
When many combatants fought on each side, it was called a tournament. Such
sports were sometimes played in gorgeous costumes, but with weapons of
lath, to make a spectacle in honour of a festal occasion. Sometimes the
tournament was with bated weapons, but was a serious trial of skill and
strength. And sometimes the tournament was even a mimic battle, and then
usually between the adherents of hostile factions which sought thus to
gratify their mutual hatreds, or it was a chivalrous incident in a war
between two nations.
With these general introductory remarks, we shall best fulfil our purpose
by at once proceeding to bring together a few illustrations from ancient
sources, literary and pictorial, of these warlike scenes.
A MS. in the Egerton Collection, in the British Museum, gives us a
contemporary account of the mode in which it was made known to knights
ambitious of honour and their ladies' praise when and where opportunities
of winning them were to be found. The heralds-at-arms of the king, or
lord, or noble, or knight, or lady who designed to give a joust, went
forth on horseback to castle and town, and sometimes from court to court
of foreign countries, clad in their gay insignia of office, attended by a
trumpeter; and in every castle court they came to, and at every market
cross, first the trumpeter blew his blast and then the herald-at-arms made
his proclamation as follows:--"Wee herawldes of armes beryng shields of
devise, here we yeve in knowledge unto all gentilmen of name and of armys,
that there bee VI gentilmen of name and of armes that for the gret desire
and woorship that the seide VI gentilmen have, have taken upon them to bee
the third day of May next coomyng before the high and mighty redowtid
ladyes and gentilwoomen in this high and most honourable court. And in
their presence the seide six gentilmen there to appear at IX of the clock
before noone, and to juste aginst all coomers without, the seide day unto
VI of the clok at aftir noone, and then, by the advyse of the seide ladyes
and gentel women, to give unto the best juster withoute[387] a dyamaunde
of xl{li}, and unto the nexte beste juster a rubie of xx{li}, and to the
third well juster a saufir of x{li}. And on the seide day there beyng
officers of armys shewyng their mesure of theire speris garneste, that is,
cornal, vamplate, and grapers all of acise, that they shall just with. And
that the comers may take the length of the seide speirs with the avise of
the seide officers of armes that shall be indifferent unto all parties
unto the seide day."[388]
Then we have a description of the habiliments required for a knight's
equipment for such an occasion, which includes a suit of armour and a
horse with his trappings; an armourer with hammer and pincers to fasten
the armour; two servants on horseback well beseen, who are his two
squires; and six servants on foot all in one suit.
As the day approaches knights and ladies begin to flock in from all points
of the compass. Some are lodged in the castle, some find chambers in the
neighbouring town, and some bring tents with them and pitch them under the
trees in the meadows without the castle. At length the day has arrived,
and the knights are up with sunrise and bathe, and then are carefully
armed by their squires and armourers. This is so important a matter that
it is no wonder we find several minute descriptions of the way in which
every article of clothing and armour is to be put on and fastened,
illustrated with pictures of the knight in the several stages of the
process. Two such descriptions with engravings are given in the
twenty-ninth volume of the "Archæologia," taken from the work of a master
of fence, of date 1400. Another description, "How a man shall be armyed at
his ease when he shall fight on foot," is given in the Lansdowne MS. under
our notice. The same description is given in the tenth volume of the
_Archæological Journal_, p. 226, from a MS. in the possession of Lord
Hastings of the date of Henry VI., accompanied by an engraving from an
illumination in the MS. showing the knight with his legs fully armed, his
body clothed in the undergarment on which the gussets of mail are
sewed, while the rest of his armour and his weapons are arranged on a
bench beside him. The weapons are a glaive and a pole-axe, which were the
usual weapons assigned to the combatants in serious duels on foot. When
all is ready, and the company are assembled, the MS. tells us what next
takes place:--"The VI gentilmen must come into the felde unharnsyd, and
their helmys borne before them, and their servants on horseback berying
either of them a spere garneste, that is the VI speres which the seide VI
servaunts shall ride before them into the felde, and as the seide VI
gentilmen be coomyn before the ladyes and gentilwoomen. Then shall be sent
an herowde of armys up unto the ladyes and gentilwoomen, saying on this
wise: High and mighty, redowtyd, and right worchyfull ladyes and
gentilwoomen, theis VI gentilmen hav coome into your presence and
recommende them all unto your gode grace in as lowly wise as they can,
besechyng you for to geve unto the iii best justers without a diamonde,
and a rubie, and a saufir unto them that ye think best can deserve it.
Then this message is doone. Then the VI gentilmen goth into the
tellwys[389] and doth on their helmys."
[Illustration: _Preliminaries of a Combat._]
[Illustration: _Termination of the Combat._]
Then comes the jousting. Probably, first of all, each of the six champions
in turn runs one or more courses with a stranger knight; then, perhaps,
they finish by a miniature tournament, all six together against six of the
strangers. Each strange knight who comes into the field has to satisfy the
officer-at-arms that he is a "gentilman of name and of arms," and to take
oath that he has no secret weapons or unfair advantage. The woodcut
represents this moment of the story. This being ascertained, they take
their places at the opposite ends of the lists, the presiding herald cries
to let go, and they hurl together in the midst, with a clang of armour,
and a crash of broken spears, amidst the shouts of the spectators and the
waving of kerchiefs and caps. If the course be successfully run, each
breaks his lance full on the breastplate or helm of his adversary, but
neither is unhorsed; they recover their steeds with rein and spur, and
prance away amidst applause. If one knight is unhorsed, or loose his
stirrup, he is vanquished, and retires from the game. If the jousting were
not the mere sport which the MS. puts before us, but were a _joute à
l'outrance_, the next woodcut represents a very probable variation in this
point of the game.
At length, when all have run their courses, the MS. resumes its
directions: "And when the heraldes cry _à lóstel! à lóstel!_ then shall
all the VI. gentlemen within unhelme them before the seide ladies, and
make their obeisaunce, and goo home unto their lodgings and change them."
Then, continues the MS.: "The gentilmen[390] without comyn into the
presence of the ladies. Then comys foorth a lady by the advise of all the
ladyes and gentilwomen, and gives the diamounde unto the best juster
withoute, saying in this wise:--'Sir, theis ladyes and gentilwomen thank
you for your disporte and grete labour that ye have this day in their
presence. And the saide ladyes and gentilwomen seyn that ye have best just
this day; therefore the seide ladyes and gentilwomen geven you this
diamounde, and send you much joy and worship of your lady.' Thus shall be
doone with the rubie and with the saufre unto the other two next the best
justers. This doon, then shall the heralde of armys stande up all on hygh,
and shall sey withall in high voice:--'John hath well justed, Ric. hath
justed better, and Thomas hath justed best of all.' Then shall he that the
diamound is geve unto take a lady by the hande and bygene the daunce, and
when the ladyes have dauncid as long as them liketh, then spyce wyne and
drynk, and then avoide."[391]
[Illustration: _Spectators of a Tournament._]
The last woodcut, greatly reduced from one of the fine tournament scenes
in the MS. history of the Roi Meliadus, already several times quoted in
this work, shows the temporary gallery erected for the convenience of the
ladies and other spectators to witness the sports. The tent of one of the
knights is seen in the background, and an indication of the hurly-burly of
the combat below. A larger illustration of a similar scene from this fine
MS. will be given hereafter.
The next woodcut is from the MS. Life and Acts of Richard Beauchamp, Earl
of Warwick (Julius E. IV., folio 217). It represents "howe a mighty Duke
chalenged Erle Richard for his lady sake, and in justyng slewe the Duke
and then the Empresse toke the Erle's staff and bear from a knight
shouldre, and for great love and fauv{r} she sette it on her shouldre.
Then Erle Richard made one of perle and p'cious stones, and offered her
that, and she gladly and lovynglee reseaved it." The picture shows the
Duke and Earl in the crisis of the battle. It would seem from the pieces
of splintered spears, which already lie on the ground, that a previous
course had been run with equal fortune; but in this second course the
doughty Earl has just driven his lance half a yard through his
unfortunate challenger's breast. In the background we see the Emperor
Sigismund, and the Empress taking the Earl's badge from the neck of the
Earl's knight. The whole incident, so briefly told and so naïvely
illustrated, is very characteristic of the spirit of chivalry. As we close
the page the poor nameless Duke's life-blood seems to be smeared, not only
over his own magnificent armour, but over the hand of the Empress and the
Emperor's purple who presided over the scene; and while we seem to hear
the fanfaronade with which the trumpeters are cracking their cheeks, we
hear mingling with it the groan of the mighty Duke thus slain "for his
lady sake."
[Illustration: _How a mighty Duke fought Earl Richard for his Lady's
sake._]
A whole chapter might be well dedicated to the special subject of judicial
combats. We must, however, content ourselves with referring the reader to
authorities both literary and artistic, and to some anecdotes illustrative
of the subject. In the Lansdowne MS. 285, copied for Sir John Paxton, will
be found directions for the complete arming of a man who is to engage on
foot in a judicial combat, with a list of the things, such as tent, table,
chair, &c., which he should take into the field with him. The same MS.
contains (article 8) the laws of the combat--"the ordinance and forme of
fighting within listes," as settled by Thomas Duke of Gloucester,
Constable of England, in the time of Richard II. Also in Tiberius E. VIII.
there are directions for making a duel before the king. There are other
similar documents in the same book, _e.g._ Of the order of knighthood,
justs and prizes to be given thereat: The Earl of Worcester's orders for
jousts and triumphs: Declaration of a combat within lists. The MS.
Tiberius B. VIII. contains the form of benediction of a man about to
fight, and of his shield, club, and sword. For a picture of a combat on
foot in lists see Royal 16 E. IV. (MS. "Chronique d'Angleterre," written
for King Edward IV.) at f. 264.[392] In the "Archæologia," vol. xxix., p.
348-361, will be found a paper on Judicial Duels in Germany, with a series
of curious drawings of about the year 1400 A.D., representing the various
phases of the combat. Plate 31, fig. 5, shows the combatant in the act of
being armed; fig. 6, receiving Holy Communion in church before the combat.
Plate 32, fig. 2, the oath in the lists, the combatant seated armed in an
arm-chair with his attendants about him, his weapons around,
and--ominously enough--a bier standing by, covered with a pall, ready to
carry him off the ground if slain. Plate 34, fig. 2, shows the vanquished
actually being laid in his coffin; and fig. 3 shows the victor returning
thanks in church for his victory. Plate 37 is another series of subjects
showing the different positions of attack and defence with the pole-axe.
Several very good and spirited representations of these duels of the time
of our Henry VIII. may be found in the plates of Hans Burgmaier's Der
Weise Könige.
As an example of the wager of battle we will take an account of one
related by Froissart between a squire called Jaques de Grys and a knight,
Sir John of Carougne. It is necessary to the understanding of some of the
incidents of the narrative to state what was the origin of the duel. The
knight and the squire were friends, both of the household of the Earl of
Alençon. Sir John de Carougne went over sea for the advancement of his
honour, leaving his lady in his castle. On his return his lady informed
him that one day soon after his departure his friend Jaques de Grys paid a
visit to her, and made excuses to be alone with her, and then by force
dishonoured her. The knight called his and her friends together, and asked
their counsel what he should do. They advised that he should make his
complaint to the Earl. The Earl called the parties before him, when the
lady repeated her accusation; but the squire denied it, and called
witnesses to prove that at four o'clock on the morning of the day on which
the offence was stated to have been committed he was at his lord the
Earl's house, while the Earl himself testified that at nine o'clock he was
with himself at his levée. It was impossible for him between those two
hours--that is, four hours and a half--to have ridden twenty-three
leagues. "Whereupon the Erl sayd to the lady that she dyd but dreame it,
wherefore he wolde maynteyne his squyre, and commanded the lady to speke
noe more of the matter. But the knyght, who was of great courage, and well
trusted and byleved his wife, would not agree to that opinion, but he
wente to Parys and shewed the matter there to the parlyament, and there
appeled Jaques de Grys, who appered and answered to his appele." The plea
between them endured more than a year and a half. At length "the
parlyament determined that there shold be batayle at utterance between
them.... And the Kynge sent to Parys, commandynge that the journey and
batayle bytwene the squyer and the knight sholde be relonged tyl his
comynge to Parys: and so his commaundement was obeyed....
"Then the lystes were made in a place called Saynt Katheryne, behynde the
Temple. There was so moche people that it was mervayle to beholde; and on
the one syde of the lystes there was made grete scaffoldes, that the
lordes myght the better se the battayle of the ij champions; and so they
bothe came to the felde, armed at all places, and there eche of them was
set in theyr chayre."[393]
"The Erie of Saynt Poule governed John of Carougne, and the Erle of
Alanson's company with Jaques de Guys. And when the knyght entered into
the felde, he came to his wyfe who was there syttinge in a chayre, covered
in blacke, and he seyd to her thus,--Dame, by your enformacyon and in your
quarele I do put my lyfe in adventure as to fyght with Jaques le Grys; ye
knowe if the cause be just and true. Syr, sayd the lady, it is as I have
sayd; wherfore ye may fyght surely, the cause is good and true. With those
wordes the knyghte kyssed the lady and toke her by the hande, and then
blessyd her, and so entered into the felde. The lady sate styll in the
blacke chayre in her prayers to God and to the Vyrgyne Mary, humbly
prayenge them, by theyr specyall grace, to sende her husbande the vyctory
accordynge to the ryght he was in. The lady was in grete hevynes, for she
was not sure of her lyfe; for yf her husbande sholde have been discomfyted
she was judged without remedy to be brente and her husbande hanged. I
cannot say whether she repented her or not yt the matter was so forwarde,
that bothe she and her husbande were in grete peryle; howbeit fynally she
must as then abyde the adventure. Then these two champyons were set one
agaynst another, and so mounted on theyr horses and behaved them nobly,
for they knew what pertayned to deades of armes. There were many lordes
and knyghtes of France that were come thyder to se that batayle: ye two
champyons parted at theyr first metyng, but none of them dyd hurte other;
and upon the justes they lyghted on foote to performe their batayle, and
soe fought valyauntly; and fyrst John of Carougne was hurt in the thyghe,
whereby al his friendes were in grete fear; but after that he fought so
valyauntly that he bette down his adversary to the erthe, and thruste
his sworde in his body, and so slew hym on the felde; and then he
demaunded yf he had done his devoyre or not; and they answered that he had
valyauntly acheved his batayle. Then Jaques le Grys was delyvered to the
hangman of Parys, and he drew him to the gybet of Mount Faucon and there
hanged hym up. Then John of Carougne came before the Kynge and kneeled
downe and ye Kynge made hym to stand up before hym, and the same day the
kynge caused to be delyvered to hym a thousand frankes, and reteyned hym
to be of his chambre with a pencyon of ij hundred poundes by the yere
durynge the term of his lyfe; then he thanked the Kynge and the lordes,
and wente to his wyfe and kyssed her, and then they wente togyder to the
churche of Our Lady in Parys, and made theyr offerynge and then retourned
to theyr lodgynges. Then this Syr John of Carougne taryed not long in
France, but wente to vysyte the Holy Sepulture."