The doctrine of the incarnation is of fundamental importance in
Christianity. It seems almost profanation to compare it with the Hindu
teaching regarding the Avataras, or descents of Vishnu. It is difficult
to extract any meaning out of the three first manifestations, when the
god became in succession a fish, a boar, and a tortoise. Of the great
"descents" in Rama and Krishna we have already spoken. The ninth Avatara
was that of Buddha, in which the deity descended for the purpose of
deceiving men, making them deny the gods, and leading them to
destruction. So blasphemous an idea may seem hardly possible, even for
the bewildered mind of India; but this is doubtless the Brahmanical
explanation of the rise and progress of Buddhism. It was fatal error,
but inculcated by a divine being. Even the sickening tales of Krishna
and his amours are less shocking than this. When we turn from such
representations of divinity to "the Word made flesh" we seem to have
escaped from the pestilential air of a charnel-house to the sweet, pure
breath of heaven.
V.
HINDUISM IN CONTACT WITH CHRISTIANITY.
[Sidenote: Attempted reforms.]
We have used the word _reformer_ in this Tract. We formerly noted that,
in India, there have arisen from time to time men who saw and sorrowed
over the erroneous doctrines and degrading rites of the popular system.
In quite recent times they have had successors. Some account of their
work may form a fitting conclusion to our discussion.
[Sidenote: Advance of Christianity in India.]
With the large influx into India of Christian ideas it was to be
expected that some impression would be made on Hinduism. We do not refer
to conversion--the full acceptance of the Christian faith. Christianity
has advanced and is advancing in India more rapidly than is generally
supposed; but far beyond the circle of those who "come out and are
separate" its mighty power is telling on Hinduism. The great fundamental
truths of the Gospel, when once uttered and understood, can hardly be
forgotten. Disliked and denied they may be; but forgotten? No. Thus
they gradually win their way, and multitudes who have no thought of
becoming Christians are ready to admit that they are beautiful and true;
for belief and practice are often widely separated in Hindu minds.
[Sidenote: The Brahma Samaj.]
But it was to be expected that the new ideas pouring into India--and
among these we include not only distinctively Christian ideas, but
Western thought generally--would manifest their presence and activity in
concrete forms, in attempted reconstructions of religion. The most
remarkable example of such a reconstruction is exhibited in the Brahmo
Somaj (more correctly Brahma Samaj)--which may be rendered the "Church
of God."
[Sidenote: Rammohun Roy.
Effect of Christianity upon him.]
It is traceable to the efforts of a truly distinguished man, Rammohun
Roy. He was a person of studious habits, intelligent, acute, and deeply
in earnest on the subject of religion. He studied not only Hinduism in
its various forms, but Buddhism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity. He was
naturally an eclectic, gathering truth from all quarters where he
thought he could find it. A specially deep impression was made on his
mind by Christianity; and in 1820 he published a book with the
remarkable title, _The Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and
Happiness_. Very frequently he gave expression to the sentiment that the
teachings of Christ were the truest and deepest that he knew. Still, he
did not believe in Christ's divinity.
[Sidenote: Debendernath Tagore.
Keshub Chunder Sen.
Formation of a new Samaj.]
In January, 1830, a place of worship was opened by Rammohun Roy and his
friends. It was intended for the worship of one God, without idolatrous
rites of any kind. This was undoubtedly a very important event, and
great was the interest aroused in connection with it. Rammohun Roy,
however, visited Britain in 1831, and died at Bristol in 1833; and the
cause for which he had so earnestly labored in India languished for a
time. But in the year 1841 Debendernath Tagore, a man of character and
wealth, joined the Brahmo Somaj, and gave a kind of constitution to it.
It was fully organized by 1844. No definite declaration, however, had
been made as to the authority of the Vedas; but, after a lengthened
period of inquiry and discussion, a majority of the Somaj rejected the
doctrine of their infallibility by 1850. "The rock of intuition" now
began to be spoken of; man's reason was his sufficient guide. Still,
great respect was cherished for the ancient belief and customs of the
land. But in 1858 a new champion appeared on the scene, in the
well-known Keshub Chunder Sen. Ardent, impetuous, ambitions--full of
ideas derived from Christian sources[34]--he could not brook the slow
movements of the Somaj in the path of reform. Important changes, both
religious and social, were pressed by him; and the more conservative
Debendernath somewhat reluctantly consented to their introduction.
Matters were, however, brought to a crisis by the marriage of two
persons of different castes in 1864. In February, 1865, the progressive
party formally severed their connection with the original Somaj; and in
August, 1869, they opened a new place of worship of their own. Since
this time the original or Adi Somaj has been little heard of, and its
movement--if it has moved at all--has been retrogressive. The new
Somaj--the Brahmo Somaj of India, as it called itself--under the
guidance of Mr. Sen became very active. A missionary institute was set
up, and preachers were sent over a great part of India. Much was
accomplished on behalf of women; and in 1872 a Marriage Act for members
of the Somaj was passed by the Indian legislature, which legalized union
between people of different castes, and fixed on fourteen as the lowest
age for the marriage of females. These were important reforms.
Mr. Sen's influence was naturally and necessarily great; but in opposing
the venerable leader of the original Somaj he had set an example which
others were quite willing to copy.
[Sidenote: Discontent growing.]
Several of his followers began to demand more radical reforms than he
was willing to grant. The autocracy exercised by Mr. Sen was strongly
objected to, and a constitution of the Somaj was demanded. Mr. Sen
openly maintained that heaven from time to time raises up men endowed
with special powers, and commissioned to introduce new forms or
"dispensations" of religion; and his conduct fully proved that he
regarded himself as far above his followers. Complaints became louder;
and although the eloquence and genius of Keshub were able to keep the
rebellious elements from exploding it was evident, as early as 1873,
that a crisis was approaching. This came in 1878, when Mr. Sen's
daughter was married to the Maharaja of Kuch Behar. The bride was not
fourteen, and the bridegroom was sixteen. Now, Mr. Sen had been earnest
and successful in getting the Brahmo Marriage Act passed, which ruled
that the lowest marriageable age for a woman was fourteen, and for a man
eighteen. Here was gross inconsistency. What could explain it?
"Ambition," exclaimed great numbers; "the wish to exalt himself and his
daughter by alliance with a prince." But Mr. Sen declared that he had
consented to the marriage in consequence of an express intimation that
such was the will of heaven. Mr. Sen denied miracles, but believed in
inspiration; and of his own inspiration he seems to have entertained no
doubt. We thus obtain a glimpse into the peculiar working of his mind.
Every full conviction, every strong wish of his own he ascribed to
divine suggestion. This put him in a position of extreme peril. It was
clear that an enthusiastic, imaginative, self-reliant nature like his
might thus be borne on to any extent of fanaticism.
[Sidenote: Revolt; a third Samaj.
"New Dispensation."]
A great revolt from Mr. Sen's authority now took place, and the Sadharan
Samaj was organized in May, 1878. An appeal had been made to the members
generally, and no fewer than twenty-one provincial Samajes, with more
than four hundred members, male and female, joined the new society.
This number amounted to about two thirds of the whole body. Keshub and
his friends denounced the rebels in very bitter language; and yet, in
one point of view, their secession was a relief. Men of abilities equal,
and education superior, to his own had hitherto acted as a drag on his
movements; he was now delivered from their interference and could deal
with the admiring and submissive remnant as he pleased. Ideas that had
been working in his mind now attained rapid development. Within two
years the flag of the "New Dispensation" was raised; and of that
dispensation Mr. Sen was the undoubted head. Very daring was the
language Mr. Sen used in a public lecture regarding this new creation.
He claimed equality for it with the Jewish and Christian dispensations,
and for himself "singular" authority and a divine commission.
[Sidenote: Its creed.]
In the Creed of the New Dispensation the name of Christ does not occur.
The articles were as follows:
_a._ One God, one Scripture, one Church. _b._ Eternal progress of
the soul. _c._ Communion of prophets and saints. _d._ Fatherhood
and motherhood of God. _e._ Brotherhood of man and sisterhood of
woman. _f._ Harmony of knowledge and holiness, love and work, yoga
and asceticism in their highest development. _g._ Loyalty to
sovereign.
[Sidenote: Omission of Christ's name.]
The omission of Christ's name is the more remarkable because Mr. Sen
spoke much of him in his public lectures. He had said in May, 1879,
"None but Jesus, none but Jesus, none but Jesus ever deserved this
precious diadem, India; and Jesus shall have it." But he clearly
indicated that the Christ he sought was an Indian Christ; one who was "a
Hindu in faith," and who would help the Hindus to "realize their
national idea of a yogi" (ascetic).
[Sidenote: "Motherhood of God."]
Let it be noted that, from the beginning of his career, Mr. Sen had
spoken earnestly of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of
man--though, these great conceptions are not of Hindu origin. It is
difficult to see why, in later days, he insisted so much on the
"motherhood of God." Perhaps it was a repetition--he probably would have
called it an exaltation--of the old Hindu idea, prevalent especially
among the worshipers of Siva, that there is a female counterpart--a
Sakti--of every divinity. Or, possibly, it may have been to conciliate
the worshipers of Durga and Kali, those great goddesses of Bengal.
[Sidenote: Public proclamation said to be from God.]
A public proclamation was soon issued, purporting to be from God
himself, as India's mother. The whole thing was very startling; many,
even of Keshub's friends, declared it blasphemous. Next, in the "Flag
Ceremony," the flag or banner of the New Dispensation received a homage
scarcely distinguishable from worship. Then--as if in strict imitation
of the ancient adoration of Agni, or Fire--a pile of wood was lighted,
clarified butter poured on it, and prayers addressed to it, ending
thus--"O, brilliant Fire! in thee we behold our resplendent Lord." This
was, at least, symbolism run wild; and every one, except those who were
prepared to follow their leader to all lengths, saw that in a land like
India, wedded to idolatry, it was fearfully perilous.
[Sidenote: "Apostolic Durbar."]
In March, 1881, Mr. Sen and his friends introduced celebrations which,
to Christian minds, seemed a distressing caricature of the Christian
sacraments. Other institutions followed; an Apostolic Durbar (Court of
Apostles), for instance, was established. There was no end to Mr. Sen's
inventiveness.
In a public lecture delivered in January, 1883, on "Asia's message to
Europe," he elaborately expounded the idea that all the great religions
are of Asiatic origin, and that all of them are true, and that the one
thing required to constitute the faith of the future--the religion of
humanity--is the blending of all these varied Oriental systems into one.
[Sidenote: Inconsistencies between Mr. Sen's public and private
utterances.
Mr. Sen's policy of reserve.]
It was not easy to reconcile Mr. Sen's public utterances with his
private ones--though far be it from us to tax him with insincerity.
Thus, in an interview extending over two hours, which the writer and two
missionary friends had with him a week or so before the lecture now
referred to, he said he accepted as true and vital all the leading
doctrines of the Christian faith, with the exception of the resurrection
of Christ. But another fundamental difference remained--he avowedly
dissented from the orthodox creed in rejecting the miraculous element in
Scripture. At an interview I had with him some time before he earnestly
disclaimed all intention to put Christ on a level with Buddha or
Mohammed. "I am educating my friends," he said, "to understand and
approve of Christianity; I have not yet said my last word about Christ."
It is a solemn question, Had he said it when his career was ended? If
so, it was far from a satisfactory word. His policy of reserve and
adaptation had probably kept him from uttering all that was in his
heart; but it was a sorely mistaken policy. Had he temporized less he
would have accomplished more.
Since the death of Mr. Sen there has been a violent dispute between his
family and the "Apostolic Durbar," on one side, and one of his ablest
followers, on the other; and the New Dispensation will probably split in
two, if it does not perish altogether.
[Sidenote: The Sadharan Samaj.]
In the meantime, the Sadharan Samaj, which broke off from Keshub's party
in 1878, has been going on with no small vigor. Vagaries, either in
doctrine or rites, have been carefully shunned; its partisans profess a
pure Theistic creed and labor diligently in the cause of social reform.
Their position is nearly that of Unitarian Christianity, and we fear
they are not at present approximating to the full belief of the Church
Catholic.
[Sidenote: Movements in western India.
Tenets of the Prarthana Sabha.]
Very similar in character to the Brahmo Somaj is the Prarthana Somaj in
western India. As far back as 1850, or a little earlier, there was
formed a society called the Prarthana Sabha (Prayer-meeting). Its
leading tenets were as follows:
1. I believe in one God. 2. I renounce idol-worship. 3. I will do
my best to lead a moral life. 4. If I commit any sin through the
weakness of my moral nature I will repent of it and ask the pardon
of God.
The society, after some time, began to languish; but in 1867 it was
revived under the name of Prarthana Somaj. Its chief branches are in
Bombay, Poona, Ahmedabad, and Surat.
[Sidenote: Arya Samaj.]
An interesting movement called the Arya Samaj was commenced a few years
ago by a Pandit--Dayanand Sarasvati. He received the Vedas as fully
inspired, but maintained that they taught monotheism--Agni, Indra, and
all the rest being merely different names of God. It was a desperate
effort to save the reputation of the ancient books; but, as all Sanskrit
scholars saw at a glance, the whole idea was a delusion. The Pandit is
now dead; and the Arya Samaj may not long survive him.
At the time we write we hear of an attempt to defend idolatry and caste
made by men of considerable education.
[Sidenote: Theosophists.]
The so-called "Theosophists" have, for several years, been active in
India. Of existing religions, Buddhism is their natural ally. They are
atheists. A combination which they formed with the Arya Samaj speedily
came to an end.
Lastly, the followers of Mr. Bradlaugh are diligent in supplying their
books to Indian students.
Poor India! No wonder if her mind is bewildered as she listens to such
a Babel of voices. The state of things in India now strikingly resembles
that which existed in the Roman Empire at the rise of Christianity; when
East and West were brought into the closest contact, and a great
conflict of systems of thought took place in consequence.
But even as one hostile form of gnostic belief rose after another, and
rose only to fall--and as the greatest and best-disciplined foe of early
Christianity--the later Platonism--gave way before the steady,
irresistible march of gospel truth, so--we have every reason to hope--it
will be yet again. The Christian feels his heart swell in his breast as
he thinks what, in all human probability, India will be a century, or
even half a century, hence. O what a new life to that fairest of Eastern
lands when she casts herself in sorrow and supplication at the feet of
the living God, and then rises to proclaim to a listening world
"Her deep repentance and her new-found joy!"
May God hasten the advent of that happy day!
THE RISE AND DECLINE OF ISLAM.
OUTLINE OF THE ESSAY.
The progress of Islam was slow until Mohammed cast aside the precepts of
toleration and adopted an aggressive, militant policy. Then it became
rapid. The motives which animated the armies of Islam were
mixed--material and spiritual. Without the truths contained in the
system success would have been impossible, but neither without the sword
would the religion have been planted in Arabia, nor beyond. The
alternatives offered to conquered peoples were Islam, the sword, or
tribute. The drawbacks and attractions of the system are examined. The
former were not such as to deter men of the world from embracing the
faith. The sexual indulgences sanctioned by it are such as to make Islam
"the Easy way."
The spread of Islam was stayed whenever military success was checked.
The Faith was meant for Arabia and not for the world, hence it is
constitutionally incapable of change or development. The degradation of
woman hinders the growth of freedom and civilization under it.
Christianity is contrasted in the means used for its propagation, the
methods it employed in grappling with and overcoming the evils that it
found existing in the world, in the relations it established between the
sexes, in its teaching with regard to the respective duties of the civil
and spiritual powers, and, above all, in its redeeming character, and
then the conclusion come to that Christianity is divine in its origin.
THE
RISE AND DECLINE OF ISLAM.
* * * * *
INTRODUCTION.
[Sidenote: Islam pre-eminent in its rapid spread.]
Among the religions of the earth Islam must take the precedence in the
rapidity and force with which it spread. Within a very short time from
its planting in Arabia the new faith had subdued great and populous
provinces. In half a dozen years, counting from the death of the
founder, the religion prevailed throughout Arabia, Syria, Persia, and
Egypt, and before the close of the century it ruled supreme over the
greater part of the vast populations from Gibraltar to the Oxus, from
the Black Sea to the river Indus.
[Sidenote: Propagation far quicker than of Christianity.]
In comparison with this grand outburst the first efforts of Christianity
were, to the outward eye, faint and feeble, and its extension so gradual
that what the Mohammedan religion achieved in ten or twenty years it
took the faith of Jesus long centuries to accomplish.
[Sidenote: Object of the Tract.]
The object of these few pages is, _first_, to inquire briefly into the
causes which led to the marvelous rapidity of the first movement of
Islam: _secondly_, to consider the reasons which eventually stayed its
advance; and, _lastly_, to ascertain why Mohammedan countries have kept
so far in the rear of other lands in respect of intellectual and social
progress. In short, the question is how it was that, Pallas-like, the
faith sprang ready-armed from the ground, conquering and to conquer, and
why, the weapons dropping from its grasp, Islam began to lose its
pristine vigor, and finally relapsed into inactivity.
I.
THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM.
[Sidenote: Two periods in the mission of Mohammed.]
The personal ministry of Mohammed divides itself into two distinct
periods: first, his life at Mecca as a preacher and a prophet; second,
his life at Medina as a prophet and a king.
[Sidenote: I. Ministry at Mecca, A.D. 609-622.
Success at Mecca limited.]
It is only in the first of these periods that Islam at all runs parallel
with Christianity. The great body of his fellow-citizens rejected the
ministry of Mohammed and bitterly opposed his claims. His efforts at
Mecca were, therefore, confined to teaching and preaching and to the
publishing of the earlier "Suras," or chapters of his "Revelation."
After some thirteen years spent thus his converts, to the number of
about a hundred and fifty men and women, were forced by the persecution
of the Coreish (the ruling tribe at Mecca, from which Mohammed was
descended) to quit their native city and emigrate to Medina.[35] A
hundred more had previously fled from Mecca for the same cause, and
found refuge at the court of the Negus, or king of Abyssinia; and there
was already a small company of followers among the citizens of Medina.
At the utmost, therefore, the number of disciples gained over by the
simple resort to teaching and preaching did not, during the first twelve
years of Mohammed's ministry, exceed a few hundreds. It is true that the
soil of Mecca was stubborn and (unlike that of Judea) wholly unprepared.
The cause also, at times, became the object of sustained and violent
opposition. Even so much of success was consequently, under the peculiar
circumstances, remarkable. But it was by no means singular. The progress
fell far short of that made by Christianity during the corresponding
period of its existence,[36] and indeed by many reformers who have been
the preachers of a new faith. It gave no promise whatever of the
marvelous spectacle that was about to follow.
[Sidenote: II. Change of policy at Medina, A.D. 622-632.
Arabia converted from Medina at the point of the sword.]
Having escaped from Mecca and found a new and congenial home in Medina,
Mohammed was not long in changing his front. At Mecca, surrounded by
enemies, he taught toleration. He was simply the preacher commissioned
to deliver a message, and bidden to leave the responsibility with his
Master and his hearers. He might argue with the disputants, but it must
be "in a way most mild and gracious;" for "in religion" (such was his
teaching before he reached Medina) "there should be neither violence nor
constraint."[37] At Medina the precepts of toleration were quickly cast
aside and his whole policy reversed. No sooner did Mohammed begin to be
recognized and obeyed as the chief of Medina than he proceeded to attack
the Jewish tribes settled in the neighborhood because they refused to
acknowledge his claims and believe in him as a prophet foretold in their
Scriptures; two of these tribes were exiled, and the third exterminated
in cold blood. In the second year after the Hegira[a], or flight from Mecca
(the period from which the Mohammedan era dates), he began to plunder
the caravans of the Coreish, which passed near to Medina on their
mercantile journeys between Arabia and Syria. So popular did the cause
of the now militant and marauding prophet speedily become among the
citizens of Medina and the tribes around that, after many battles fought
with varying success, he was able, in the eighth year of the Hegira[b] to
re-enter his native city at the head of ten thousand armed followers.
Thenceforward success was assured. None dared to oppose his pretensions.
And before his death, in the eleventh year of the Hegira[c], all Arabia,
from Bab-el-Mandeb and Oman to the confines of the Syrian desert, was
forced to submit to the supreme authority of the now kingly prophet and
to recognize the faith and obligations of Islam.[38]