How little exact is the learning of the _Alberuni's India (Volume 1 of 2)

prove this, is evident from the fact that among his arguments he

produces a tradition from Garga to this effect, that at the abhijit of

the equator [Page 173.] there is no shadow; for, in the first instance,

it is not true save at the two days of the equinoxes; and, secondly, if

it were true, it would not have anything to do with the subject he

tries to prove (as the question of the different length of day and

night and their divisions does not refer to the equator, where day and

night always equal each other, but only to southern or northern

latitudes of the earth).

[Dominants of the muhûrtas.] We represent the dominants of the single

muhûrtas in the following table:—

+-----------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+

|The number | The dominants of the | The dominants of the |

| the of | Muhûrtas in the day. | Muhûrtas in the night. |

| Muhûrtas. | | |

+-----------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+

| 1. |Śiva, i.e. Mahâdeva. |Rudra, i.e. Mahâdeva. |

| 2. |Bhujaga, i.e. the snake. |Aja, i.e. the lord of all |

| | | cloven-footed animals. |

| 3. |Mitra. |Ahirbudhnya, the lord of |

| | | Uttarabhadrapadâ. |

| 4. |Pitṛi. |Pûshan, the lord of Revatî. |

| 5. |Vasu. |Dasra, the lord of Aśvinî. |

| 6. |Âpas, i.e. the water. |Antaka, i.e. the angel |

| | | of death. |

| 7. |Viśva. |Agni, i.e. the fire. |

| 8. |Viriñcya, i.e. Brahman. |Dhâtṛi, i.e. Brahma the |

| | | preserver. |

| 9. |Keśvara (?), i.e. Mahâdeva. |Soma, the lord of Mṛigaśîrsha.|

| 10. |Indrâgnî. |Guru, i.e. Jupiter. |

| 11. |Indra, the prince. |Hari, i.e. Nârâyaṇa. |

| 12. |Niśâkara, i.e. the moon. |Ravi, i.e. the sun. |

| 13. |Varuṇa, i.e. the lord |Yama, the angel of death. |

| | of the clouds. | |

| 14. |Aryaman. |Tvashṭṛi, the lord of Citrâ. |

| 15. |Bhâgeya (?). |Anila, i.e. the wind. |

+-----------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+

[On the hours in Hindu astrology.] Nobody in India uses the hours

except the astrologers, for they speak of the dominants of the hours,

and, in consequence, also of dominants of the nychthemera. The dominant

of the nychthemeron is at the same time the dominant of the night, for

they do not separately establish a dominant for the day, and the night

is, in this connection, never mentioned. They arrange the order of the

dominants according to the horæ temporales.

They call the hour horâ, and this name seems to indicate that in

reality they use the horæ obliquæ temporales; for the Hindus call the

media signorum (the centres of the signs of the zodiac) horâ, which we

Muslims call nîmbahr (cf. chap. lxxx.). The reason is this, that in

each day and each night always six signs rise [Page 174.] above the

horizon. If, therefore, the hour is called by the name of the centre of

a sign, each day and each night has twelve hours, and in consequence

the hours used in the theory of the dominants of the hours are horæ

obliquæ temporales, as they are used in our country and are inscribed

on the astrolabes on account of these dominants.

This opinion is confirmed by the following sentence of Vijayanandin in

the Karaṇa-tilaka, i.e. the first of the canons. After having explained

the rule how to find the dominant of the year and of the month, he

says: “To find the horâdhipati, add the signs which have risen since

the morning to the degree of the horoscope, the whole being reckoned in

minutes, and divide the sum by 900. The quotient you get count off from

the dominant of the nychthemeron, counting the planetary spheres from

above to below. The dominant of a day you arrive at, is at the same

time the dominant of the hour.” He ought to have said, “To the quotient

you get add one, and count off the sum from the dominant of the

nychthemeron.” If he had said, “Reckon the equatorial degrees which

have risen,” &c., the calculation would have resulted in horæ

æquinoctiales.

[Names of the twenty-four horâs.] The Hindus give certain names to the

horæ obliquæ, which we have united in the following table. We think

they are taken from the book Śrûdhava.

+-------------+-----------------+------------++--------------+-----------+

| The number | Names of the | Whether || Their names | Whether |

|of the Horâs.|Horâs in the day.| favourable || in the night.| favourable|

| | | or unlucky.|| |or unlucky.|

+-------------+-----------------+------------++--------------+-----------+

| 1. | Raudra. | Unlucky. || Kâlârâtri. | Unlucky. |

| 2. | Saumya. | Lucky. || Rodhinî. | Lucky. |

| 3. | Karâla. | Unlucky. || Vairahma (?).| Lucky. |

| 4. | Sattra. | Lucky. || Trâsanîya. | Unlucky. |

| 5. | Vega. | Lucky. || Gûhanîya (?).| Lucky. |

| 6. | Viśâla. | Lucky. || Mâyâ. | Unlucky. |

| 7. | Mṛityusâra. | Unlucky. || Damarîya (?).| Lucky. |

| 8. | Śubha. | Lucky. || Jîvaharaṇî. | Unlucky. |

| 9. | Kroḍa. | Lucky. || Śoshiṇî. | Unlucky. |

| 10. | Caṇḍâla. | Lucky. || Vṛishṇî. | Lucky. |

| 11. | Kṛittikâ. | Lucky. || Dâharîya (?).| The most |

| | | || | unlucky |

| | | || | of all. |

| 12. | Amṛita. | Lucky. || Cântima (?). | Lucky. |

+-------------+-----------------+------------++--------------+-----------+

[What time is under the influence of the serpent Kulika.] The book

Vishṇu-Dharma mentions, among the nâgas or serpents, a serpent called

Nâga Kulika. Certain portions of the hours of the planets stand under

its influence. [Page 175.] They are unlucky, and everything which is

eaten during them hurts and is of no use for anything. Sick people who

treat themselves with poisonous medicines do not recover, but die and

perish. During these times no incantation is of any avail against the

bite of a snake, for the incantation consists in the mention of the

Garuḍa, and in those inauspicious times the stork himself cannot help

in any way, much less the mention of his name.

These times are represented in the following table where the planetary

hour is reckoned as consisting of 150 parts.

+-----------------+----+-----+-----+--------+--------+------+-------+

+-----------------+----+-----+-----+--------+--------+------+-------+

| Kulika | 67 | 71 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 144 | 86 |

| influence of | | | | | 2 | | |

| Kulika lasts | 16 | 8 | 37 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 64 |

| | | | | | 2 | | |

+-----------------+----+-----+-----+--------+--------+------+-------+

CHAPTER XXXV.

ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONTHS AND YEARS.

[Definition of the lunar month.] The natural month is the period of the

moon’s synodical revolution. We call it physical because it develops in

the same way as all natural phenomena, rising out of a certain

beginning like non-existence, increasing by degrees, and growing,

standing still when the climax is attained, then descending, waning

away and decreasing, till at last they return to the non-existence

whence they came. In the same manner the light develops on the body of

the moon, since she appears after the moonless nights as a crescent,

then as a young moon (after the third night), and as full moon, and

thereafter returns through the same stages to the last night, which is

like non-existence, at all events with reference to human senses. It is

well known to everybody why the moon continues for some length of time

in the moonless nights, but it is not equally known, not even to

educated people, why she continues some time as full moon. They must

learn how small the body of the moon is in comparison with that of the

sun, that in consequence the enlightened portion by far exceeds the

dark one, and that this is one of the causes why the moon must

necessarily appear as full moon for some length of time.

[Effects of moonlight.] That the moon has certain effects on moist

substances, that they are apparently subject to her influences, that,

for instance, increase and decrease in ebb and flow develop

periodically and parallel with the moon’s phases, all this is well

known to the inhabitants of sea-shores and seafaring people. Likewise

physicians are well aware that she affects the humores of sick people,

and that the fever-days revolve parallel with the moon’s course.

Physical scholars know that the life of animals and plants depends upon

the moon, and experimentalists know that she influences marrow and

brain, eggs and the sediments of wine in casks and jugs, that she

excites the minds of people who sleep in full moonlight, and that she

affects (?) linen clothes which are exposed to it. Peasants know how

the moon acts upon fields of cucumbers, melons, cotton, &c., and even

make the times for the various kinds of sowing, planting, and grafting,

and for the covering of the cattle depend upon [Page 176.] the course

of the moon. Lastly, astronomers know that meteorologic occurrences

depend upon the various phases through which the moon passes in her

revolutions.

This is the month, and twelve of them are in technical language called

a lunar year.

[Solar month.] The natural year is the period of a revolution of the

Solar sun in the ecliptic. We call it the natural, because it

comprehends all the stages in the process of generation which revolve

through the four seasons of the year. In the course of it, the rays of

the sun as passing through a window-glass and the shadows of the

sun-dials reassume the same size, position, and direction in which, or

from which, they commenced. This is the year, and is called the solar

one, in antithesis to the lunar year. As the lunar month is the twelfth

part of the lunar year, the twelfth part of the solar year is a solar

month in theory, the calculation being based on the mean rotation of

the sun. If, however, the calculation is based on his varying rotation,

a solar month is the period of his staying in one sign of the zodiac.

These are the well-known two kinds of months and years.

[On luni-solar calculation.] The Hindus call the conjunction amâvâsyâ,

the opposition pûrṇimâ, and the two quarters ATVH (?). Some of them use

the lunar year with lunar months and days, whilst others use the lunar

year but solar months, beginning with 0 degree of each zodiacal sign.

The sun’s entering a sign is called saṅkrânti. This luni-solar

calculation is, however, only an approximative one. If they constantly

used it, they would soon feel induced to adopt the solar year itself

and solar months. In using this mixed system they had only this

advantage, that they could dispense with intercalation.

[Beginning of the lunar month.] Those who use lunar months begin the

month with conjunction or new moon, and this method is the canonical

one, whilst the others begin it with the opposition or full moon. I

have heard people say that Varâhamihira does the latter, but I have not

yet been able to ascertain this from his books. The latter method is

forbidden. Still it seems as if it were rather old, because the Veda

says: “Men say the moon has become complete, and by her becoming

complete also the month has become complete. Thus they speak because

they do not know me nor the interpretation of me, for the Creator of

the world commenced creating with the white half, not with the black

half.” But possibly these words are only a saying of men (not really a

sentence taken from the Veda).

[The month counted as two halves.] The numeration of the days of the

month begins with the new moon and the first lunar day is called BRBA,

and again enumeration begins with full moon (i.e. they count twice

fifteen days, beginning with new moon and full moon). Each two days

which are equidistant from new moon or full moon have the same name (or

number). In them, light and darkness on the body of the moon are in

corresponding phases of increasing and waning, and the hours of the

rising of the moon in one day correspond to the hours of her setting in

the other. For the purpose of finding these times they use the

following calculation:—

Multiply the elapsed lunar days of the month, if they are less than 15,

or, in case they are more, the difference between them and 15, by the

number of the ghaṭîs of the night in question. Add 2 to the product,

and divide the sum by 15. Then the quotient represents the number of

ghaṭîs and minor fractions of time between the first night, and either

the setting of the moon in the night in question, one of the nights of

the white half, or the rising of the moon in the night in question, one

of the nights of the black half.

This calculation is based on the fact that the space of time between

the first night and the rising or setting of the moon in some following

night of the same lunation varies by two minutes (ghaṭî), and that the

nights vary, lasting either a little longer or a little shorter than

thirty minutes. If, therefore, you count thirty minutes for each

nychthemeron, and you divide the product by half the number of the

minutes, you get two minutes for each nychthemeron. As these two

minutes, however, agree with the difference of the nights, they

multiplied the number of nychthemera by the measure of the night, i.e.

the number of its ghaṭîs (see above, ll. 6, 7), whilst it would have

been more accurate to multiply by the half of the sum of the ghaṭîs of

the night in question and of the first night [Page 177.] of the

lunation. It is useless to add the two minutes, for they represent the

moment when the crescent of the moon first becomes visible, but if this

moment were adopted as the beginning of the month, the two minutes

would be transferred to the conjunction.

[Various kinds of months.] As months are composed of days, there are as

many kinds of months as there are kinds of days. Each month has thirty

days. We shall here use the civil day (Sâvana, v. chap. xxxiii.) as a

standard.

In agreement with the Hindu calculation of the revolutions of sun and

moon in a kalpa, a lunar month = 29189005⁄356222 nychthemera. You find

this number by dividing the sum of the days of the kalpa by the number

of its lunar months. The number of the lunar months of a kalpa

represents the difference between the revolutions of sun and moon in

it, viz. 53,433,300,000.

A month has 30 lunar days, for this number is canonical, as the number

of 360 is canonical for the number of days of a year. The solar month

has 30 solar days and 301,362,987/3,110,400 civil days.

The month of the fathers is equal to 30 of our months, and has

885163,410/178,111 civil days.

The month of the angels is equal to 30 years, and has 10,957241⁄320

civil days.

The month of Brahman is equal to 60 kalpas, and has 94,674,987,000,000

civil days.

The month of Purusha is equal to 2,160,000 kalpas, and has

3,408,299,532,000,000,000 civil days.

The month of Kha has 9,497,498,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 civil

days.

[Various kinds of years.] By multiplying each of these months by

twelve, we get the number of days of the corresponding year.

The lunar year has 35465,364/178,111 civil days.

The solar year has 365827⁄3200 civil days.

The year of the fathers has 360 lunar months, or 10,6311699/178,111

civil days.

The year of the angels has 360 of our years, or 131,4933⁄80 civil days.

The year of Brahman has 720 kalpas, or 1,136,099,844,000,000 civil

days.

The year of Purusha has 25,920,000 kalpas, or

40,899,594,384,000,000,000 civil days.

The year of Kha has 113,609,984,400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 civil

days.

The latter number is mentioned by the Hindus, although it is written in

their books that there is no [The day of Purusha.] combination of

numbers beyond the day of Purusha, for it is the first and the last,

and is without a beginning in the past and without an end in the

future. The other kinds of days, of which months and years (those of

the fathers, the angels, and Brahman) are composed, refer to beings who

stand under Purusha in the order of beings, and whose duration is

defined by certain limits of time. The day of Purusha is simply an

abstraction of the Hindu mind to denote that which is above the soul

(âtman), for they make no distinction between purusha and âtman except

in the order or sequence in which they enumerate them. They speak of

Purusha in terms resembling those of the Ṣûfîs, viz. the he is not

[Page 178.] the first, and is not something else. It is quite possible

in imagination to extend the idea of duration from the existing present

moment towards both sides, i.e. towards the past which no longer

exists, and towards the future which possibly will exist, and to

measure duration; and if some part of it admits of being determined by

days, imagination also admits reduplications of it in the guise of

months and years. In all this it is the intention of the Hindus that we

should refer the years invented by them to certain periods of life,

beginning with the coming into existence, and ending with destruction

and death. However, God the Creator is sublime beyond either, and also

the simple substances (air, fire, earth, water) do not know coming into

existence nor destruction (in periodical returns). Therefore we stop

with the day of Purusha, and do not think it necessary to use still

larger periods of time.

[A tradition relating to the years of the Great Bear and the pole.]

Things which do not rest on intrinsic necessity offer a wide field for

difference of opinion and arbitrary systematising, so as easily to

become the source of numerous theories. Some of them may be developed

according to a certain order and rule, whilst others are devoid of

such. In the latter class I reckon the following theory, but

unfortunately I have forgotten from what source it has come to me:

“33,000 human years are one year of the Great Bear; 36,000 human years

are one year of Brahman, and 99,000 human years are one year of the

pole.” However, as regards the year of Brahman, we remember that

Vâsudeva speaks to Arjuna on the battlefield between the two ranks:

“The day of Brahman is two kalpas;” and in the Brahmasiddhânta there is

a tradition from Vyâsa, the son of Parâśara, and from the book Smṛiti,

that kalpa is a day of Devaka, i.e. Brahman, and also a night of his.

In consequence the there-mentioned theory is evidently wrong (one year

of Brahman being infinitely longer than 36,000 years). Further, 36,000

years are the period of one revolution of the fixed stars in the

ecliptic, since they pass one degree in 100 years, and the Great Bear

belongs to them. However, in their traditional literature the Hindus

separate the Great Bear from the fixed stars, and attribute to it a

distance from the earth which differs from the real distance, and

therefore they describe it by qualities and conditions which in reality

do not belong to it. If the author of that theory meant by the year of

the Great Bear one revolution of it, we do not see why it should

revolve so much more rapidly than the other fixed stars (for, in that

case, the diameter of its course would be much larger than that of the

others), nor why it should form an exception to the laws of nature

(according to which all fixed stars revolve at the same distance from

the earth and in the same time); and the pole has no revolution which

might be considered as a year of it. From all this I conclude that the

author of the theory was a man entirely devoid of scientific education,

and one of the foremost in the series of fools who simply invented

those years for the benefit of people who worship the Great Bear and

the pole. He had to invent a vast number of years, for the more

outrageous it was, the more impression it would make.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

ON THE FOUR MEASURES OF TIME CALLED MÂNA.

Mâna and pramâṇa mean measure. The four kinds of measures are mentioned

by Yaʿḳûb Ibn Ṭâriḳ in his book Compositio Sphærarum, but he did not

know them thoroughly, and, besides, the names are misspelled, if this

is not the fault of the copyists.

They are—

Saura-mâna, i.e. the solar measure.

Sâvana-mâna, i.e. the measure depending upon the rising (civil

measure).

Candra-mâna, i.e. the lunar measure.

Nakshatra-mâna, i.e. the lunar-station measure (sidereal measure).

There are days of all four kinds of measure, days of an individual

nature, which, when compared with other days, show a certain difference

of measure. However, the number 360 is common to all of them (360 days

of each class being a year). The civil days are used as a gauge to

determine thereby the other days.

[Measurement of the four different kinds of years and days.] As regards

the saura-mâna, it is known that the solar year has 365827⁄3200 civil

days. Dividing this sum by 360, or multiplying it by 10 seconds (=

1⁄360 day), you get as the measure of the solar day 15609/384,000 civil

day.

[Page 179.] According to the Vishṇu-Dharma, this is the time of the

sun’s passing his bhukti.

The civil day, based on the sâvana-mâna, is here used as the unit of a

day, for the purpose of measuring thereby the other kinds of days.

The lunar day, based on the candra mâna, is called tithi. Dividing the

lunar year by 360 or the lunar month by 30, you get as the measure of

the lunar day 5,016,051/31,558,329 civil days (wrong: read

10,519,443/10,686,660 civil day).

According to the Vishṇu-Dharma, this is the time during which the moon

is visible when she is far distant from the sun.

Nakshatra-mâna is the period of the moon’s passing through her

twenty-seven stations, viz. 2711,259/35,002 days. This number is the

quotient which you get by dividing the days of a kalpa by the number of

the revolutions of the moon in a kalpa. Dividing it by 27, you get as

the time of the moon’s passing one station 1417/35,002 civil days.

Multiplying the same number by 12, as we have done with the lunar

month, we get 32715,051/17,501 civil days as the time of the moon’s

passing twelve times through all her stations. Dividing the first

number by 30, we get as the measure of the sidereal day 318,771/350,020

civil days.

According to the Vishṇu-Dharma, the sidereal month has only

twenty-seven days, whilst the months of the other measures have thirty

days; and if a year is composed of these days, it has 32715,051/17,501

days (see above). Evidently there is a fault in the text of

Vishṇu-Dharma, as the month is reckoned too short.

[What use is made of the saura-mâna, candra-mâna, and sâvana-mâna.] The

saura-mâna is used in the computation of the years which compose the

kalpa and the four yugas in the caturyugas, of the years of the

nativities, of the equinoxes and solstices, of the sixth parts of the

year or the seasons, and of the difference between day and night in the

nychthemeron. All these things are computed in solar years, months, and

days.

The candra-mâna is used in the computation of the eleven karaṇa (v.

chap. lxxviii.), in the determination of the leap month, in the

computation of the sum of days of the ûnarâtra, (v. chap. li.), and of

new moon and full moon for lunar and solar eclipses (v. chap. lix.). In

all these things the Hindus use lunar years, months, and days, which

are called tithi.

The sâvana-mâna is used in the calculation of the vâra, i.e. the days

of the week, of the ahargaṇa, i.e. the sum of the days of an era (v.

chap. li.); in determining the days of marriage and fasting (v. chap.

lxxv.); the sûtaka, i.e. the days of childbed (v. chap. lxix.); the

days of the uncleanness of the houses and the vessels of the dead (v.

chap. lxxii.); the cikitsâ, i.e. certain months and years in which

Hindu medical science prescribes the taking certain medicines; further

in determining the prâyaścitta, i.e. the days of the expiations which

the Brahmans make obligatory for those who have committed some sin,

times during which they are obliged to fast and to besmear themselves

with butter and dung (v. chap. lxxi.). All these things are determined

according to sâvana-mâna.

On the contrary, they do not determine anything by the nakshatra-mâna,

since it is comprehended in the candra-mâna.

Every measure of time which any class of people may choose by general

consent to call a day, may be considered as a mâna. Some such days have

already been mentioned in a preceding chapter (v. chap. xxxiii.).

However, the four mânas par excellence are those to the explanation of

which we have limited the present chapter.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

ON THE PARTS OF THE MONTH AND THE YEAR.

[Uttarâyaṇa and dakshinâyana.] As the year is one revolution of the sun

in the ecliptic, it is divided in the same way as the ecliptic. The

latter is divided into two halves, depending upon the two solstitial

points. Correspondingly the year is divided into two halves, each of

which is called ayana.

[Page 180.] When the sun leaves the point of the winter solstice, he

begins to move towards the north pole. Therefore this part of the year,

which is nearly one half, is referred to the north and called

uttarâyaṇa, i.e. the period of the sun’s marching through six zodiacal

signs beginning with Caper. In consequence, this half of the ecliptic

is called makarâdi, i.e. having Caper as beginning.

When the sun leaves the point of the summer solstice he begins to move

towards the south pole; therefore this second half is referred to the

south and called dakshinâyana, i.e. the period of the sun’s marching

through six zodiacal signs beginning with Cancer. In consequence, this

half of the ecliptic is called karkâdi, i.e. having Cancer as

beginning.

Uneducated people use only these two divisions or year-halves, because

the matter of the two solstices is clear to them from the observation

of their senses.

[Uttarakûla and dakshakûla.] Further, the ecliptic is divided into two

halves, according to its declination from the equator, and this

division is a more scientific one, less known to the people at large

than the former, because it rests on calculation and speculation. Each

half is called kûla. That which has northern declination is called

uttarakûla or meshâdi, i.e. having Aries as beginning; that which has

southern declination is called dakshakûla or tulâdi, i.e. having Libra

as beginning.

[The seasons.] Further, the ecliptic is by both these divisions divided

into four parts, and the periods during which the sun traverses them

are called the seasons of the year—spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

Accordingly, the zodiacal signs are distributed over the seasons.

However, the Hindus do not divide the year into four, but into six

parts, and call these six parts ṛitu. Each ṛitu comprehends two solar

months, i.e. the period of the sun’s marching through two consecutive

zodiacal signs. Their names and dominants are represented, according to

the most widespread theory, in the following diagram.

I have been told that in the region of Somanâth people divide the year

into three parts, each consisting of four months, the first being

varshakâla, beginning with the month Âshâḍha; the second, śîtakala,

i.e. the winter; and the third, ushnakâla, i.e. the summer.

+----------------------+-----------------------------+-------------------+--------------+----------+

| +-----------------------------+-------------------+--------------+----------+

| or Angels. +-----------------------------+-------------------+--------------+----------+

+============+=========+=======+============+========+==========+========+==============+=+========+

+------------+-----------------+------------+-------------------+ belonging to the Pitaras|

+------------+-----------------+------------+-------------------+ |

+------------+-----------------+------------+-------------------+-------------------------+

[Page 181.] I am inclined to think that the Hindus divide the ecliptic

by such an opening of the circle which divides the circumference of a

circle into six parts, a measure which is equal to the radius,

beginning with the two solstitial points, and that therefore they use

sixth parts of the ecliptic. If this is really the case, we must not

forget that we, too, sometimes divide the ecliptic, beginning with the

two solstitial points, at other times beginning with the equinoctial

points, and that we use the division of the ecliptic in twelfth parts

side by side with that in fourth parts.

[The dominants of the single halves of months.] The months are divided

into halves from new moon to full moon, and from full moon to new moon.

The Vishṇu-Dharma mentions the dominants of the halves of the months,

as we give them in the following table:—

+------------------+----------------------+----------------------+

| | The dominants of the | The dominants of the |

| The Names of the | Bright half of each | Black half of each |

| months. | month. | month. |

+------------------+----------------------+----------------------+

| Caitra | Twashṭri | Yâmya. |

| Vaiśâkha | Indrâgnî | Âgneya. |

| Jyaishṭha | Śukra | Raudra. |

| Âshâḍha | Viśvedevâḥ | Sârpa. |

| Śrâvaṇa | Vishṇu | Pitrya. |

| Bhâdrapada | Aja | Sânta. |

| Âśvayuja | Âśana (?) | Maitra. |

| Kârttika | Agni | Śakra. |

| Mârgaśîrsha | Saumya | Nirṛiti. |

| Pausha | Jîva | Vishṇu. |

| Mâgha | Pitrya | Varuṇa. |

| Phâlguna | Bhaga | Pûshan. |

+------------------+----------------------+----------------------+

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

[Page 182.] ON THE VARIOUS MEASURES OF TIME COMPOSED OF DAYS, THE LIFE

OF BRAHMAN INCLUDED.

[Recapitulation of the single measures of time.] The day is called

dimas (dimasu), in classical language divasa, the night râtrî, and the

nychthemeron ahorâtra. The month is called mâsa and its half paksha.

The first or white half is called śuklapaksha, because the first parts

of its nights have moonlight at times when people do not yet sleep,

when the light on the moon’s body increases and the dark portion

decreases. The other or black half is called kṛishṇapaksha, because the

first parts of its nights are moonless, whilst other parts have

moonlight, but only then when people sleep. They are the nights when

the light on the body of the moon wanes, whilst the dark part

increases.

The sum of two months is a ṛitu, but this is only an approximative

definition, for the month which has two paksha is a lunar month, whilst

that one the double of which is a ṛitu is a solar month.

Six ṛitu are a year of mankind, a solar year, which is called barh or

barkh or barsh, the three sounds h, kh, and sh being much confounded in

the mouth of the Hindus (Skr. varsha).

Three hundred and sixty years of mankind are one year of the angels,

called dibba-barh (divya-varsha), and 12,000 years of the angels are

unanimously reckoned as one caturyuga. There is a difference of opinion

only regarding the four parts of the caturyuga and regarding the

multiplications of it which form a manvantara and a kalpa. This subject

will be fully explained in the proper place (v. chaps. xli. and xliv.).

Two kalpas are a day of Brahman. It is the same if we say two kalpas or

28 manvantaras, for 360 days of Brahman are a year of Brahman, i.e. 720

kalpas or 10,080 manvantaras.

Further, they say that the life of Brahman is 100 of his years, i.e.

72,000 kalpas or 1,008,000 manvantaras.

In the present book we do not go beyond this limit. The book

Vishṇu-Dharma has a tradition from Mârkaṇḍeya, who answers a question

of Vajra in these words: “Kalpa is the day of Brahman, and the same is

a night of his. Therefore 720 kalpas are a year of his, and his life

has 100 such years. These 100 years are one day of Purusha, and the

same is a night of his. How many Brahmans, however, have already

preceded Purusha, none knows but he who can count the sand of the

Ganges or the drops of the rain.”

CHAPTER XXXIX.

ON MEASURES OF TIME WHICH ARE LARGER THAN THE LIFE OF BRAHMAN.

[Want of system regarding the greatest measures of time.] All that is

devoid of order or contradicts the rules laid down in the preceding

parts of this book is repulsive to our nature and disagreeable to our

ear. But the Hindus are people who mention a number of names, all—as

they maintain—referring to the One, the First, or to some one behind

him who is only hinted at. When they come to a chapter like this, they

repeat the same names as denoting a multitude of beings, measuring out

lives for them and inventing huge numbers. The latter is all they want;

they indulge in it most freely, and numbers are patient, standing as

you place them. Besides, there is not a single subject on which the

Hindus themselves agree among each other, and this prevents us on our

part adopting the use of it. On the contrary, they disagree on these

imaginary measures of time to the same extent as on the divisions of

the day which are less than a prâṇa (v. chap. xxxiv.).

[Page 183.] [The greatest measures of time determined by kalpas.] The

book Srûdhava by Utpala says that “a manvantara is the life of Indra

the ruler, and 28 manvantaras are one day of Pitâmaha, i.e. Brahman.

His life is 100 years, or one day of Keśava. The life of the latter is

100 years, or one day of Mahâdeva. The life of the latter is 100 years,

or one day of Îśvara, who is near to the Supreme Being. His life is 100

years, or one day of Sadâśiva. The life of the latter is 100 years, or

one day of Virañcana, the Eternal, who will last for ever, even when

the preceding five beings perish.”

We have already mentioned that the life of Brahman is as long as 72,000

kalpas. All numbers which we shall here mention are kalpas.

If the life of Brahman is a day of Keśava, his year, consisting of

three hundred and sixty days, has 25,920,000 kalpas, and his life,

2,592,000,000 kalpas. The latter is 1 day of Mahâdeva; his life,

therefore, 93,312,000,000,000 kalpas. The latter is 1 day of Îśvara;

therefore his life 3,359,232,000,000,000,000 kalpas. The latter is 1

day of Sadâśiva; therefore his life 120,932,352,000,000,000,000,000

kalpas. The latter is one day of Virañcana, of which the parârdhakalpa

is only relatively a very small part (v. p. 175).

[The same determined by truṭis.] Whatever may be the nature of these

calculations, apparently the day and the centennium are the elements

out of which the whole from beginning to end has been constructed.

Others, however, build their system on the small particles of the day

which we have previously mentioned (in chap. xxxiv.). In consequence,

these people differ among themselves regarding that which they compose,

as they differ regarding the particles out of which they compose. We

shall here give one system of this kind as invented by those who use

the following metrologic system:—

1 ghaṭî = 16 kalâ.

1 kalâ = 30 kâshṭhâ.

1 kâshṭhâ = 30 nimesha.

1 nimesha = 2 lava.

1 lava = 2 truṭi.

The reason of this division is, as they maintain, the fact that the day

of Śiva is composed out of similar particles; for the life of Brahman

is one ghaṭî of Hari, i.e. Vâsudeva. The life of the latter is 100

years, or one kalâ of Rudra, i.e. Mahâdeva; the life of the latter is

100 years, or one kâshṭhâ of Îśvara; the life of the latter is 100

years, or one nimesha of Sadâśiva; the life of the latter is 100 years,

or one lava of Śakti; the life of the latter is 100 years, or one truṭi

of Śiva.

If, now, the life of Brahman is

72,000 kalpas,

the life of Nârâyaṇa is

155,520,000,000 kalpas;

the life of Rudra,

5,374,771,200,000,000,000;

the life of Îśvara,

5,572,562,780,160,000,000,000,000,000;

the life of Sadâśiva,

173,328,992,714,096,640,000,000,000,000,000,000,000;

the life of Śakti,

10,782,449,978,758,523,781,120,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

The latter number represents one truṭi.

If you compose a day out of it according to the above-mentioned system,

it has

37,264,147,126,589,458,187,550,720,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000

kalpas. The latter number is one day of Śiva, whom they describe as the

eternal one, who is exempt from being procreated and from procreating,

free from all qualities and attributes which may be applied to created

things. The last-mentioned number represents fifty-six orders of number

(i.e. units, tens, hundreds, thousands, &c. &c.); but if those dreamers

had more assiduously studied arithmetic, they would not have invented

such outrageous numbers. God takes care that their trees do not grow

into heaven.

CHAPTER XL.

ON THE SAṀDHI, THE INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO PERIODS OF TIME, FORMING THE

CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN THEM.

[Page 184.] [Explanation of the two saṁdhis.] The original saṁdhi is

the interval between day and night, i.e. morning-dawn, called saṁdhi

udaya, i.e. the saṁdhi of the rising, and evening dawn, called saṁdhi

astamana, i.e. the saṁdhi of the setting. The Hindus require them for a

religious reason, for the Brahmans wash themselves during them, and

also at noon in the midst between them for dinner, whence an

uninitiated person might infer that there is still a third saṁdhi.

However, none who knows the subject properly will count more than two

saṁdhis.

The Purâṇas relate the following story of King Hiraṇyakaśipu, of the

class of the Daitya:—

[Story of King Hiraṇyakaśipu and his son Prahlâda.] By practising

devotion for a long period, he had earned the claim that any prayer of

his should be granted. He asked for eternal life, but only long life

was granted to him, for eternity is a quality of the Creator alone. Not

having obtained the realisation of this wish, he desired that his death

should not be effected by the hand of a human being, angel, or demon,

and that it should not take place on earth nor in heaven, neither in

the night nor in the day. By such clauses he meant to avoid death,

which is unavoidable by man. His wish was granted to him.

This wish reminds one of the wish of the devil that he should be

allowed to live till the day of resurrection, because on that day all

beings would rise from death. However, he did not attain his object, as

it was only conceded to him to live till the day of the well-known

time, of which it has been said that it is the last of the days of

trouble.

The king had a son called Prahlâda, whom he intrusted to a teacher when

he grew up. One day the king ordered him into his presence to learn

what he was studying. Now the boy recited to him a poem, the meaning of

which was that only Vishṇu exists, whilst everything else is illusion.

This went much against the opinions of his father, who hated Vishṇu,

and therefore he ordered the boy to be intrusted to another master, and

that he should learn to distinguish a friend from an enemy. Thereupon

he waited a certain time, and then examined him again, when the boy

answered, “I have learned what you have ordered, but I do not want it,

for I am in friendship alike with everything, not in enmity with

anything.” Now his father became angry and ordered him to be poisoned.

The boy took the poison in the name of God and thought of Vishṇu, and

lo! it did not hurt him. His father said, “Do you know witchcraft and

incantations?” The boy answered, “No, but the God who has created me

and given me to thee watches over me.” Now the wrath of the king

increased, and he gave orders to throw him into the deep sea. But the

sea threw him out again, and he returned to his place. Then he was

thrown before the king into a huge blazing fire, but it did not hurt

him. Standing in the flame, he began to converse with his father on God

and his power. When the boy by chance said that Vishṇu is in every

place, his father said, “Is he also in this column of the portico?” The

boy said, “Yes.” Then his father jumped against the column and beat it,

whereupon Narasiṁha came forth from it, a human figure with a lion’s

head, therefore neither a human being, nor an angel, nor a demon. Now

the king and his people began to fight with Narasiṁha, who let them do

so, for it was day-time. But when it was towards evening and they were

in the saṁdhi or twilight, therefore neither in the day nor in the

night, then Narasiṁha caught the king, raised him into the air, and

killed him there; therefore not on earth nor in heaven. The prince was

taken out of the fire and ruled in his place.

[Saṁdhi used in astrology. Varâhamihira quoted.] Hindu astrologers

require the two saṁdhi, because then some of the zodiacal signs

exercise the most powerful influence, as we shall explain hereafter in

the proper place. They make use of them in a rather superficial way,

simply reckoning the time of each saṁdhi as one muhûrta = two ghaṭî =

48 minutes. However, Varâhamihira, excellent astronomer as he is,

always only used day and night, and did not allow himself to follow the

opinion of the crowd regarding the saṁdhi. He explained the saṁdhi as

that which it really is, viz. as the moment when the centre of the body

of the sun [Page 185.] stands exactly over the horizontal circle, and

this moment he establishes to be the time of the greatest power of

certain zodiacal signs.

[On the saṁdhi of the year-half and its combination with the precession

of the equinoxes. Other kinds of saṁdhi.] Besides the two saṁdhi of the

natural day, astronomers and other people assume still other saṁdhis,

which do not rest on a law of nature nor on observation, but simply on

some hypothesis. So they attribute a saṁdhi to each ayana, i.e. to each

of the year-halves in which the sun ascends and descends (v. chap.

xxxvii.), a saṁdhi of seven days before its real beginning. On this

subject I have an idea which is certainly possible, and even rather

likely, viz. that this theory is of recent origin, not of ancient date,

and that it has been brought forward about 1300 of Alexander (= A.D.

989), when the Hindus found out that the real solstice precedes the

solstice of their calculation. For Puñjala, the author of the Small

Mânasa, says that in the year 854 of the Śakakâla the real solstice

preceded his calculation by 6° 50′, and that this difference will

increase in future by one minute every year.

These are the words of a man who either was himself a most careful

practical observer, or who examined the observations of former

astronomers which he had at his disposal, and thereby found out the

amount of the annual difference. No doubt, also, other people have

perceived the same or a similar difference by means of the calculation

of the noon-shadows. Therefore (as this observation was already much

known) Utpala of Kashmîr has taken this theory from Puñjala.

This conjecture of mine is confirmed by the fact that the Hindus prefix

the saṁdhis of the solstices to each of the six seasons of the year, in

consequence of which they begin already with the twenty-third degree of

the next preceding signs.

The Hindus assume a saṁdhi, too, between the different yugas and

between the manvantaras; but as the bases of this theory are

hypothetical, so everything else derived from them is hypothetical. We

shall give a sufficient explanation of these things in the proper

place.

CHAPTER XLI.

DEFINITION OF THE TERMS “KALPA” AND “CATURYUGA,” AND AN EXPLICATION OF

THE ONE BY THE OTHER.

[On the measure of a caturyuga and a kalpa.] Twelve thousand

Divya-years, the length of which has already been explained (v. chap.

xxxv.), are one caturyuga, and 1000 caturyugas are one kalpa, a period

at the beginning and end of which there is a conjunction of the seven

planets and their apsides and nodes in 0° of Aries. The days of the

kalpa are called the kalpa-ahargaṇa, for âh means day, and argana means

the sum. Since they are civil days derived from the rising of the sun,

they are also called days of the earth, for rising presupposes an

horizon, and an horizon is one of the necessary attributes of the

earth.

By the same name, kalpa-ahargaṇa, people also call the sum of days of

any era up to a certain date.

Our Muslim authors call the days of the kalpa the days of the Sindhind

or the days of the world, counting them as 1,577,916,450,000 days

(sâvana or civil days), or 4,320,000,000 solar years, or 4,452,775,000

lunar years. The same sum of days converted into years of 360 civil

days is equal to 4,383,101,250 of them, and to 12,000,000 divya-years.

The Âditya-Purâṇa says: “Kalpana is composed of kal, which means the

existence of the species in the world, and pana, which means their

destruction and disappearance. The sum of this existing and perishing

is a kalpa.”

Brahmagupta says: “Since the planets and mankind in the world came into

existence at the beginning of the day of Brahman, and since they both

perish at the end of it, we must adopt this day of their existence as a

kalpa, not another period.”

[Page 186.] In another place he says: “A thousand caturyuga are one day

of Devaka, i.e. Brahman, and a night of his is of the same length.

Therefore his day is equal to 2000 caturyuga.”

In the same way Vyâsa the son of Parâśara says: “He who believes that

1000 caturyugas are a day and 1000 caturyugas a night, knows Brahman.”

[Relation between manvantara and kalpa.] Within the space of a kalpa 71

caturyugas are equal to 1 manu, i.e. manvantara, or Manu-period, and 14

manus are equal to 1 kalpa. Multiplying 71 by 14, you get 994

caturyugas as the period of 14 manvantaras, and a remainder of 6

caturyugas till the end of the kalpa.

If we, however, divide these 6 caturyugas by 15, in order to find the

saṁdhi both at the beginning and end of each of the 14 manvantaras, the

number of the saṁdhis being by 1 larger than that of the manvantaras,

the quotient is ⅖ths. If we now insert ⅖ caturyuga between each two

consecutive manvantaras, and add the same amount both at the beginning

of the first and the end of the last manvantaras, the fraction of ⅖

disappears at the end of 15 manvantaras (⅖ × 15 = 6). The fractions at

the beginning and end of the kalpa represent the saṁdhi, i.e. a common

link. A kalpa, including its saṁdhi, has 1000 caturyugas, as we have

said in the first part of this chapter.

[Conditions of the beginning of a kalpa.] The single parts of a kalpa

stand in a constant relation to each other, one bearing witness

regarding the other. For it commences with the vernal equinox, a

Sunday, the conjunction of the planets, their apsides and nodes, which

takes place there where there is neither Revatî nor Aśvinî, i.e.

between them, at the beginning of the month Caitra, and in the moment

of the sun’s rising over Laṅkâ. When there occurs an irregularity with

one of these conditions, all the others become confused and are no

longer valid.

We have already mentioned the number of the days and the years of a

kalpa. Accordingly a caturyuga, as 1⁄1000th of a kalpa, has

1,577,916,450 days and 4,320,000 years. The numbers show the relation

between a kalpa and a caturyuga, and show further how to determine the

one by the other.

All we have said in this chapter rests on the theory of Brahmagupta and

on the arguments by which he supports it.

[Theories of Âryabhaṭa the elder, Pulisa, and Âryabhaṭa the younger.]

Âryabhaṭa the elder and Pulisa compose the manvantara from 72

caturyugas, and the kalpa from 14 manvantaras, without inserting

anywhere a saṁdhi. Therefore, according to them, a kalpa has 1008

caturyugas; further, 12,096,000 divya years, or 4,354,560,000 human

years.

According to Pulisa, a caturyuga has 1,577,917,800 civil days.

According to him, therefore, the sum of the days of a kalpa would be

1,590,541,142,400. These are the numbers which he uses in his book.

I have not been able to find anything of the books of Âryabhaṭa. All I

know of him I know through the quotations from him given by

Brahmagupta. The latter says in a treatise called Critical Research on

the Basis of the Canons, that according to Âryabhaṭa the sum of the

days of a caturyuga is 1,577,917,500, i.e. 300 days less than according

to Pulisa. Therefore Âryabhaṭa would give to a kalpa 1,590,540,840,000

days.

According to Âryabhaṭa and Pulisa, the kalpa and caturyuga begin with

midnight which follows after the day the beginning of which is the

beginning of the kalpa, according to Brahmagupta.

Âryabhaṭa of Kusumapura, who belongs to the school of the elder

Âryabhaṭa, says in a small book of his on [Page 187.] Al-ntf (?), that

“1008 caturyugas are one day of Brahman. The first half of 504

caturyugas is called utsarpiṇî, during which the sun is ascending, and

the second half is called avasarpiṇî, during which the sun is

descending. The midst of this period is called sama, i.e. equality, for

it is the midst of the day, and the two ends are called durtama (?).”

This is so far correct, as the comparison between day and kalpa goes,

but the remark about the sun’s ascending and descending is not correct.

If he meant the sun who makes our day, it was his duty to explain of

what kind that ascending and descending of the sun is; but if he meant

a sun who specially belongs to the day of Brahman, it was his duty to

show or to describe him to us. I almost think that the author meant by

these two expressions the progressive, increasing development of things

during the first half of this period, and the retrograde, decreasing

development in the second half.

CHAPTER XLII.

ON THE DIVISION OF THE CATURYUGA INTO YUGAS, AND THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS

REGARDING THE LATTER.

[The single parts of a caturyuga according to Vishṇu-Dharma and

Brahmagupta.] The author of the Vishṇu-Dharma says: “Twelve hundred

divya years are one yuga, called tishya. The double of it is a dvâpara,

the triple a tretâ, the quadruple a kṛita, and all four yugas together

are one caturyuga, i.e. the four yugas or sums.

“Seventy-one caturyugas are one manvantara, and 14 manvantaras,

together with a saṁdhi of the duration of one kṛitayuga between each

two of them, are one kalpa. Two kalpas are a nychthemeron of Brahman,

and his life is a hundred years, or one day of Purusha, the first man,

of whom neither beginning nor end is known.”

This is what Varuṇa, the lord of the water, communicated to Râma, the

son of Daśaratha, in primeval times, since he knew these things

thoroughly. The same information has also been given by Bhârgava, i.e.

Mârkaṇḍeya, who had such a perfect knowledge of time that he easily

mastered every number. He is to the Hindus like the angel of death, who

kills them with his seat, being aprati-dhṛishya (irresistible).

Brahmagupta says: “The book Smṛiti mentions that 4000 devaka years are

one kṛitayuga, but together with a saṁdhi of 400 years and a saṁdhyâṁśa

of 400 years, a kṛitayuga has 4800 devaka years.

“Three thousand years are one tretâyuga, but together with a saṁdhi and

a saṁdhyâṁśa, each of 300 years, a tretâyuga has 3600 years.

“Two thousand years are a dvâpara, but together with a saṁdhi and a

saṁdhyâṁśa, each of 200 years, a dvâpara has 2400 years.

“A thousand years are one kali, but together with a saṁdhi and a

saṁdhyâṁśa, each of 100 years, a kaliyuga has 1200 years.”

This is what Brahmagupta quotes from the book Smṛiti.

[Duration of the single yugas.] “Divya years are changed into human

years by being multiplied by 360. Accordingly the four yugas have the

following sums of human years:—

A kṛitayuga has 1,440,000 years,

besides 144,000 ” saṁdhi,

and 144,000 ” saṁdhyâṁśa.

---------------

Sum total 1,728,000 years = one kṛitayuga.

A tretâyuga has 1,080,000 years,

besides 108,000 ” saṁdhi,

[Page 188.]

and 108,000 ” saṁdhyâṁśa.

---------------

Sum total 1,296,000 years = one tretâyuga.

A dvâpara has 720,000 years,

besides 72,000 ” saṁdhi,

and 72,000 ” saṁdhyâṁśa.

---------------

Sum total 864,000 years = one dvâpara.

A kali has 360,000 years,

besides 36,000 ” saṁdhi,

and 36,000 ” saṁdhyâṁśa.

---------------

Sum total 432,000 years = one kaliyuga.

“The sum of the kṛita and tretâ is 3,024,000 years, and the sum of the

kṛita, tretâ, and dvâpara is 3,888,000 years.”

[Âryabhaṭa and Paulisa quoted by Brahmagupta.] Further, Brahmagupta

says that “Âryabhaṭa considers the four yugas as the four equal parts

of a caturyuga. Thus he differs from the doctrine of the book Smṛiti,

just mentioned, and he who differs from us is an opponent.” On the

other hand, Brahmagupta praises Paulisa for what he does, since he does

not differ from the book Smṛiti; for he subtracts 1200 from the 4800

years of the kṛitayuga, and diminishes the remainder still more and

more, so as to get yugas which correspond with those of the Smṛiti, but

yugas without saṁdhi and saṁdhyâṁśa. As regards the Greeks, we may

notice that they have nothing like the tradition of the Smṛiti, for

they do not measure time by yugas, manvantaras, or kalpas.

So far the quotation from Brahmagupta.

As is well known, there is no difference of opinion on the sum of the

years of a complete caturyuga. Therefore, according to Âryabhaṭa, the

kaliyuga has 3000 divya years or 1,080,000 human years. Each two yugas

has 6000 divya years or 2,160,000 human years. Each three yugas has

9000 divya years or 3,240,000 human years.

[The rule of Paulisa.] There is a tradition that Paulisa in his

Siddhânta specifies various new rules for the computation of these

numbers, some of which may be accepted, whilst others are to be

rejected. So in the rule for the computation of the yugas he puts 48 as

the basis and subtracts one-fourth of it, so as to get 36. Then he

again subtracts 12, for this number is his basis of subtraction, so as

to get 24, and subtracting the same number a third time, he gets 12.

These 12 he multiplies by 100, and the product represents the number of

divya years of the yugas.

[Criticism thereon.] If he had made the number 60 the basis, for most

things may be determined by it, and had made one-fifth of it the basis

of subtraction, or if he had subtracted from 60 consecutive fractions

of the remaining number, first ⅕ = 12, from the remainder ¼ = 12, from

the remainder ⅓ = 12, and from the remainder ½ = 12, he would have

obtained the same result which he has found by his method (60 - ⅕ = 48,

- ¼ = 36, - ⅓ = 24, - ½ = 12).

It is possible that Paulisa simply mentions this method as one among

others, and that it is not that one in particular which he himself

adopted. A translation of his whole work into Arabic has not hitherto

yet been undertaken, because in his mathematical problems there is an

evident religious and theological tendency.

[Pulisa calculates how much of the life of Brahman has elapsed before

the present kalpa.] Pulisa deviates from the rule which he himself

gives when he wants to compute how many of our years have elapsed of

the life of Brahman before the present kalpa. Up to the time of his

writing, eight years five months and four days of a new kalpa had

elapsed. He counts 6068 kalpas. As, according to him, a kalpa has 1008

caturyugas, he multiplies this number by 1008 and gets 6,116,544

caturyugas. These he changes into yugas by multiplying them by 4, and

he gets 24,466,176 yugas. As a yuga, according to him, has 1,080,000

years, he [Page 189.] multiplies the number of yugas by 1,080,000, and

gets as the product 26,423,470,080,000, i.e. the number of years which

have elapsed of the life of Brahman before the present kalpa.

[Criticisms on this calculation.] Perhaps it will seem strange to the

followers of Brahmagupta that he (Pulisa) has not changed the

caturyugas into exact yugas, but simply changed them into fourth parts

(by dividing them by 4), and multiplied these fourth parts by the

number of years of a single fourth part.

Now, we do not ask him what is the use of representing the caturyugas

as fourth parts, inasmuch as they have no fraction which, in this

manner, must be reduced to wholes. The multiplication of the whole

caturyugas by the years of one complete caturyuga, i.e. 4,320,000,

would have been sufficiently lengthy. We, however, say that he would be

correct in doing so if he had not been influenced by the wish of

bringing the elapsed years of the present kalpa into relation with the

last-mentioned number, and multiplied the complete elapsed manvantaras

by 72 in agreement with his theory; further, if he had not multiplied

the product by the years of a caturyuga, which gives the product of

1,866,240,000 years, and, moreover, had not multiplied the number of

the complete caturyugas which have elapsed of the current manvantara by

the years of a single caturyuga, which gives the product of 116,640,000

years. Of the current caturyuga there have elapsed three yugas, i.e.

according to him, 3,240,000 years. The latter number represents

three-fourths of the years of a caturyuga. He uses the same number when

computing the week-day of a date by means of the number of the days of

the here-mentioned number of years. If he believed in the

above-mentioned rule, he would use it where it is required, and he

would reckon the three yugas as nine-tenths of a caturyuga.

[Brahmagupta’s harsh criticisms on Âryabhaṭa.] Now, it is evident that

that which Brahmagupta relates on his authority, and with which he

himself agrees, is entirely unfounded; but he is blind to this from

sheer hatred of Âryabhaṭa, whom he abuses excessively. And in this

respect Âryabhaṭa and Pulisa are the same to him. I take for witness

the passage of Brahmagupta where he says that Âryabhaṭa has subtracted

something from the cycles of the Caput Draconis and of the apsis of the

moon, and thereby rendered confused the computation of the eclipse. He

is rude enough to compare Âryabhaṭa to a worm which, eating the wood,

by chance describes certain characters in it, without understanding

them and without intending to draw them. “He, however, who knows these

things thoroughly stands opposite to Âryabhaṭa, Śrîsheṇa, and

Vishṇucandra like the lion against gazelles. They are not capable of

letting him see their faces.” In such offensive terms he attacks

Âryabhaṭa and maltreats him.

[Different lengths of the solar year.] We have already mentioned (v.

chap. xli.) how many civil days (sâvana) a caturyuga has according to

the three scholars. Pulisa gives it 1350 days more than Brahmagupta,

but the number of years of a caturyuga is the same according to both.

Therefore, evidently Pulisa gives the solar year more days than

Brahmagupta. To judge from the report of Brahmagupta, Âryabhaṭa gives a

caturyuga 300 days less than Pulisa, and 1050 more than Brahmagupta.

Accordingly, Âryabhaṭa must reckon the solar year longer than

Brahmagupta and shorter than Pulisa.

CHAPTER XLIII.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOUR YUGAS, AND OF ALL THAT IS EXPECTED TO TAKE

PLACE AT THE END OF THE FOURTH YUGA.

The ancient Greeks held regarding the earth various opinions, of which

we shall relate one for the sake of an example.

[On natural cataclysms.] The disasters which from time to time befall

the earth, both from above and from below, differ in quality and [Page

190.] quantity. Frequently it has experienced one so incommensurable in

quality or in quantity, or in both together, that there was no remedy

against it, and that no flight or caution was of any avail. The

catastrophe comes on like a deluge or an earthquake, bringing

destruction either by the breaking in of the surface, or by drowning

with water which breaks forth, or by burning with hot stones and ashes

that are thrown out, by thunderstorms, by landslips, and typhoons;

further, by contagious and other diseases, by pestilence, and more of

the like. Thereby a large region is stripped of its inhabitants; but

when after a while, after the disaster and its consequences have passed

away, the country begins to recover and to show new signs of life, then

different people flock there together like wild animals, who formerly

were dwelling in hiding-holes and on the tops of the mountains. They

become civilised by assisting each other against common foes, wild

beasts or men, and furthering each other in the hope for a life in

safety and joy. Thus they increase to great numbers; but then ambition,

circling round them with the wings of wrath and envy, begins to disturb

the serene bliss of their life.

Sometimes a nation of such a kind derives its pedigree from a person

who first settled in the place or distinguished himself by something or

other, so that he alone continues to live in the recollection of the

succeeding generations, whilst all others beside him are forgotten.

Plato mentions in the Book of Laws Zeus, i.e. [Pedigree of

Hippocrates.] Jupiter, as the forefather of the Greeks, and to Zeus is

traced back the pedigree of Hippocrates, which is mentioned in the last

chapters added at the end of the book. We must, however, observe that

the pedigree contains only very few generations, not more than

fourteen. It is the following:—Hippokrates—Gnosidikos—Nebros—Sostratos—

Theodoros—Kleomyttades—Krisamis—Dardanas—Sostratos—اںلوسوس‎ (?)—

Hippolochos—Podaleirios—Machaon—Asclepios—Apollo—Zeus—Kronos, i.e.

Saturn.

[Hindu notions regarding the four ages or yugas.] The Hindus have

similar traditions regarding the Caturyuga, for according to them, at

the beginning of it, i.e. at the beginning of Kṛitayuga, there was

happiness and safety, fertility and abundance, health and force, ample

knowledge and a great number of Brahmans. The good is complete in this

age, like four-fourths of a whole, and life lasted 4000 years alike for

all beings during this whole space of time.

Thereupon things began to decrease and to be mixed with opposite

elements to such a degree, that at the beginning of Tretâyuga the good

was thrice as much as the invading bad, and that bliss was

three-quarters of the whole. There were a greater number of Kshatriyas

than of Brahmans, and life had the same length as in the preceding age.

So it is represented by the Vishṇu-Dharma, whilst analogy requires that

it should be shorter by the same amount than bliss is smaller, i.e. by

one-fourth. In this age, when offering to the fire, they begin to kill

animals and to tear off plants, practices which before were unknown.

Thus the evil increases till, at the beginning of Dvâpara, evil and

good exist in equal proportions, and likewise bliss and misfortune. The

climates begin to differ, there is much killing going on, and the

religions become different. Life becomes shorter, and lasts only 400

years, according to the Vishṇu-Dharma. At the beginning of Tishya, i.e.

Kaliyuga, evil is thrice as much as the remaining good.

The Hindus have several well-known traditions of events which are said

to have occurred in the Tretâ and Dvâpara yugas, e.g. the story of

Râma, who killed Ravaṇa; [Page 191.] that of Paraśurâma the Brahman,

who killed every Kshatriya he laid hold upon, revenging on them the

death of his father. They think that he lives in heaven, that he has

already twenty-one times appeared on earth, and that he will again

appear. Further, the story of the war of the children of Pâṇḍu with

those of Kuru.

In the Kaliyuga evil increases, till at last it results in the

destruction of all good. At that time the inhabitants of the earth

perish, and a new race rises out of those who are scattered through the

mountains and hide themselves in caves, uniting for the purpose of

worshipping and flying from the horrid, demoniac human race. Therefore

this age is called Kṛitayuga, which means “Being ready for going away

after having finished the work.”

[Description of the Kaliyuga.] In the story of Śaunaka which Venus

received from Brahman, God speaks to him in the following words: “When

the Kaliyuga comes, I send Buddhodana, the son of Śuddhodana the pious,

to spread the good in the creation.” But then the Muḥammira, i.e. the

red-wearing ones, who derive their origin from him, will change

everything that he has brought, and the dignity of the Brahmans will be

gone to such a degree that a Śûdra, their servant, will be impudent

towards them, and that a Śûdra and Caṇḍâla will share with them the

presents and offerings. Men will entirely be occupied with gathering

wealth by crimes, with hoarding up, not refraining from committing

horrid and sinful crimes. All this will result in a rebellion of the

small ones against the great ones, of the children against their

parents, of the servants against their masters. The castes will be in

uproar against each other, the genealogies will become confused, the

four castes will be abolished, and there will be many religions and

sects. Many books will be composed, and the communities which formerly

were united will on account of them be dissolved into single

individuals. The temples will be destroyed and the schools will lie

waste. Justice will be gone, and the kings will not know anything but

oppression and spoliation, robbing and destroying, as if they wanted to

devour the people, foolishly indulging in far-reaching hopes, and not

considering how short life is in comparison with the sins (for which

they have to atone). The more the mind of people is depraved, the more

will pestilential diseases be prevalent. Lastly, people maintain that

most of the astrological rules obtained in that age are void and false.

[Saying of Mânî.] These ideas have been adopted by Mânî, for he says:

“Know ye that the affairs of the world have been changed and altered;

also priesthood has been changed since the σφαῖραι of heaven, i.e. the

spheres, have been changed, and the priest can no longer acquire such a

knowledge of the stars in the circle of a sphere as their fathers were

able to acquire. They lead mankind astray by fraud. What they prophesy

may by chance happen, but frequently it does not happen.”

[Description of the Kṛitayuga according to Vishṇu-Dharma.] The

description of these things in the Vishṇu-Dharma is much more copious

than we have given it. People will be ignorant of what is reward and

punishment; they will deny that the angels have absolute knowledge.

Their lives will be of different length, and none of them will know how

long it is. The one will die as an embryo, the other as a baby or

child. The pious will be torn away and will not have a long life, but

he who does evil and denies religion will live longer. Śûdras will be

kings, and will be like rapacious wolves, robbing the others of all

that pleases them. The doings of the Brahmans will be of the same kind,

but the majority will be Śûdras and brigands. The laws of the Brahmans

will be abolished. People will point with their fingers at those who

worry themselves with the practice of frugality and poverty as a

curiosity, will despise them, and will wonder at a man worshipping

Vishṇu; for all of them have become of the same (wicked) character.

Therefore any wish will soon be [Page 192.] granted, little merit

receive great reward, and honour and dignity be obtained by little

worship and service.

But finally, at the end of the yuga, when the evil will have reached

its highest pitch, there will come forward Garga, the son of J-Ś-V (?)

the Brahman, i.e. Kali, after whom this yuga is called, gifted with an

irresistible force, and more skilled in the use of any weapon than any

other. Then he draws his sword to make good all that has become bad; he

cleans the surface of the earth of the impurity of people and clears

the earth of them. He collects the pure and pious ones for the purpose

of procreation. Then the Kṛitayuga lies far behind them, and the time

and the world return to purity, and to absolute good and to bliss.

This is the nature of the yugas as they circle round through the

Caturyuga.

[The origin of medicine according to the book Caraka.] The book Caraka,

as quoted by ʿAlî Ibn Zain of Ṭabaristan, says: “In primeval times the

earth was always fertile and healthy, and the elements or mahabhûta

were equally mixed. Men lived with each other in harmony and love,

without any lust and ambition, hatred and envy, without anything that

makes soul and body ill. But then came envy, and lust followed. Driven

by lust, they strove to hoard up, which was difficult to some, easy to

others. All kinds of thoughts, labours, and cares followed, and

resulted in war, deceit, and lying. The hearts of men were hardened,

the natures were altered and became exposed to diseases, which seized

hold of men and made them neglect the worship of God and the

furtherance of science. Ignorance became deeply rooted, and the

calamity became great. Then the pious met before their anchorite Kṛiśa

(?) the son of Âtreya, and deliberated; whereupon the sage ascended the

mountain and threw himself on the earth. Thereafter God taught him the

science of medicine.”

[Quotation from Aratus.] All this much resembles the traditions of the

Greeks, which we have related (in another place). For Aratus says in

his Φαινόμενα, and in his intimations referring to the seventh zodiacal

sign: “Look under the feet of the Herdsman, i.e. Alʿawwâ, among the

northern figures, and you see the Virgin coming with a blooming ear of

corn in her hand, i.e. Alsimâk Alʾaʿzal. She belongs either to the

star-race, which are said to be the forefathers of the ancient stars,

or she was procreated by another race which we do not know. People say

that in primeval times she lived among mankind, but only among women,

not visible to men, being called Justice. She used to unite the aged

men and those who stood in the market-places and in the streets, and

exhorted them with a loud voice to adhere to the truth. She presented

mankind with innumerable wealth and bestowed rights upon them. At that

time the earth was called golden. None of its inhabitants knew

pernicious hypocrisy in deed or word, and there was no objectionable

schism among them. They lived a quiet life, and did not yet navigate

the sea in ships. The cows afforded the necessary sustenance.

“Afterwards, when the golden race had expired and the silver race come

on, Virgo mixed with them, but without being happy, and concealed

herself in the mountains, having no longer intercourse with the women

as formerly. Then she went to the large towns, warned their

inhabitants, scolded them for their evil doings, [Page 193.] and blamed

them for ruining the race which the golden fathers had left behind. She

foretold them that there would come a race still worse than they, and

that wars, bloodshed, and other great disasters would follow.

“After having finished, she disappeared into the mountains till the

silver race expired and a bronze race came up. People invented the

sword, the doer of evil; they tasted of the meat of cows, the first who

did it. By all this their neighbourhood became odious to Justice, and

she flew away to the sphere.”

[A scholion on Aratus.] The commentator of the book of Aratus says:

“This Virgin is the daughter of Zeus. She spoke to the people on the

public places and streets, and at that time they were obedient to their

rulers, not knowing the bad nor discord. Without any altercation or

envy they lived from agriculture, and did not travel on sea for the

sake of commerce nor for the lust of plunder. Their nature was as pure

as gold.

“But when they gave up these manners and no longer adhered to truth,

Justice no longer had intercourse with them, but she observed them,

dwelling in the mountains. When, however, she came to their meetings,

though unwillingly, she threatened them, for they listened in silence

to her words, and therefore she no longer appeared to those who called

her, as she had formerly done.

“When, then, after the silver race, the bronze race came up, when wars

followed each other and the evil spread in the world, she started off,

for she wanted on no account to stay with them, and hated them, and

went towards the sphere.

“There are many traditions regarding this Justice. According to some,

she is Demeter, because she has the ear of corn; according to others,

she is Τύχη.”

This is what Aratus says.

[Quotation from the Laws of Plato.] The following occurs in the third

book of the Laws of Plato:—

“The Athenian said: ‘There have been deluges, diseases, disasters on

earth, from which none has been saved but herdsmen and mountaineers, as

the remnants of a race not practised in deceit and in the love of

power.’

“The Knossian said: ‘At the beginning men loved each other sincerely,

feeling lonely in the desert of the world, and because the world had

sufficient room for all of them, and did not compel them to any

exertion. There was no poverty among them, no possession, no contract.

There was no greed among them, and neither silver nor gold. There were

no rich people among them and no poor. If we found any of their books,

they would afford us numerous proofs for all this.’”

CHAPTER XLIV.

ON THE MANVANTARAS.

[The single manvantaras, their Indras, and the children of Indra.] As

72,000 kalpas are reckoned as the life of Brahman, the manvantara, i.e.

period of Manu, is reckoned as the life of Indra, whose rule ends with

the end of the period. His post is occupied by another Indra, who then

rules the world in the new manvantara. Brahmagupta says: “If a man

maintains that there is no saṁdhi between two manvantaras, and reckons

each manvantara as 71 caturyugas, he will find that the kalpa is too

short by six caturyugas, and the minus below 1000 (i.e. in 994) is not

better than the plus above 1000 (i.e. in 1008, according to Âryabhaṭa).

Both numbers, however, differ from the book Smṛiti.”

Further he says: “Âryabhaṭa mentions in two books of his, the one of

which is called Daśagîtikâ, the other Âryâshṭaśata, that each

manvantara is equal to 72 caturyugas. Accordingly he reckons a kalpa at

1008 caturyugas (14 × 72).”

In the book Vishṇu-Dharma Mârkaṇḍeya gives to Vajra the following

answer: “Purusha is the lord of [Page 194.] the universe; the lord of

the kalpa is Brahman, the lord of the world; but the lord of the

manvantara is Manu. There are fourteen Manus, from whom the kings of

the earth, ruling at the beginning of each manvantara, descended.”

We have united their names in the following table:—

+------------+----------------+----------------+--------------------+------------------+--------------------------------------+

+------------+----------------+----------------+--------------------+------------------+--------------------------------------+

| | | | | who has nothing in common with any other being. |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| 8 | Sâvarṇi | Sâvarṇi |These {Sâvarṇi | Bali, the |Virajas, Aścârvari, Nirmogha. |

| | | | { | imprisoned king | |

| 9 | Daksha | Vishṇu-Dharma |five {Brahmaputra| Mahâvîrya |Dhṛitaketu, Nirâmaya, Pañcahasta. |

| | | | { | | |

| 10 | Brahmasâvarṇi | Dharmaputra |are {Vishṇuputra| Śânti |Sukshetra, Uttamaujas, Bhûrisheṇa. |

| | | | { | | |

| 11 | Dharmasâvarṇi | Rudraputra |called {Rudraputra | Vṛisha |Sarvatraga, Devânîka, Sudharmâtman (?)|

| | | | { | | |

| 12 | Rudraputra | Dakshaputra |Sâvarṇi {Dakshaputra| Ṛitadhâman |Devata (?), Vânupadevaś-ca, |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

+------------+----------------+----------------+--------------------+------------------+--------------------------------------+

[Page 195.] [The tradition of Vishṇu-Purâṇa relating to the

manvantaras.] The difference which the reader perceives in the

enumeration of the future manvantaras beyond the seventh one, arises,

as I think, from the same cause whence the difference in the names of

the Dvîpas is derived (v. pp. 235, 236), viz. from the fact that the

people care more for the names than for the order in which they are

handed down to posterity. We may here rely on the tradition of the

Vishṇu-Purâṇa, for in this book their number, their names and

descriptions, are given in such a way that renders it necessary to us

to consider also the order in which it gives them as trustworthy. But

we have refrained from communicating these things in this place, since

they offer only very little use.

The same book relates that King Maitreya, a Kshatriya, asked Parâśara,

the father of Vyâsa, about the past and the future manvantaras.

Thereupon the latter mentions the name by which each Manu is known, the

same names which our table exhibits. According to the same book, the

children of each Manu will rule the earth, and it mentions the first of

them, the names of whom we have given in the table. According to the

same source, the Manus of the second, third, fourth, and fifth

manvantaras will be of the race of Priyavrata, an anchorite, who stood

in such favour with Vishṇu, that he honoured his children by raising

them to this distinction.

CHAPTER XLV.

ON THE CONSTELLATION OF THE GREAT BEAR.

[A tradition relating to Arundhatî, the wife of Vasishṭha.] The Great

Bear is in the Indian language called Saptarshayas, i.e. the Seven

Ṛishis. They are said to have been anchorites who nourished themselves

only with what it is allowable to eat, and with them there was a pious

woman, Al-suhâ (Ursa Major, star 80 by ζ). They plucked off the stalks

of the lotus from the ponds to eat of them. Meanwhile came The Law

(Dharma?) and concealed her from them. Every one of them felt ashamed

of the other, and they swore oaths which were approved of by Dharma. In

order to honour them, Dharma raised them to that place where they are

now seen (sic).

[Quotation from Varâhamihira.] We have already mentioned that the books

of the Hindus are composed in metres, and therefore the authors indulge

in comparisons and epitheta ornantia, such as are admired by their

countrymen. Of the same kind is a description of the Great Bear in the

Saṁhitâ of Varâhamihira, where it occurs before the astrological

prognostics derived from this constellation. We give the passage

according to our translation: [10]—

“The northern region is adorned with these stars, as a beautiful woman

is adorned with a collar of pearls strung together, and a necklace of

white lotus flowers, a handsomely arranged one. Thus adorned, they are

like maidens who dance and revolve round the pole as the pole orders

them. And I say, on the authority of Garga, the ancient, the primeval

one, that the Great Bear stood in Maghâ, the tenth lunar station, when

Yudhishṭhira ruled the earth, and the Śakakâla was 2526 years after

this. The Great Bear remains in each lunar station 600 years, and it

rises in the north-east. He (of the Seven Ṛishis) who then rules the

east is Marîci; west of him is Vasishṭha, then Aṅgiras, Atri, Pulastya,

Pulaha, Kratu, and near Vasishṭha there is a chaste woman called

Arundhatî.”

As these names are sometimes confounded with each other, we shall try

to identify them with the corresponding stars in the Great Bear:—

Marîci is the 27th star of this constellation.

Vasishṭha ,, ,, 26th ,, ,, ,, ,,

Aṅgiras ,, ,, 25th ,, ,, ,, ,,

Atri ,, ,, 18th ,, ,, ,, ,,

Kratu ,, ,, 16th ,, ,, ,, ,,

Pulaha ,, ,, 17th ,, ,, ,, ,,

Pulastya ,, ,, 19th ,, ,, ,, ,,

[Criticisms on Garga.] These stars occupy in our time, i.e. in the

952nd year of the Śakakâla, the space between 1⅓° of Leo and 13½° of

Spica (Virgo). According to the peculiar motion of the fixed stars, as

we know it, the same stars occupied at the time of Yudhishṭhira the

space between 8⅔° Gemini and 20⅚° of Cancer.

[Page 196.] According to the motion of the fixed stars, as adopted by

the ancient astronomers and Ptolemy, these stars occupied at that time

the space between 26½° of Gemini and 8⅔° of Leo, and the here-mentioned

lunar station (Maghâ) occupied the space between 0–800 minutes in Leo.

Therefore it would be much more suitable in the present time to

represent the Seven Ṛishis as standing in Maghâ than in the time of

Yudhishṭhira. And if the Hindus identify Maghâ with the Heart of the

Lion, we can only say that this constellation at that time stood in the

first degrees of Cancer.

The words of Garga are without any foundation; they only show how

little he knew of that which every one must know who wants to fix the

places of the stars, either by eyesight or by means of astronomical

observation on certain degrees of the signs of the zodiac.

[Note from a Kashmirian almanac.] I have read in the almanacs for the

year 951 of the Śakakâla which came from Kashmîr the statement that the

Seven Ṛishis stand since seventy-seven years in the lunar station

Anurâdhâ. This station occupies the space between 3⅓° and the end of

16⅔° of Scorpio. However, the Seven Ṛishis precede this place by about

a whole zodiacal sign and 20 degrees, i.e. by 1⅔ signs (v. p. 390). But

what man would be able to learn all the different theories of the

Hindus, if he does not dwell among them!

[Examination of the statements regarding the position of the Great

Bear.] Let us now first suppose that Garga is right, that he has not

stated the precise place in Maghâ which the Seven Ṛishis occupy, and

let us suppose that this place was 0° of Maghâ, which would correspond

to 0° of Leo for our time. Further, between the time of Yudhishṭhira

and the present year, i.e. the year 1340 of Alexander, there is an

interval of 3479 years. And lastly, let us suppose that Varâhamihira is

right in saying that the Seven Ṛishis dwell 600 years in each lunar

station. Accordingly, they ought in the present year to stand in 17°

18′ of Libra, which is identical with 10° 38′ of Svâtî. However, if we

suppose that they stood in the midst of Maghâ (not in the beginning),

they ought at present to stand in 3° 58′ of Viśâkhâ. And if we suppose

that they stood in the end of Maghâ, they ought at present to stand in

10° 38′ of Viśâkhâ.

Hence it is evident that the statement of the Kashmirian calendar does

not agree with the statement in the Saṁhitâ. Likewise, if we adopt the

rule of the said calendar regarding the precession of the equinoxes,

and reckon with this measure backward, we do by no means arrive at

Maghâ as the lunar station in which the Seven Ṛishis stood in the time

of Yudhishṭhira.

Hitherto we used to think that in our time the revolution of the fixed

stars is more rapid than in former times, and we tried to account for

this by peculiarities of the shape of the celestial sphere. According

to us, they move one degree in 66 solar years. Therefore Varâhamihira

highly astonishes us, for, according to him, the rate of this motion

would be one degree in forty-five years, i.e. much more rapid than at

present, whilst his time precedes ours only by 525 years.

[Rule of the Karaṇasâra to find the position of the Great Bear at any

time.] The author of the canon Karaṇasâra gives the following rule for

the computation of the motion of the Great Bear, and of the place

which, at any given time, it occupies:—

“Subtract 821 from the Śakakâla. The remainder is the basis, i.e. the

number of years above 4000 which have elapsed since the beginning of

the Kaliyuga.

“Multiply the basis by 47, and add 68,000 to the product. Divide the

sum by 10,000. The quotient represents the zodiacal signs and fractions

of them, i.e. the position of the Great Bear which was sought.”

The addition of 68,000, prescribed in this rule, must be the original

position of the Great Bear at the beginning of the basis, multiplied by

10,000. If we divide 68,000 by 10,000, we get the quotient 6⅘, i.e. six

zodiacal signs and twenty-four degrees of a seventh sign.

It is evident that if we divide the 10,000 by 47, the Great Bear has

wandered through one zodiacal sign in 212 years, 9 months, and 6 days,

according to solar time. Accordingly it wanders through one degree of a

94 years, 6 months, and 20 days.

Now there is a great difference between the values of Varâhamihira and

those of Vitteśvara, if there is not a fault in the tradition. If we,

by way of an example, make such a computation for the present year

(1030 A.D.), we get 9° 17′ in the lunar station Anurâdhâ as the

position of the Great Bear.

The people of Kashmîr believed that the Great Bear wanders through a

lunar station in 100 years. Therefore the above-mentioned calendar says

that of the present centennium of the motion of the Great Bear there is

still a remainder of twenty-three years.

[Theological opinions mixed up with astronomy.] Mistakes and confusion

such as we have here laid open arise, in the first place, from the want

of the necessary skill in astronomical researches, and secondly, from

the way of the Hindus of mixing up scientific questions with religious

traditions. For the theologians believe that the Seven Ṛishis stand

higher than the fixed stars, and they maintain that in each manvantara

there will appear a new Manu, whose children will destroy the earth;

but the rule will be renewed by Indra, as also the different classes of

the angels and the Seven Ṛishis. The angels are necessary, for mankind

must offer sacrifices to them and must bring to the fire the shares for

[Page 197.] them; and the Seven Ṛishis are necessary, because they must

renew the Veda, for it perishes at the end of each manvantara.

[The Seven Ṛishis in the different manvantaras.] Our information on

this subject we take from the Vishṇu-Purâna. From the same source we

have taken the names of the Seven Ṛishis in each manvantara, as

exhibited by the following table:—

+------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

| Number | The Seven Ṛishis, i.e. the Banât-Naʿsh, or the Stars of the Great Bear in the Manvantaras. |

| of the +------------+-------------+---------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+

|Manvantaras.| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |

+------------+------------+-------------+---------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+

| 1 | In this Manvantara there was neither Indra nor the Seven Ṛishis, but only Manu. |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| 3 | The Children of Vasishṭha. |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

+------------+------------+-------------+---------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+

CHAPTER XLVI.

[Page 198.] ON NÂRÂYAṆA, HIS APPEARANCE AT DIFFERENT TIMES, AND HIS

NAMES.

[On the nature of Nârâyaṇa.] Nârâyaṇa is according to the Hindus a

supernatural power, which does not on principle try to bring about the

good by the good, nor the bad by the bad, but to prevent the evil and

destruction by whatever means happen to be available. For this force

the good exists prior to the bad, but if the good does not properly

develop nor is available, it uses the bad, this being unavoidable. In

so doing, it may be compared to a rider who has got into the midst of a

cornfield. When he then comes back to his senses, and wants to avoid

evil-doing and to get out of the mischief he has committed, he has no

other means but that of turning his horse back and riding out on the

same road on which he has entered the field, though in going out he

will do as much mischief as he has done in entering, and even more. But

there is no other possibility of making amends save this.

The Hindus do not distinguish between this force and the First Cause of

their philosophy. Its dwelling in the world is of such a nature that

people compare it to a material existence, an appearance in body and

colour, since they cannot conceive any other kind of appearance.

Besides other times, Nârâyaṇa has appeared at the end of the first

manvantara, to take away the rule of the worlds from Vâlakhilya (?),

who had given it the name, and wanted to take it into his own hands.

Nârâyaṇa came and handed it over to Śatakratu, the performer of a

hundred sacrifices, and made him Indra.

[Story of Bali, the son of Virocana.] Another time he appeared at the

end of the sixth manvantara, when he killed the King Bali, the son of

Virocana, who ruled the whole world and had Venus as his vazîr. On

having heard from his mother that the time of his father had been much

better than his time, since it was nearer the kṛitayuga, when people

enjoyed more profound bliss and did not know any fatigue, he became

ambitious and desirous of vying with his father. Therefore he commenced

doing works of piety, giving presents, distributing money, and

performing sacrifices, which earn the rule of paradise and earth for

him who finishes a hundred of them. When he was near this term, or had

nearly finished the ninety-ninth sacrifice, the angels began to feel

uneasy and to fear for their dignity, knowing that the tribute which

men bring them would cease if they stood no longer in need of them. Now

they united and went to Nârâyaṇa, asking him to help them. He granted

their wish, and descended to the earth in the shape of Vâmana, i.e. a

man whose hands and feet are too short in comparison with his body, and

in consequence his figure is thought to be hideous.

Nârâyaṇa came to the King Bali whilst he was offering, his Brahmans

standing round the fires, and Venus, his vazîr, standing before him.

The treasure-houses had been opened and the precious stones had been

thrown out in heaps, to be given as presents and alms. Now Vâmana

commenced to recite the Veda like the Brahmans from that part which is

now called Sâmaveda, in a melancholy, impressive kind of melody,

persuading the king to grant him liberally what he would wish and

demand. Upon this Venus spoke stealthily to him: “This is Nârâyaṇa. He

has come to rob thee of thy rule.” But the king was so excited that he

did not mind the words of Venus, and asked Vâmana what was his desire.

Thereupon Vâmana said, “As much as four paces of thy realm, that I may

live there.” The king answered, “Choose what you wish, and how you wish

it;” and according to Hindu custom, he ordered water to be brought to

pour it over his hands as a sign of the confirmation of the order he

had given. Now Venus, because of her love to the king, brought in the

jug, but had corked the spout, so that no water should flow out of it,

whilst she closed the hole in the [Page 199.] cork with the kuśa grass

of her ring-finger. But Venus had only one eye; she missed the hole,

and now the water flowed out. In consequence, Vâmana made a pace

towards east, another towards west, and a third towards above as far as

Svarloka. As for the fourth pace, there was no more space in the world;

he made, by the fourth pace, the king a slave, putting his foot between

his shoulders as a sign of making him a slave. He made him sink down

into the earth as far as Pâtâla, the lowest of the low. He took the

worlds away from him, and handed the rule over to Puraṁdara.

[Quotation from Vishṇu-Purâṇa.] The following occurs in the

Vishṇu-Purâṇa:—

“The King Maitreya asked Parâśara about the yugas. So the latter

answered: ‘They exist for the purpose that Vishṇu should occupy himself

with something in them. In the Kṛitayuga he comes in the shape of

Kapila alone, for the purpose of spreading wisdom; in Tretâyuga, in the

shape of Râma alone, for the purpose of spreading fortitude, to conquer

the bad, and to preserve the three worlds by force and the prevalence

of virtuous action; in Dvâpara, in the shape of Vyâsa, to divide the

Veda into four parts, and to derive many branches from it. In the end

of Dvâpara he appears in the shape of Vâsudeva to destroy the giants;

in the Kaliyuga, in the shape of Kali, the son of J-sh-v (?) the

Brahman, to kill all, and to make the cycle of the yugas commence anew.

That is his (Vishṇu’s) occupation.’”

In another passage of the same book we read: “Vishṇu, i.e. another name

for Nârâyaṇa, comes at the end of each dvâpara to divide the Veda into

four parts, because men are feeble and unable to observe the whole of

it. In his face he resembles Vyâsa.”

[Enumeration of the Vyâsas of the seventh manvantara.] We exhibit his

names in the following table, though they vary in different sources,

enumerating the Vyâsas who have appeared in the caturyugas of the

present or seventh manvantara which have elapsed:—

1 Svayaṁbhû

2 Prajâpati

3 Uśanas

4 Bṛihaspati

5 Savitṛi

6 Mṛityu

7 Indra

8 Vasishṭha

9 Sârasvata

10 Tridhâman

11 Trivṛisha

12 Bharadvâja

13 Antariksha

14 Vapra (?)

15 Trayyâruṇa

16 Dhanaṁjaya

17 Kṛitaṁjaya

18 Ṛiṇajyeshṭha (?)

19 Bharadvâja

20 Gautama

21 Uttama

22 Haryâtman

23 Veda-vyâsa

24 Vâjaśravas

25 Somaśushma

26 Bhârgava

27 Vâlmîki

28 Kṛishṇa

29 Aśvatthâman the son of Droṇa

Kṛishṇa Dvaipâyana is Vyâsa the son of Parâśara. The twenty-ninth Vyâsa

has not yet come, but will appear in future.

[Quotation from Vishṇu-Dharma.] The book Vishṇu-Dharma says: “The names

of Hari, i.e. Nârâyaṇa, differ in the yugas. They are the following:

Vâsudeva, Saṁkarshaṇa, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha.”

I suppose that the author has not here preserved the proper sequence,

for Vâsudeva belongs to the end of the four yugas.

The same book says: “Also his colours differ in the yugas. In the

Kṛitayuga he is white, in the Tretâyuga red, in the Dvâpara yellow, the

latter is the first phase of his being embodied in human shape, and in

the Kaliyuga he is black.”

These colours are something like the three primary forces of their

philosophy, for they maintain that Satya [Page 200.] is transparent

white, Rajas red, and Tamas black. We shall in a later part of this

book give a description of his last appearance in the world.

CHAPTER XLVII.

ON VÂSUDEVA AND THE WARS OF THE BHÂRATA.

[Analogies of the course of nature to the history of mankind.] The life

of the world depends upon sowing and procreating. Both processes

increase in the course of time, and this increase is unlimited, whilst

the world is limited.

When a class of plants or animals does not increase any more in its

structure, and its peculiar kind is established as a species of its

own, when each individual of it does not simply come into existence

once and perish, but besides procreates a being like itself or several

together, and not only once but several times, then this will as a

single species of plants or animals occupy the earth and spread itself

and its kind over as much territory as it can find.

The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he

requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those

branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all

others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work

in their beehive.

Nature proceeds in a similar way; however, it does not distinguish, for

its action is under all circumstances one and the same. It allows the

leaves and fruit of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from

realising that result which they are intended to produce in the economy

of nature. It removes them so as to make room for others.

If thus the earth is ruined, or is near to be ruined, by having too

many inhabitants, its ruler—for it has a ruler, and his all-embracing

care is apparent in every single particle of it—sends it a messenger

for the purpose of reducing the too great number and of cutting away

all that is evil.

[Story of the birth of Vâsudeva.] A messenger of this kind is,

according to the belief of the Hindus, Vâsudeva, who was sent the last

time in human shape, being called Vâsudeva. It was a time when the

giants were numerous on earth and the earth was full of their

oppression; it tottered, being hardly able to bear the whole number of

them, and it trembled from the vehemence of their treading. Then there

was born a child in the city of Mathurâ to Vâsudeva by the sister of

Kaṁsa, at that time ruler of the town. They were a Jatt family,

cattle-owners, low Śûdra people. Kaṁsa had learned, by a voice which he

heard at the wedding of his sister, that he would perish at the hands

of her child; therefore he appointed people who were to bring him every

child of hers as soon as she gave birth to it, and he killed all her

children, both male and female. Finally, she gave birth to Balabhadra,

and Yaśodâ, the wife of the herdsman Nanda, took the child to herself,

and managed to keep it concealed from the spies of Kaṁsa. Thereupon she

became pregnant an eighth time, and gave birth to Vâsudeva in a rainy

night of the eighth day of the black half of the month Bhâdrapada,

whilst the moon was ascending in the station Rohiṇî. As the guards had

fallen into deep sleep and neglected the watch, the father stole the

child and brought it to Nandakula, i.e. the stable of the cows of

Nanda, the husband of Yaśodâ, near Mathurâ, but separated from this

place by the river Yamunâ. Vâsudeva exchanged the child for a daughter

of Nanda, which happened to be born at the moment when Vâsudeva arrived

with the boy. He brought this female child to the guards instead of his

son. Kaṁsa, the ruler, wanted to kill the child, but she flew up into

the air and disappeared.

Vâsudeva grew up under the care of his foster-mother Yaśodâ without her

knowing that he had been exchanged for her daughter, but Kaṁsa got some

inkling of the matter. Now he tried to get the child into his power by

cunning plans, but all of them turned out against him. Lastly, Kaṁsa

demanded from his parents that they should send him (Vâsudeva) to

wrestle in his (Kaṁsa’s) presence. Now Vâsudeva began to behave

overbearingly towards everybody. On the road he had already roused the

wrath of his aunt by hurting a serpent which had been appointed to

watch over the lotus flowers of a pond, for he had drawn a cord through

its nostrils like a bridle. Further, he had killed his fuller, because

the latter had refused to lend him clothes for the wrestling. He had

robbed the girl who accompanied [Page 201.] him of the sandal-wood with

which she was ordered to anoint the wrestlers. Lastly, he had killed

the rutting elephant which was provided for the purpose of killing him

before the door of Kaṁsa. All this heightened the wrath of Kaṁsa to

such a degree, that his bile burst, and he died on the spot. Then

Vâsudeva, his sister’s son, ruled in his stead.

[The names of Vâsudeva in the different months.] Vâsudeva has a special

name in each month. His followers begin the months with Mârgaśîrsha,

and each month they begin with the eleventh day, because on this day

Vâsudeva appeared.

The following table contains the names of Vâsudeva in the months:—

+------------+------------+

|The Months. |The Names of|

| | Vâsudeva. |

+------------+------------+

|Mârgaśîrsha | Keśava |

|Pausha | Nârâyaṇa |

|Mâgha | Mâdhava |

|Phâlguna | Govinda |

|Caitra | Vishṇu |

|Vaiśâkha | Madhusûdana|

|Jyaishṭha | Trivikrama |

|Âshâḍha | Vâmana |

|Śrâvaṇa | Śrîdhara |

|Bhâdrapada | Hṛishîkeśa |

|Âśvayuja | Padmanâbhi |

|Kârttika | Dâmodara |

+------------+------------+

[Continuation of the story of Vâsudeva.] Now the brother-in-law of the

deceased Kaṁsa became angry, went rapidly to Mathurâ, took possession

of the realm of Vâsudeva, and banished him to the ocean. Then there

appeared near the coast a golden castle called Barodâ, and Vâsudeva

made it his residence.

The children of Kaurava (i.e. Dhṛitarâshṭra) had the charge of their

cousins (the children of Pâṇḍu). Dhṛitarâshṭra received them and played

dice with them, the last stake being their whole property. They lost

more and more, until he laid upon them the obligation of expatriation

for more than ten years, and of concealment in the remotest part of the

country, where nobody knew them. If they did not keep this engagement

they would be bound to return into banishment for a like number of

years. This engagement was carried out, but finally came the time of

their coming forward for battle. Now each party began to assemble their

whole number and to sue for allies, till at last nearly innumerable

hosts had gathered in the plain of Tâneshar. There were eighteen

akshauhiṇî. Each party tried to gain Vâsudeva as ally, whereupon he

offered either himself or his brother Balabhadra together with an army.

But the children of Pâṇḍu preferred him. They were five

men—Yudhishṭhira, their leader, Arjuna, the bravest of them, Sahadeva,

Bhîmasena, and Nakula. They had seven akshauhiṇî, whilst their enemies

were much stronger. But for the cunning devices of Vâsudeva and his

teaching them whereby they might gain victory, they would have been in

a less favourable situation than their enemies. But now they conquered;

all those hosts were destroyed, and none remained except the five

brothers. Thereafter Vâsudeva returned to his residence and died,

together with his family, who were called Yâdava. Also the five

brothers died before the year had reached its end, at the end of those

wars.

[End of Vâsudeva and of the five Pâṇḍu brothers.] Vâsudeva had

concerted with Arjuna the arrangement that they would consider the

quivering of the left arm or left eye as a mysterious intimation that

there was something happening to him. At that time there lived a pious

Ṛishi called Durvâsas. Now the brothers and relations of Vâsudeva were

a rather malicious, inconsiderate set of people. One of them hid under

his coat a new frying-pan, went to the anchorite, and asked him what

would be the result of his pregnancy, jeering at the pious man. The

latter said, “In thy belly there is something which will be the cause

of thy death and that of thy whole clan.” When Vâsudeva heard this he

became sorry, because he knew that these words would be fulfilled. He

gave orders that the pan should be filed away and be thrown into the

water. This was done. There was only a small part of it left, which

[Page 202.] the artisan who had done the filing considered as

insignificant. Therefore he threw it, as it was, into the water. A fish

devoured it; the fish was caught, and the fisherman found it in its

belly. He thought it would be a good tip for his arrow.

When the predestined time came, Vâsudeva rested on the coast under the

shadow of a tree, one of his feet being crossed over the other; the

fisherman took him for a gazelle, shot at him, and hit his right foot.

This wound became the cause of the death of Vâsudeva. At the same time

the left side of Arjuna began to quiver, and then his arm. Now his

brother Sahadeva gave orders that he should never any more embrace

anybody, that he might not be bereft of his strength (?). Arjuna went

to Vâsudeva, but could not embrace him on account of the state in which

he was. Vâsudeva ordered his bow to be brought, and handed it over to

Arjuna, who tried his strength at it. Vâsudeva ordered him to burn his

body and the bodies of his relations when they had died, and to bring

away his wives from the castle, and then he died.

Out of the filings or bits of iron which had fallen off when the pan

was filed a bardî bush had grown. To this there came the Yâdavas, who

tied together some bundles of its twigs to sit upon. Whilst they were

drinking there arose a quarrel between them; they beat each other with

the bardî bundles, and killed each other. All this happened near the

mouth of the river Sarsatî, where it flows into the sea, near the

situation of Somanâth.

Arjuna had done all he had been ordered by Vâsudeva. When he brought

away the women, they were suddenly attacked by robbers. When, now,

Arjuna was no longer able to bend his bow, he felt that his strength

was going. He whirled the bow in a circle above his head, and all who

stood under the bow were saved, while the others were seized by the

robbers. Now Arjuna and his brothers saw that life was no more of any

use to them, therefore they emigrated to the north and entered the

mountains, the snow of which never melts. The cold killed them one

after the other, till at last only Yudhishṭhira remained. He obtained

the distinction of being admitted to paradise, but before that he was

to pass through hell in consequence of the sole lie which he had spoken

in his life, at the request of his brothers and of Vâsudeva. These were

the words which he had spoken within hearing of the Brahman Droṇa:

“Aśvatthâman, the elephant, has died.” He had made a pause between

Aśvatthâman and the elephant, by which he had led Droṇa to believe that

he meant his son. Yudhishṭhira spoke to the angels: “If this must be,

may my intercession be accepted on behalf of the people in hell; may

they be freed from it.” After this desire of his had been granted, he

went into paradise.

CHAPTER XLVIII.

AN EXPLANATION OF THE MEASURE OF AN AKSHAUHIṆÎ.

Each akshauhiṇî has 10 anîkinî.

,, anîkinî ,, 3 camû.

,, camû ,, 3 pṛitanâ.

,, pṛitanâ ,, 3 vâhinî.

,, vâhinî ,, 3 gaṇa.

,, gaṇa ,, 3 gulma.

,, gulma ,, 3 senâmukha.

,, senâmukha ,, 3 patti.

,, patti ,, 1 ratha.

In chess, the latter is called rukh, whilst the Greeks call it chariot

of war. It was invented by Mankalus (Myrtilos?) in Athens, and the

Athenians maintain that they were the first who rode on chariots of

war. However, before that time they had already been invented by

Aphrodisios (sic) the Hindu, when he ruled over Egypt, about 900 years

after the deluge. They were drawn by two horses.

The following is a tale of the Greeks: Hephæstos loved Athene and

desired to possess her, but she refused him, preferring to remain a

virgin. Now he concealed himself in the country of Athens, and intended

to seize her by force, but she pierced him with a spear and then he let

her go. From a drop of his blood, which had [Page 203.] dropped to the

earth, there grew Erichthonios. He arrived on a chariot like the tower

of the sun, the holder of the reins riding together with him. Similar

to this are the customs of the hippodrome, as they exist in our time,

the running and driving with carriages in the race.

A ratha comprehends besides, one elephant, three riders, and five

footmen.

All these orders and divisions are necessary for the preparation for

battle, for pitching camp and breaking up camp.

An akshauhiṇî has 21,870 chariots, 21,870 elephants, 65,610 riders,

109,350 footmen.

To each chariot there belong four horses and their conductor, the

master of the chariot, armed with arrows, his two companions armed with

spears, a guard who protects the master from behind, and a cartwright.

On each elephant there sits its conductor, and behind him the

vice-conductor, a man who has to goad the elephant behind the chair,

the master, armed with arrows, in the chair, and together with him his

two spear-throwing companions and his jester, hauhava (?), who on other

occasions runs before him.

Accordingly the number of people who ride on chariots and elephants is

284,323 (sic). The number of those who ride on horses is 87,480. The

number of elephants in an akshauhiṇî is 21,870; the number of chariots,

too, is 21,870; the number of horses is 153,090; the number of men,

459,283.

The sum-total of the living beings of one akshauhiṇî, elephants,

horses, and men, is 634,243; the same number for eighteen akshauhiṇî is

11,416,374, viz. 393,660 elephants, 2,755,620 horses, 8,267,094 men.

This is an explanation of the akshauhiṇî, and of its single parts.

END OF VOL. I.

NOTES

[1] Cf. J. Mohl, Le Livre des Rois, traduit, &c. Publié par Mme. Mohl,

1876, préface, pp. xl. seq.

[2] There is a reminiscence of his native country, i. 166, where he

speaks of a kind of measure used in Khwârizm.

[3] The Canon Masudicus, extant in four good copies in European

libraries, waits for the patronage of some Academy of Sciences or some

Government, and for the combination of two scholars, an astronomer and

an Arabic philologist, for the purpose of an edition and translation.

[4] For a similar trait of self-confidence cf. i. 277, last lines.

[5] Cf. his sarcasms on the versifying bias of Hindu authors, i. 137.

[6] Alberuni does not seem to have shared these scruples, for he

translated it into Arabic (cf. i. 154).

[7] Benfey in Kalilag und Damnag, Einleitung, p. xliii. note 3. The

word has received currency in the form Bidpai.

[8] Cf. Benfey, l. c., Einleitung, p. xl.

[9] The places where mention of these books occurs are given in Index

I. Cf. also the annotations on single cases.

[10] Saṁhitâ, chap. xiii. v. 1–6.

How little exact is the learning of the author (Pulisa) who meant to