The southern frontier of India is formed_Alberuni's India (Volume 1 of 2)

India begins with Tîz, the capital of Makrân, and extends thence in a

south-eastern direction towards the region of Al-daibal, over a

distance of 40 farsakh. Between the two places lies the Gulf of Tûrân.

A gulf is like an angle or a winding line of water penetrating from the

ocean into the continent, and is dangerous for navigation, specially on

account of ebb and flood. An estuary is something similar to a gulf,

but is not formed by the ocean’s penetrating into the continent. It is

formed by an expanse of flowing water, which there is changed into

standing water and is connected with the ocean. These estuaries, too,

are dangerous for the ships, because the water is sweet and does not

bear heavy bodies as well as salt water does.

After the above-mentioned gulf follow the small Munha, the great Munha,

then the Bawârij, i.e. the pirates of Kacch and Sômanâth. They are thus

called because they commit their robberies on sea in ships called bîra.

The places on the coast are:—Tawalleshar, 50 farsakh from Daibal;

Lôharânî, 12 farsakh; Baga, 12 farsakh; Kacch, where the muḳl-tree

grows, and Bâroî, 6 farsakh; Sômanâth, 14 farsakh; Kanbâyat, 30

farsakh; Asawil, 2 days; Bihrôj, 30 farsakh (?); Sandân, 50 farsakh;

Sûbâra, 6 farsakh; Tâna, 5 farsakh.

Thence the coast-line comes to the country Lârân, in which lies the

city of Jîmûr, then to Vallabha, Kânjî, Darvad. Next follows a great

bay in which Singaldîb lies, i.e. the island Sarandîb (Ceylon). Round

the bay lies the city of Panjayâvar (sic). When this city had fallen

into ruins, the king, Jaur, built instead of it, on the coast towards

the west, a new city which he called Padnâr.

The next place on the coast is Ûmmalnâra, then Râmsher (Râmeshar?)

opposite Sarandîb; the distance of the sea between them is 12 farsakh.

The distance from Panjayâvar to Râmsher is 40 farsakh, that between

Râmsher and Setubandha 2 farsakh. Setubandha means bridge of the ocean.

It is the dike of Râma, the son of Daśaratha, which he built from the

continent to the castle Laṅkâ. At present it consists of isolated

mountains between which the ocean flows. Sixteen farsakh from

Setubandha towards the east is Kihkind, the mountains of the monkeys.

Every day the king of the monkeys comes out of the thicket together

with his hosts, and settles down in particular seats prepared for them.

The inhabitants of that region prepare for them cooked rice, and bring

it to them on leaves. After having eaten it they return into the

thicket, but in case they are neglected, this would be the ruin of the

country, as they are not only numerous, but also savage and aggressive.

According to the popular belief, they are a race of men changed into

monkeys on account of the help which they had afforded to Râma when

making war against the demons; he is believed to have bequeathed those

villages to them as a legacy. When a man happens to fall in with them,

and he recites to them the poetry of Râma and pronounces the

incantations of Râma, they will quietly listen to him; they will even

lead on the right path him who has gone astray and give him meat and

drink. At all events, thus the matter stands according to popular

belief. If there is [Page 103.] any truth in this, the effect must be

produced by the melody, the like of which we have already mentioned in

connection with the hunting of gazelles (v. p. 195).

[Islands in the Indian and Chinese Seas.] The eastern islands in this

ocean, which are nearer to China than to India, are the islands of the

Zâbaj, called by the Hindus Suvarṇa-dvîpa, i.e. the gold islands. The

western islands in this ocean are those of the Zanj (Negroes), and

those in the middle are the islands Ramm and the Dîva islands

(Malediva, Laccadiva), to which belong also the Ḳumair islands. It is

peculiar to the Dîva islands that they rise slowly; first, there

appears a sandy tract above the surface of the ocean; it rises more and

more and extends in all directions, till at last it becomes a firm

soil, whilst at the same time another island falls into decay and melts

away, finally is submerged and disappears in the ocean. As soon as the

inhabitants become aware of this process, they search for a new island

of increasing fertility, transport there their cocoa-nut palms, date

palms, cereals, and household goods, and emigrate to it. These islands

are, according to their products, divided into two classes, the

Dîva-kûdha, i.e. the Dîva of the kauri-shells, because there they

gather kauri-shells from the branches of the cocoa-nut palms which they

plant in the sea, and Dîva-kanbâr, i.e. the Dîva of the cords twisted

from cocoa-nut fibres, and used for fastening together the planks of

the ships.

The island of Alwâḳwâḳ belongs to the Ḳumair islands. Ḳumair is not, as

common people believe, the name of a tree which produces screaming

human heads instead of fruits, but the name of a people the colour of

whom is whitish. They are of short stature and of a build like that of

the Turks. They practise the religion of the Hindus, and have the

custom of piercing their ears. Some of the inhabitants of the Wâḳwâḳ

island are of black colour. In our countries there is a great demand

for them as slaves. People fetch from thence the black ebony-wood; it

is the pith of a tree, the other parts of which are thrown away, whilst

the kinds of wood called mulammaʿ and shauḥaṭ and the yellow

sandal-wood are brought from the country of the Zanj (Negroes).

In former times there were pearl-banks in the bay of Sarandîb (Ceylon),

but at present they have been abandoned. Since the Sarandîb pearls have

disappeared, other pearls have been found at Sufâla in the country of

the Zanj, so that people say the pearls of Sarandîb have migrated to

Sufâla.

[On the rainfall in India.] India has the tropical rains in summer,

which is called varshakâla, and these rains are the more copious and

last the longer the more northward the situation of a province of India

is, and the less it is intersected by ranges of mountains. The people

of Mûltân used to tell me that they have no varshakâla, but the more

northern provinces nearer the mountains have the varshakâla. In Bhâtal

and Indravêdi it begins with the month Âshâḍha, and it rains

continually for four months as though water-buckets were poured out. In

provinces still farther northward, round the mountains of Kashmîr up to

the peak of Jûdarî between Dunpûr and Barshâwar, copious rain falls

during two and a half months, beginning with the month Śrâvaṇa.

However, on the other side of this peak there is no rainfall; for the

clouds in the north are very heavy, and do not rise much above the

surface. When, then, they reach the mountains, the mountain-sides

strike against them, and the clouds are pressed like olives or grapes,

in consequence of which the rain pours down, and the clouds never pass

beyond the mountains. Therefore Kashmîr has no varshakâla, but

continual snowfall during two and a half months, beginning with Mâgha,

and shortly after the middle of Caitra continual rain sets in for a few

days, melting the snow and cleansing the earth. This rule seldom has an

exception; however, a certain amount of extraordinary meteorological

occurrences is peculiar to every province of India.

CHAPTER XIX.

ON THE NAMES OF THE PLANETS, THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC, THE LUNAR

STATIONS, AND RELATED SUBJECTS.

We have already mentioned, near the beginning of the book, that the

language of the Hindus is extremely [Page 104.] rich in nouns, both

original and derivative, so that in some instances they call one thing

by a multitude of different names. So I have heard them saying that

they have a thousand names all meaning sun; and, no doubt, each planet

has quite as many, or nearly as many names, since they could not do

with less (for the purposes of versification).

[The names of the days of the week.] The names of the week-days are the

best known names of the planets connected with the word bâra, which

follows after the planet’s name, as in Persian the word shambih follows

after the number of the week-day (dûshambih, sihshambih, &c.). So they

say—

Âditya bâra, i.e. Sunday.

Soma bâra, i.e. Monday.

Maṅgala bâra, i.e. Tuesday.

Budha bâra, i.e. Wednesday.

Bṛihaspati bâra, i.e. Thursday.

Śukra bâra, i.e. Friday.

Śanaiścara bâra, i.e. Saturday.

And thus they go on counting, beginning anew with Sunday, Monday, &c.

[On the Domini dierum.] Muslim astronomers call the planets the lords

of the days, and, in counting the hours of the day, they begin with the

dominus of the day, and then count the planets in the order from above

to below. For instance, the sun is the dominus of the first day, and at

the same time the dominus of its first hour. The second hour is ruled

by the planet of the sphere next under the sphere of the sun, i.e.

Venus. The third hour is ruled by Mercury, and the fourth by the moon.

Therewith the descending from the sun to the æther, i.e. the atmosphere

of the earth, has an end, and in counting they return to Saturn.

According to this system, the dominus of the twenty-fifth hour is the

moon, and this is the first hour of Monday. So the moon is not only the

dominus of the first hour of Monday, but also the dominus of the whole

day.

[On ὧραι καιρικαί and ὧραι ἰσημεριναί.] In all this there is only one

difference between our system and that of the Hindus, viz. that we use

the ὧραι καιρικαί, so that the thirteenth planet, counted from the

dominus diei, is the dominus of the succeeding night. This is the third

planet if you count in an opposite direction, i.e. ascending from the

lower planet-spheres to the higher. On the contrary, the Hindus make

the dominus diei the dominus of the whole νυχθήμερον, so that day and

night follow each other without having each a separate dominus. This,

at all events, is the practice of the people at large.

Sometimes, however, their chronological methods make me think that the

ὧραι καιρικαί were not entirely unknown to them. They call the hour

hora, and by the same name they call the half of a zodiacal sign in the

calculation of the nîmbahra. The following calculation of the dominus

horæ is derived from one of their astronomical handbooks:—

“Divide the distance between the sun and the degree of the ascendens

measured by equal degrees, by 15, and add to the quotient 1, dropping a

fraction if there be any. This sum is then counted off from the dominus

diei, according to the succession of the planets from above to below.”

(The planet you arrive at in the end is the dominus of the hour in

question.) This calculation is more of a nature to make us think of

ὧραι καιρικαί as having been used, than of ὧραι ἰσημεριναί.

[Order of the planets and their notation.] It is a custom of the Hindus

to enumerate the planets in the order of the week-days. They will

persist in using it in their astronomical handbooks, as well as in

other books, and they decline to use any other order, though it be much

more correct.

The Greeks mark the planets with figures, to fix thereby their limits

on the astrolabe in an easily intelligible manner, images which are not

letters of the alphabet. The Hindus use a similar system of

abridgement; however, their figures are not images invented for the

purpose, but the initial characters of the names of the planets, e.g. â

= Âditya, or the sun; c = Candra, or the moon; b = Budha, or Mercury.

The following table exhibits the commonest names of the seven planets:—

[Page 105.]

+--------------+---------------------------------------------------------+

| The Planets. | Their Names in the Indian Language. |

+--------------+---------------------------------------------------------+

| Sun { | Âditya, sûrya, bhânu, arka, divâkara, ravi, bibatâ (?), |

| { | heli. |

| | |

| Moon { | Soma, candra, indu, himagu, śîtaraśmi, himaraśmi, |

| { | śîtâṁśu, śîtadîdhiti, himamayûkha. |

| | |

| Mars { | Maṅgala, bhaumya, kuja, âra, vakra, âvaneya, |

| { | mâheya, krûrâkshi (?), rakta. |

| | |

| Mercury { | Budha, saumya, cândra, jña, bodhana, vitta (?), |

| { | hemna. |

| | |

| Jupiter { | Vṛihaspati, guru, jîva, devejya, devapurohita, |

| { | devamantrin, aṅgiras, sûri, devapitâ. |

| | |

| Venus { | Śukra, bhṛigu, sita, bhârgava, âsbati (?), dânavaguru, |

| { | bhṛiguputra, âsphujit (?). |

| | |

| Saturn { | Śanaiścara, manda, asita, koṇa, âdityaputra, saura, |

| { | ârki, sûryaputra. |

+------------------------------------------------------------------------+

[On the twelve suns.] The multiplicity of names of the sun as exhibited

in the previous table was the cause which led the theologians to assume

also a multiplicity of suns, so that according to them there are twelve

suns, each of which rises in a particular month. The book Vishṇu-dharma

says: “Vishṇu, i.e. Nârâyaṇa, who is without beginning in time and

without end, divided himself for the angels into twelve parts, which

became sons to Kaśyapa. These are the suns rising in the single

months.” Those, however, who do not believe that the multiplicity of

names is the source of this theory of twelve suns, point out that the

other planets also have many names, but each only one body, and that,

besides, the names of the sun are not only twelve, but many more. The

names are derived from words with generic meanings, e.g. Âditya, i.e.

the beginning, because the sun is the beginning of the whole. Savitṛi

means every being which has a progeny, and since all progeny in the

world originates with the sun, he is called Savitṛi. Further, the sun

is called Ravi, because he dries wet substances. The juice in the

plants is called rasa, and he who takes it out of them is called ravi.

[Names of the moon.] The moon too, the companion of the sun, has many

[Page 106.] names, e.g. Soma, because she is lucky, and everything

lucky is called somagraha, whilst all that is unlucky is called

pâpagraha. Further, Niśeśa, i.e. lord of the night, Nakshatranâtha,

i.e. lord of the lunar stations, Dvijeśvara, i.e. lord of the Brahmins,

Śîtâṁśu, i.e. having a cold ray, because the moon’s globe is watery,

which is a blessing to the earth. When the solar ray meets the moon,

the ray becomes as cool as the moon herself, then, being reflected, it

illuminates the darkness, makes the night cool and extinguishes any

hurtful kind of combustion wrought by the sun. Similarly the moon is

also called Candra, which means the left eye of Nârâyaṇa, as the sun is

his right eye.

[The names of the months.] The following table exhibits the names of

the months. Disturbances and differences in lists of these names

proceed from the causes which we shall mention (v. p. 228) when

speaking of the enumeration of the different earths.

+-------------+------------------+----------------------------------------------------+------------------+------------+

+-------------+------------------+----------------------------------------------------+------------------+------------+

| | | | | |

| Vaiśâkha | Aryaman | {Punishing and beating the rebels. In consequence} | Savitṛi | Vishṇu. |

| | | { they do not oppose him, from fear } | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

+-------------+------------------+----------------------------------------------------+------------------+------------+

[Page 107.] People think, with regard to the order of the names of suns

as given by the Vishṇu-dharma, that it is [The names of the months

derived from those of the lunar mansions.] correct and undisturbed; for

Vâsudeva has a separate name in each month, and his worshippers begin

the months with Mârgaśîrsha, in which his name is Keśava. If you count

his names one after the other, you find that one which he has in the

month Caitra, Vishṇu, in accordance with the tradition of the

Vishṇu-dharma.

The names of the months are related to those of the lunar stations. As

two or three stations belong to each month, the name of the month is

derived from one of them. We have in the following table written these

particular stations with red ink (in this translation with an

asterisk), in order to point out their relationship with the names of

the months.

If Jupiter shines in some lunar station, the month to which this

station belongs is considered as the dominant of the year, and the

whole year is called by the name of this month.

If the names of the month given in the following table differ in some

respects from those used heretofore, the reader must know that the

names which we have hitherto used are the vernacular or vulgar ones,

whilst those given in this table are the classical:—

+---------------+-----------------------+

| The Months. | The Lunar |

| | Stations. |

+---------------+-----------------------+

| Kârttika { | 3 Kṛittikâ.* |

| { | 4 Rohiṇî. |

| Mârgaśîrsha { | 5 Mṛigaśîrsha.* |

| { | 6 Ârdrâ. |

| Pausha { | 7 Punarvasu. |

| { | 8 Pushya.* |

| Mâgha { | 9 Âślêsha. |

| { | 10 Maghâ.* |

| { | 11 Pûrva-phalgunî.* |

| Phâlguna { | 12 Uttara-phalgunî. |

| { | 13 Hasta. |

| Caitra { | 14 Citrâ.* |

| { | 15 Svâtî. |

| Vaiśâkha { | 16 Viśâkhâ.* |

| { | 17 Anurâdhâ. |

| Jyaishṭha { | 18 Jyeshṭhâ.* |

| { | 19 Mûla. |

| Âshâḍha { | 20 Pûrvâshâḍhâ.* |

| { | 21 Uttarâshâḍhâ. |

| Śrâvaṇa { | 22 Śravaṇa.* |

| { | 23 Dhanishṭa. |

| { | 24 Śatabhishaj. |

| Bhâdrapadâ { | 25 Pûrva-bhâdrapadâ.* |

| { | 26 Uttara-bhâdrapadâ. |

| Âśvayuja { | 27 Revatî. |

| { | 1 Aśvinî.* |

| { | 2 Bharaṇî. |

+-------------+-------------------------+

[On the names of the signs of the Zodiac.] The signs of the zodiac have

names corresponding to the images which they represent, and which are

the [Page 108.] same among the Hindus as among all other nations. The

third sign is called Mithuna, which means a pair consisting of a boy

and a girl; in fact, the same as the Twins, the well-known image of

this sign.

Varâhamihira says in the larger book of nativities that the word

applies to a man holding a lyre and a club, which makes me think that

he identified Mithuna with Orion (Aljabbâr). And this is the opinion of

common people in general, to such a degree that the station is known as

Aljauzâ (instead of the Twins), though Aljauzâ does not belong to the

image of this sign.

The same author explains the image of the sixth sign as a ship, and in

its hand an ear of corn. I am inclined to think that in our manuscript

there is a lacuna in this place, for a ship has no hand. The Hindus

call this sign Kanyâ, i.e. the virgin girl, and perhaps the passage in

question ran originally thus: “A virgin in a ship holding an ear of

corn in her hand.” This is the lunar station Alsimâk Alʾaʿzal (Spica).

The word ship makes one think that the author meant the lunar station

Alʿawwâ (β, η, γ, δ, ε, Virginis), for the stars of Alʿawwâ form a

line, the end of which is a curve (like the keel of a ship).

The image of the seventh sign he declares to be fire. It is called Tulâ

= balance.

Of the tenth sign Varâhamihira says that it has the face of a goat,

whilst the remainder is a makara (hippopotamus). However, after having

compared the sign with a makara, he might have saved himself the

trouble of attributing to it the face of a goat. Only the Greeks

require the latter description, because they consider the sign as

composed of two animals, as a goat in the part above the breast and as

a fish in the lower part. But the aquatic animal called makara, as

people describe it, does not require to be explained as a composition

of two animals.

The image of the eleventh sign he calls a bucket, and the name, Kumbha,

corresponds to this statement. However, if they sometimes enumerate

this sign or part of it among the human figures, this proves that they,

following the example of the Greeks, see in it Aquarius.

The image of the twelfth sign he describes as the figure of two fishes,

although the name of the sign in all languages signifies only one fish.

Besides the well-known names, Varâhamihira mentions also certain Indian

names of the signs which are not generally known. We have united both

kinds in the following table:—

+--------------+--------------+-------------------+

| The Zodiacal | Their Common | Names which |

| Signs. | Names. | are not generally |

| | | known. |

+--------------+--------------+-------------------+

| 0 | Mesha. | Kriya. |

| 1 | Vṛishan. | Tâmbiru. |

| 2 | Mithuna. | Jituma. |

| 3 | Karkaṭa. | Kulîra. |

| 4 | Siṁha. | Liyaya. |

| 5 | Kanyâ. | Pârtîna. |

| 6 | Tulâ. | Jûga. |

| 7 | Vṛiścika.| Kaurba. |

| 8 | Dhanu. | Taukshika. |

| 9 | Makara. | Agokîru. |

| 10 | Kumbah. | Udruvaga. |

| 11 | Mîna. {| Anta, also |

| | {| Jîtu. |

+--------------+--------------+-------------------+

It is the custom of the Hindus in enumerating the zodiacal signs not to

begin with 0 for Aries and 1 for Taurus, but to begin with 1 for Aries

and 2 for Taurus, &c., so that Pisces are No. 12.

CHAPTER XX.

ON THE BRAHMÂṆḌA.

[The egg of Brahman, its coming forth from the water.] Brahmâṇḍa means

the egg of Brahman, and applies in reality to the whole of heaven

(αἰθήρ), on account of its being round, and of the particular kind of

its motion. [Page 109.] It applies even to the whole world, in so far

as it is divided into an upper and an under part. When they enumerate

the heavens, they call the sum of them Brahmâṇḍa. The Hindus, however,

are devoid of training in astronomy, and have no correct astronomical

notions. In consequence, they believe that the earth is at rest, more

particularly as they, when describing the bliss of paradise as

something like worldly happiness, make the earth the dwelling-place of

the different classes of gods, angels, &c., to whom they attribute

locomotion and the direction from the upper worlds to the lower.

According to the enigmatic expressions of their tradition, the water

was before every other thing, and it filled the space of the whole

world. This was, as I understand them, at the beginning of the day of

the soul (purushâhorâtra, p. 332), and the beginning of formation and

combination. Further, they say the water was rolling and foaming. Then

something white came forth from the water, of which the Creator created

the egg of Brahman. Now, according to some, the egg broke; Brahman came

forth from it, the one half became the heaven, the other the earth, and

the broken bits between the two halves became the rains. If they said

mountains instead of rains, the matter would be somewhat more

plausible. According to others, God spoke to Brahman: “I create an egg,

which I make for thy dwelling in it.” He had created it of the above

mentioned foam of the water, but when the water sank and was absorbed,

the egg broke into two halves.

[Greek parallel: Asclepius.] Similar opinions were held by the ancient

Greeks regarding Asclepius, the inventor of the medical art; for,

according to Galenus, they represent him as holding an egg in his hand,

whereby they mean to indicate that the world is round, the egg an image

of the universe, and that the whole world needs the medical art.

Asclepius does not hold a lower position in the belief of the Greeks

than Brahman in the belief of the Hindus, for they say that he is a

divine power, and that his name is derived from his action, i.e.

protecting against dryness, which means death, because death occurs

when dryness and cold are prevalent. As for his natural origin, they

call him the son of Apollo, the son of Phlegyas (?), and the son of

Kronos, i.e. the planet Saturn. By this system of affiliation they mean

to attribute to him the force of a threefold god.

[Water the first element of creation. The egg of Brahman broken in two

halves.] The theory of the Hindus, that the water existed before all

creation, rests on this, that it is the cause of the cohesion of the

atoms of everything, the cause of the growing of everything, and of the

duration of life in every animated being. Thus the water is an

instrument in the hand of the Creator when he wants to create something

out of matter. A similar idea is propounded by the Koran, xi. 9: “And

his (God’s) throne was on the water.” Whether you explain it in an

external way as an individual body called by this name, and which God

orders us to venerate, or whether you give it the intrinsic meaning of

realm, i.e. God’s realm, or the like, in any case the meaning is this,

that at that time beside God there was nothing but the water and his

throne. If this our book were not restricted to the ideas of one single

nation, we should produce from the belief of the nations who lived in

ancient times in and round Babel ideas similar to the egg of Brahman,

and even more stupid and unmeaning than that.

The theory of the division of the egg into two halves proves that its

originator was the contrary of a scientific man, one who did not know

that the heaven comprehends the earth, as the shell of the egg of

Brahman comprehends its yolk. He imagined the earth to be below and the

heaven in only one of the six directions from the earth, i.e. above it.

If he had known the truth, he might have spared himself the theory of

the breaking of the egg. However, he wished by his theory to describe

one half of the egg as spread out for the [Page 110.] earth, and the

other half as placed upon it for a cupola, trying to outvie Ptolemy in

the planispheric representation of a globe, but without success.

[Quotation from Plato’s Timæus.] There have always been similar fancies

afloat, which everybody interprets as best suits his religion and

philosophy. So Plato says in his Timæus something like the Brahmâṇḍa:

“The Creator cut a straight thread into halves. With each of them he

described a circle, so that the two circles met in two places, and one

of them he divided into seven parts.” In these words he hints, as is

his custom, at the original two motions of the universe (from east to

west in the diurnal rotation, and from west to east in the precession

of the equinoxes), and at the globes of the planets.

[Quotation from Brahmagupta.] Brahmagupta says in the first chapter of

the Brahmasiddhânta, where he enumerates the heavens, placing the moon

in the nearest heaven, the other planets in the following ones, and

Saturn in the seventh: “The fixed stars are in the eighth heaven, and

this has been created round in order to last for ever, that in it the

pious may be rewarded, the wicked be punished, since there is nothing

behind it.” He indicates in this chapter that the heavens are identical

with the spheres, and he gives them in an order which differs from that

of the traditional literature of their creed, as we shall show

hereafter in the proper place. He indicates, too, that the round can

only be slowly influenced from without. He evinces his knowledge of the

Aristotelic notions regarding the round form and the rotating motion,

and that there is no body in existence behind the spheres.

If it is of this description, evidently Brahmâṇḍa is the totality of

the spheres, i.e. the αἰθήρ, in fact, the universe, for retribution in

another life takes place, according to the ideas of the Hindus, within

it.

[Quotation from the Siddhânta of Pulisa.] Pulisa says in his Siddhânta:

“The totality of the world is the sum of earth, water, fire, wind, and

heaven. The latter was created behind the darkness. It appears to the

eyes as blue, because it is not reached by the rays of the sun and not

illuminated by them like the watery non-igneous globes, i.e. the bodies

of the planet and the moon. When the rays of the sun fall upon these

and the shadow of the earth does not reach them, their darkness

disappears and their figures become visible in the night. The

light-giver is only one, all the others receive the light from him.” In

this chapter Pulisa speaks of the utmost limit that can be reached, and

calls it heaven. He places it in darkness, since he says that it exists

in a place which is not reached by the rays of the sun. The question as

to the blue-grey colour of heaven which is perceived by the eye is of

too great an extent to be touched upon here.

[Quotations from Brahmagupta, Vasishṭha, Balabhadra, and Âryabhaṭa.]

Brahmagupta says in the above-mentioned chapter: “Multiply the cycles

of the moon, i.e. 57,753,300,000, by the number of the yojana of her

sphere, i.e. 324,000, and you get as the product

18,712,069,200,000,000, i.e. the number of the yojana of the sphere of

the zodiac.” Of the yojana as a measure of distance we have already

spoken in the chapter on metrology (ch. xv. p. 167). We give the

just-mentioned calculation of Brahmagupta, simply reproducing his words

without any responsibility of our own, for he has not explained on what

reason it rests. Vasishṭha says that the Brahmâṇḍa comprehends the

spheres, and the just-mentioned numbers are the measure of the

Brahmâṇḍa, since the sphere of the zodiac is connected with it. The

commentator Balabhadra says: “We do not consider these numbers as a

measure of heaven, for we cannot define its greatness, but we consider

them as the utmost limit to which the human power of vision can

penetrate. There is no possibility of human perception reaching above

it; but the other spheres differ from each other in greatness and

smallness, so as to be visible in various [Page 111.] degrees.” The

followers of Âryabhaṭa say: “It is sufficient for us to know the space

which is reached by the solar rays. We do not want the space which is

not reached by the solar rays, though it be in itself of an enormous

extent. That which is not reached by the rays is not reached by the

perception of the senses, and that which is not reached by perception

is not knowable.”

[Criticisms on the different theories. The question of the ninth

sphere.] Let us now examine the bearing of the words of these authors.

The words of Vasishṭha prove that the Brahmâṇḍa is a globe

comprehending the eighth or so called zodiacal sphere, in which the

fixed stars are placed, and that the two spheres touch each other. Now

we on our own part were already obliged to assume an eighth sphere, but

there is no reason why we should suppose a ninth one.

On this head the opinions of people are divided. Some hold the

existence of a ninth sphere to be a necessity on account of the

rotation from east to west, in so far as it moves in this direction and

compels everything which it comprehends to move in the same direction.

Others assume the ninth sphere on account of the same motion, but

suppose that it by itself is motionless.

The tendency of the representatives of the former theory is perfectly

clear. However, Aristotle has proved that each moving body is brought

into motion by something moving which is not within itself. So also

this ninth sphere would presuppose a mover outside itself. What,

however, should prevent this mover from putting the eight spheres into

motion without the intermediation of a ninth sphere?

[Aristotle, Ptolemy, Johannes Grammaticus.] As regards the

representatives of the second view, one might almost think that they

had a knowledge of the words of Aristotle which we have quoted, and

that they knew that the first mover is motionless, for they represent

the ninth sphere as motionless and as the source of the east to west

rotation. However, Aristotle has also proved that the first mover is

not a body, whilst he must be a body, if they describe him as a globe,

as a sphere, and as comprehending something else within itself and

motionless.

Thus the theory of the ninth sphere is proved to be an impossibility.

To the same effect are the words of Ptolemy in the preface of his

Almagest: “The first cause of the first motion of the universe, if we

consider the motion by itself, is according to our opinion an invisible

and motionless god, and the study of this subject we call a divine one.

We perceive his action in the highest heights of the world, but as an

altogether different one from the action of those substances which can

be perceived by the senses.”

These are the words of Ptolemy on the first mover, without any

indication of the ninth sphere. But the latter is mentioned by Johannes

Grammaticus in his refutation of Proclus, where he says: “Plato did not

know a ninth, starless sphere.” And, according to Johannes, it was

this, i.e. the negation of the ninth sphere, which Ptolemy meant to

say.

Finally, there are other people who maintain that behind the last limit

of motion there is an infinite resting body or an infinite vacuum, or

something which they declare to be neither a vacuum nor a plenum. These

theories, however, have no connection whatsoever with our subject.

Balabhadra gives us the impression of holding the same opinion as those

who think that heaven or the heavens are a compact body holding in

equilibrium all heavy bodies and carrying them, and that it is above

the spheres. To Balabhadra it is just as easy to prefer tradition to

eyesight, as it is difficult to us to prefer doubt to a clear proof.

The truth is entirely with the followers of Âryabhaṭa who give us the

impression of really being men of great scientific attainments. It is

perfectly evident that Brahmâṇḍa means the αἰθήρ, together with all

products of creation in it.

CHAPTER XXI.

DESCRIPTION OF EARTH AND HEAVEN ACCORDING TO THE RELIGIOUS VIEWS OF THE

HINDUS, BASED UPON THEIR TRADITIONAL LITERATURE.

[On the seven earths.] The people of whom we have spoken in the

preceding chapter think that the earths are seven like seven [Page

112.] covers one above the other, and the upper one they divide into

seven parts, differing from our astronomers, who divide it into

κλίματα, and from the Persians, who divide it into Kishvar. We shall

afterwards give a clear explanation of their theories derived from the

first authorities of their religious law, to expose the matter to fair

criticism. If something in it appears strange to us, so as to require a

commentary, or if we perceive some coincidence with others, even if

both parties missed the mark, we shall simply put the case before the

reader, not with the intention of attacking or reviling the Hindus, but

solely in order to sharpen the minds of those who study these theories.

[Differences in the sequence of the earths explained as resulting from

the copiousness of the language.] They do not differ among themselves

as to the number of earths nor as to the number of the parts of the

upper earth, but they differ regarding their names and the order of

these names. I am inclined to derive this difference from the great

verbosity of their language, for they call one and the same thing by a

multitude of names. For instance, they call the sun by a thousand

different names according to their own statement, just as the Arabs

call the lion by nearly as many. Some of these names are original,

while others are derived from the changing conditions of his life or

his actions and faculties. The Hindus and their like boast of this

copiousness, whilst in reality it is one of the greatest faults of the

language. For it is the task of language to give a name to everything

in creation and to its effects, a name based on general consent, so

that everybody, when hearing this name pronounced by another man,

understands what he means. If therefore one and the same name or word

means a variety of things, it betrays a defect of the language and

compels the hearer to ask the speaker what he means by the word. And

thus the word in question must be dropped in order to be replaced

either by a similar one of a sufficiently clear meaning, or by an

epithet describing what is really meant. If one and the same thing is

called by many names, and this is not occasioned by the fact that every

tribe or class of people uses a separate one of them, and if, in fact,

one single name would be sufficient, all the other names save this one

are to be classified as mere nonsense, as a means of keeping people in

the dark, and throwing an air of mystery about the subject. And in any

case this copiousness offers painful difficulties to those who want to

learn the whole of the language, for it is entirely useless, and only

results in a sheer waste of time.

Frequently it has crossed my mind that the authors of books and the

transmitters of tradition have an aversion to mentioning the earths in

a definite arrangement, and limit themselves to mentioning their names,

or that the copyists of the books have arbitrarily altered the text.

For those men who explained and translated the text to me were well

versed in the language, and were not known as persons who would commit

a wanton fraud.

[The earths according to the Âditya-Purâṇa.] The following table

exhibits the names of the earths, as far as I know them. We rely

chiefly on that list, which has been taken from the Âditya-purâṇa,

because it follows a certain rule, combining every single earth and

heaven with a single member of the members of the sun. The heavens are

combined with the members from the skull to the womb, the earths with

the members from the navel to the foot. This mode of comparison

illustrates their sequence and preserves it from confusion:—

+-------------------+--------------------------------+----------------+--------------------------------+-------------------+

|-------------------+-----------------+--------------+ +--------------+-----------------+ |

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

+-------------------+-----------------+--------------+----------------+--------------+-----------------+-------------------+

[Page 114.] THE SPIRITUAL BEINGS LIVING ON THE SEVEN EARTHS ACCORDING

TO THE VÂYU-PURÂṆA.

Of the Dânavas—Namuci, Śaṅkukarṇa, Kabandha (?), Nishkukâda (?),

Śûladanta, Lohita, Kaliṅga, Śvâpada; and the master of the

serpents—Dhanañjaya, Kâliya.

Of the Daityas—Surakshas, Mahâjambha, Hayagrîva, Kṛishṇa, Janarta (?),

Śaṅkhâkhsha, Gomukha; and of the Râkshasa—Nîla, Megha, Krathanaka,

Mahoshṇîsha, Kambala, Aśvatara, Takshaka.

Of the Dânavas—Rada (?), Anuhlâda, Agnimukha, Târakâksha, Triśira,

Śiśumâra; and of the Râkshasa—Cyavana, Nanda, Viśâla. And there are

many cities in this world.

Of the Daityas—Kâlanemi, Gajakarṇa, Uñjara (?); and of the

Râkshasa—Sumâli, Muñja, Vṛikavaktra, and the large birds called Garuḍa.

Of the Daityas—Virocana, Jayanta (?), Agnijihva, Hiraṇyâksha; and of

the Râkshasa—Vidyujjihva, Mahâmegha; the serpent Karmâra, Svastikajaya.

Of the Daityas—Kesari; and of the Râkshasa—Ûrdhvakuja (?), Śataśîrsha,

i.e. having a hundred heads, a friend of Indra; Vâsuki, a serpent.

The king Bali; and of the Daitya Mucukunda. In this world there are

many houses for the Râkshasa, and Vishṇu resides there, and Śesha, the

master of the serpents.

[On the seven heavens. Quotations from Johannes Grammaticus, Plato, and

Aristotle.] After the earths follow the heavens, consisting of seven

stories, one above the other. They are called loka, which means

“gathering-place.” In a similar manner also the Greeks considered the

heavens as gathering-places. So Johannes Grammaticus says in his

refutation of Proclus: “Some philosophers thought that the sphere

called γαλαξίας, i.e. milk, by which they mean the milky way, is a

dwelling-place for rational souls.” The poet Homer says: “Thou hast

made the pure heaven an eternal dwelling-place for the gods. The winds

do not shake it, the rains do not wet it, and the snow does not destroy

it. For in it there is resplendent clearness without any covering

cloud.”

Plato says: “God spoke to the seven planets: You are the gods of the

gods, and I am the father of the actions; I am he who made you so that

no dissolution [Page 115.] is possible; for anything bound, though

capable of being loosened, is not exposed to destruction, as long as

its order is good.”

Aristotle says in his letter to Alexander: “The world is the order of

the whole creation. That which is above the world, and surrounds it on

the sides, is the dwelling-place of the gods. Heaven is full of the

gods to which we give the name of stars.” In another place of the same

book he says, “The earth is bounded by the water, the water by the air,

the air by the fire, the fire by the αἰθήρ. Therefore the highest place

is the dwelling-place of the gods, and the lowest, the home of the

aquatic animals.”

There is a similar passage in the Vâyu-Purâṇa to this effect, that the

earth is held in its grasp by the water, the water by the pure fire,

the fire by the wind, the wind by heaven, and heaven by its lord.

The names of the lokas do not differ like those of the earths. There is

a difference of opinion only regarding their order. We exhibit the

names of the lokas in a table similar to the former (p. 230).

+-------------------+------------------------+--------------------+

| | What members of | Their Names |

| The Number of the | the Sun they represent | according to the |

| Heavens. | according to | Âditya, Vâyu and |

| | the Âditya-Purâṇa. | Vishṇu Purâṇas. |

+-------------------+------------------------+--------------------+

| I. | The stomach. | Bhûrloka. |

| II. | The breast. | Bhuvarloka. |

| III. | The mouth. | Svarloka. |

| IV. | The eyebrow. | Maharloka. |

| V. | The forehead. | Janaloka. |

| VI. | { Above the } | |

| | { forehead. } | Tapoloka. |

| VII. | The skull. | Satyaloka. |

+-------------------+------------------------+--------------------+

[Criticisms on the commentator of Patañjali.] This theory of the earths

is the same with all Hindus, except alone the commentator of the book

of Patañjali. [Page 116.] He had heard that the Pitaras, or fathers,

had their gathering-place in the sphere of the moon, a tradition built

on the theories of the astronomers. In consequence he made the lunar

sphere the first heaven, whilst he ought to have identified it with

Bhûrloka. And because by this method he had one heaven too many, he

dropped the Svarloka, the place of reward.

The same author differs besides in another point. As the seventh

heaven, Satyaloka, is in the Purâṇas also called Brahmaloka, he placed

the Brahmaloka above the Satyaloka, whilst it would have been much more

reasonable to think that in this case one and the same thing is called

by two different names. He ought to have omitted the Brahmaloka, to

have identified Pitṛiloka with Bhûrloka, and not to have left out the

Svarloka.

So much about the seven earths and the seven heavens. We shall now

speak of the division of the surface of the uppermost earth and of

related subjects.

[The system of Dvîpas and seas.] Dîp (dvîpa) is the Indian word for

island. Hence the words Sangaladîp (Siṃhaladvîpa), which we call

Serendîb, and the Dîbajât (Maledives, Laccadives). The latter are

numerous islands, which become, so to speak, decrepit, are dissolved

and flattened, and finally disappear below the water, whilst at the

same time other formations of the same kind begin to appear above the

water like a streak of sand which continually grows and rises and

extends. The inhabitants of the former island leave their homes, settle

on the new one and colonise it.

According to the religious traditions of the Hindus, the earth on which

we live is round and surrounded by a sea. On the sea lies an earth like

a collar, and on this earth lies again a round sea like a collar. The

number of dry collars, called islands, is seven, and likewise that of

the seas. The size of both dvîpas and seas rises in such a progression

that each dvîpa is the double of the preceding dvîpa, each sea the

double of the preceding sea, i.e. in the progression of the powers of

two. If the middle earth is reckoned as one, the size of all seven

earths represented as collars is 127. If the sea surrounding the middle

earth is counted as one, the size of all seven seas represented as

collars is 127. The total size of both earths and seas is 254.

[The size of the Dvîpas and seas, according to the commentator of

Patañjali and the Vâyu-Purâṇa.] The commentator of the book of

Patañjali has adopted as the size of the middle earth 100,000 yojana.

Accordingly, the size of all the earths would be 12,700,000 yojana.

Further he adopts as the size of the sea which surrounds the middle

earth 200,000 yojana. Accordingly, the size of all the seas would be

25,400,000 yojana, and the total size of all the earths and seas

38,100,000 yojana. However, the author himself has not made these

additions. Therefore we cannot compare his numbers with ours. But the

Vâyu-Purâṇa says that the diameter of the totality of earths and seas

is 37,900,000 yojana, a number which does not agree with the

above-mentioned sum of 38,100,000 yojana. It cannot be accounted for,

unless we suppose that the number of earths is only six, and that the

progression begins with the number 4 instead of 2. Such a number of

seas (i.e. 6) may possibly be explained in this way, that the seventh

one has been dropped, because the author only wanted to find the size

of the continents, which induced him to leave the last surrounding sea

out of the calculation. But if he once mentions the continents he must

also mention all the seas which surround them. Why he has commenced the

progression with 4 instead of 2, I cannot account for by any of the

principles of the calculation as they have been laid down.

Each dvîpa and sea has a separate name. As far as we know them, we

place them before the reader in the following table, and hope that the

reader will excuse us for so doing.

[Page 117.]

+-------------+-------------------------------------+----------------------------------------+------------------------------+

| Dvîpas +-----------------+-------------------+----------------------+-----------------+------------+-----------------+

+-------------+-----------------+-------------------+----------------------+-----------------+------------+-----------------+

| I. | Jambu-dvîpa. {| Lavaṇa, i.e. | Jambu, | Kshâra, i.e. |} Jambu. | Lavaṇa-samudra. |

| | {| salt. | the name of a tree. | salt. |} | |

| | | | | | | |

| II. | Śâka-dvîpa. {| Kshîrodaka, i.e. | Plaksha, | Ikshu, i.e. |} Śâka. | Ikshu. |

| | {| milk. | the name of a tree. | sugar-cane. |} | |

| | | | | | | |

| III. | Kuśa-dvîpa. {| Ghṛitamaṇḍa, i.e. | Śâlmali, | Surâ, i.e. |} Kuśa. | Surâ. |

| | {| butter. | the name of a tree. | wine. |} | |

| | | | | | | |

| IV. | Krauñca-dvîpa. {| Dadhimaṇḍa, i.e. | Kuśa, | Sarpis, i.e. |} Krauñca. | Sarpis. |

| | {| thick milk. | the name of a plant. | butter. |} | |

| | | | | | | |

| V. | Śâlmali-dvîpa. {| Surâ, i.e. | Krauñca, | Dadhi, i.e. |} Śâlmali. | Dadhisâgara. |

| | {| rice-wine. | the hosts. | sour-milk. |} | |

| | | | | | | |

| VI. | Gomeda-dvîpa. {| Ikshurasoda, i.e. | Śâka, | Kshîra, i.e. |} Gomeda. | Kshîra. |

| | {| the juice of | the name of a tree. | milk. |} | |

| | {| sugar-cane. | | | | |

| | | | | | | |

| VII. | Pushkara-dvîpa.{| Svâdûdaka, i.e. | Pushkara, | Svâdûdaka, i.e. |} Pushkara. | Pânîya. |

| | {| sweet water. | the name of a tree. | sweet water. |} | |

+-------------+-----------------+-------------------+----------------------+-----------------+------------+-----------------+

[Page 118.] The differences of the traditions as exhibited by this

table cannot be accounted for in any rational way. They can hardly have

sprung from any other source but from arbitrary, accidental changes of

the enumeration. The most appropriate of these traditions is that of

the Matsya-Purâṇa, because it enumerates the dvîpas and seas one after

the other according to a fixed order, a sea surrounding an island, an

island surrounding a sea, the enumeration proceeding from the centre to

the periphery.

We shall now in this place record some related subjects, though it

would perhaps be more correct to treat of them in some other part of

the book.

[Quotation from the commentator of Patañjali.] The commentator of the

book of Patañjali, wishing to determine the dimension of the world,

begins from below and says: “The dimension of the darkness is one koṭi

and 85 laksha yojana, i.e. 18,000,000 yojana.

“Then follows Naraka, i.e. the hells, of the dimension of 13 koṭi and

12 laksha, i.e. 131,200,000 yojana.

“Then follows darkness, of one laksha, i.e. 100,000 yojana.

“Above it lies the earth Vajra, so called on account of its hardness,

because the word means a diamond, and the molten thunder-bolt, of

34,000 yojana.

“Above it lies the middle earth Garbha, of 60,000 yojana.

“Above it lies the golden earth, of 30,000 yojana.

“Above this the seven earths, each of 10,000 yojana, which makes the

sum of 70,000 yojana. The upper one of them is that which contains the

dvîpas and the seas.

“Behind the sweet-water sea lies Lokâloka, which means a

not-gathering-place, i.e. a place without civilisation and inhabitants.

“Thereupon follows the gold-earth of one Koṭi, i.e. 10,000,000 yojana;

above it the Pitṛiloka of 6,134,000 yojana.

“The totality of the seven lokas, which is called Brahmâṇḍa, has the

dimension of 15 koṭi, i.e. 150,000,000 yojana. And above this is the

darkness tamas, similar to the lowest darkness, of 18,500,000 yojana.”

We on our part found it already troublesome to enumerate all the seven

seas, together with the seven earths, and now this author thinks he can

make the subject more easy and pleasant to us by inventing some more

earths below those already enumerated by ourselves!

The Vishṇu-Purâṇa, when treating of similar subjects, says: “There is a

serpent under the seventh lowest earth, which is called Śeshâkhya,

worshipped among the spiritual beings. It is also called Ananta. It has

a thousand heads, and bears the earths without being molested by their

heavy weight. These earths, one stored above the other, are gifted with

good things and happiness, adorned with jewels, illuminated by their

own rays, not by those of sun and moon. The latter two luminaries do

not rise in them. Therefore their temperature is always equal, they

have everlasting fragrant flowers, blossoms of trees and fruits; their

inhabitants have no notion of time, since they do not become aware of

any motions by counting them. Their dimension is 70,000 yojana, the

dimensions of each being 10,000. Nârada, the Ṛishi, went down in order

to see them, and to acquaint himself with the two kinds of beings which

inhabit them, the Daitya and Dânava. When he then found the bliss of

paradise to be rather insignificant in comparison with that of these

earths, he returned to the angels, giving his report to them, and

rousing their admiration by his description.”

Further, the following passage: “Behind the sweet-water sea lies the

gold earth, the double of the totality of the dvîpas and seas; but not

inhabited by men nor by demons. Behind it lies Lokâloka, a mountain of

the [Page 119.] height of 10,000 yojana, and of the same breadth. Its

whole dimension is 50 koṭi, i.e. 500,000,000 yojana.”

The totality of all this is in the Hindu language sometimes called

dhâtṛi, i.e. holding all things, and sometimes vidhâtṛi, i.e. letting

loose all things. It is also called the dwelling-place of every living

being, and by various other names, which differ as people differ in

their opinions about the vacuum. Those who believe in the vacuum make

it the cause why all bodies are attracted towards it, whilst those who

deny the vacuum declare that it is not the cause of the attraction.

Then the author of the Vishṇu-Purâṇa returns to the Lokas and says:

“Everything which a foot can tread upon and a ship sail in, is

Bhûrloka.” This seems to be an indication of the surface of the

uppermost earth. The air, which is between the earth and the sun, in

which the Siddhas, the Munis, and the Gandharvas, the musicians, wander

to and fro, is the Bhuvarloka. The whole of these three earths is

called the three pṛithivî. That which is above them is Vyâsa-maṇḍala,

i.e. the realm of Vyâsa. The distance between the earth and sun is

100,000 yojana, that between the sun and the moon is the same. The

distance between the moon and Mercury is two lakshas, i.e. 200,000

yojana, that between Mercury and Venus is the same. The distances

between Venus and Mars, Mars and Jupiter, Jupiter and Saturn, are

equal, each being 200,000 yojana. The distance between Saturn and the

Great Bear is 100,000 yojana, and that from the Great Bear to the pole

is 1000 yojana. Above it is Maharloka, at a distance of 20 millions of

yojana; above it, the Jinaloka, at a distance of 80 millions; above it,

Pitṛiloka, at a distance of 480 millions; above it, Satyaloka.”

This sum, however, is more than thrice the sum which we have mentioned

on the authority of the commentator of the book of Patañjali, i.e.

150,000 yojana. But such is the custom of the copyists and scribes in

every nation, and I cannot declare the students of the Purâṇas to be

free from it, for they are not men of exact learning.

CHAPTER XXII.

TRADITIONS RELATING TO THE POLE.

[The origin of the south pole, and the story of Somadatta.] The pole,

in the language of the Hindus, is called dhruva, and the axis śalâka.

The Hindus, with the exception of their astronomers, speak always only

of one pole, the reason of which is their belief in the dome of heaven,

as we have heretofore explained. According to Vâyu-Purâṇa, heaven

revolves round the pole like a potter’s wheel, and the pole revolves

round itself, without changing its own place. This revolution is

finished in 30 muhûrta, i.e. in one nychthemeron.

Regarding the south pole, I have heard from them only one story or

tradition, viz. the following. They had once a king called Somadatta,

who by his noble deeds had deserved paradise; but he did not like the

idea of his body being torn away from his soul when he should depart

into the other world. Now he called on the Ṛishi Vasishṭha, and told to

him that he loved his body, and did not wish to be separated from it;

but the Ṛishi informed him that it was impossible to take along with

oneself the material body from this world into paradise. Thereupon he

laid his desire before the children of Vasishṭha; however, these spat

in his face, scoffed at him, and changed him into a caṇḍâla with

ear-rings in both ears, and clad in a kurṭaḳ (i.e. a short shirt worn

by the women round the shoulders, reaching down to the middle of the

body). When he came in this condition to the Ṛishi, Viśvâmitra, the

latter found him to be a disgusting spectacle, and asked him what was

the reason of his appearing so, whereupon Somadatta informed him, and

told him the whole story. Now Viśvâmitra became very angry on his

account; he [Page 120.] ordered the Brahmans into his presence in order

to perform a great sacrifice, among those also the children of

Vasishṭha, and he spoke to them: “I wish to make a new world, and a new

paradise for this pious king, that there he may obtain the fulfilment

of his wish.” Thereupon he began to make the pole and the Great Bear in

the south, but then Indra, the ruler, and the spiritual beings began to

fear him. They went to him, humbled themselves before him, and asked

him to desist from the work he had commenced on this condition, that

they would carry Somadatta with his body, just as it was, into

paradise. This they did, and in consequence the Ṛishi desisted from

making a second world, but that which he had already made up to that

moment remained.

It is well known that the north pole with us is called the Great Bear,

the south pole Canopus. But some of our people (Muslims) who do not

rise above the uneducated mass, maintain that in the south of heaven

too there is a Great Bear of the same shape as the northern, which

revolves round the southern pole.

Such a thing would not be impossible nor even strange, if the report

about it came from a trustworthy man, who had made long sea-voyages.

Certainly in southern regions stars are seen which we do [Śrîpâla on

the star Śûla. Aljaihânî on the fever-star. Brahmagupta on the

Śiśumâra.] not know in our latitudes. So Śrîpâla says that the people

of Multân see in summer time a red star a little below the meridian of

Canopus, which they call Śûla, i.e. the beam of crucifixion, and that

the Hindus consider it as unlucky. Therefore, when the moon stands in

the station Pûrvabhadrapada, the Hindus do not travel towards the

south, because this star stands in the south.

Aljaihânî relates, in his Book of Routes, that on the island Langabâlûs

there is a large star visible, known as the fever-star. It appears in

winter about morning dawn in the east as high as a date-palm tree,

having an oblong shape, composed of the tail of the Small Bear and his

back, and of some small stars situated there; it is called the axe of

the mill. Brahmagupta mentions it in connection with the Fish. The

Hindus tell rather ludicrous tales when speaking of the figure in which

they represent this group of stars, viz. the figure of a four-footed

aquatic animal, which they call Śakvara and also Śiśumâra. I suppose

that the latter animal is the great lizard, for in Persia it is called

Susmâr, which sounds much like the Indian Śiśumâra. Of this kind of

animals there is also an aquatic species, similar to the crocodile and

the skink. One of those tales is the following.

[The story of Dhruva.] When Brahman wanted to create mankind, he

divided himself into two halves, of which the right one was called

Virâj, the left one Manu. The latter one is the being from whom the

period of time called Manvantara has received its name. Manu had two

sons, Priyavrata and Uttânapâda, the bow-legged king. The latter had a

son called Dhruva, who was slighted by one of the wives of his father.

On account of this, he was presented with the power to turn round all

the stars as he pleased. He appeared in the Manvantara of Svayambhuva,

the first of all Manvantaras, and he has for ever remained in his

place.

[Quotations from Vâyu-Purâṇa and Vishṇu-Dharma.] The Vâyu-Purâṇa says:

“The wind drives the stars round the pole, which are bound to it by

ties invisible to man. They move round like the beam in the

olive-press, for its bottom is, as it were, standing still, whilst its

end is moving round.”

The Vishṇu-Dharma says: “Vajra, one of the children [Page 121.] of

Balabhadra, the brother of Nârâyaṇa, asked the Ṛishi Mârkaṇḍeya as to

the pole, upon which he answered: When God created the world, it was

dark and desert. Thereupon he made the globe of the sun shining, and

the globes of the stars watery, receiving the light of the sun from

that side of his which he turns towards them. Fourteen of these stars

he placed round the pole in the shape of a śiśumâra, which drive the

other stars round the pole. One of them, north of the pole, on the

uppermost chin, is Uttânapâda, on the lowest chin Yajña, on the head

Dharma, on the breast Nârâyaṇa, on the two hands towards the east the

two stars Aśvinî the physicians, on the two feet Varuṇa, and Aryaman

towards the west, on the penis Samwatsara, on the back Mitra, on the

tail Agni, Mahendra, Marîci, and Kaśyapa.”

The pole itself is Vishṇu, the ruler of the inhabitants of paradise; he

is, further, the time rising, growing, getting old, and vanishing.

Further, the Vishṇu-Dharma says: “If a man reads this and knows it

accurately, God pardons to him the sins of that day, and fourteen years

will be added to his life, the length of which has been fixed

beforehand.”

How simple those people are! Among us there are scholars who know

between 1020 to 1030 stars. Should those men breathe and receive life

from God only on account of their knowledge of stars?

All the stars revolve, whatever may be the position of the pole with

regard to them.

If I had found a Hindu able to point out to me with his finger the

single stars, I should have been able to identify them with the

star-figures known among Greeks and Arabs, or with stars in the

neighbourhood in case they did not belong to any of these figures.

CHAPTER XXIII.

ON MOUNT MERU ACCORDING TO THE BELIEF OF THE AUTHORS OF THE PURÂṆAS AND

OF OTHERS.

[Brahmagupta on the earth and Mount Meru.] We begin with the

description of this mountain, since it is the centre of the Dvîpas and

seas, and, at the same time, the centre of Jambûdvîpa. Brahmagupta

says: “Manifold are the opinions of people relating to the description

of the earth and to Mount Meru, particularly among those who study the

Purâṇas and the religious literature. Some describe this mountain as

rising above the surface of the earth to an excessive height. It is

situated under the pole, and the stars revolve round its foot, so that

rising and setting depends upon Meru. It is called Meru because of its

having the faculty of doing this, and because it depends alone upon the

influence of its head that sun and moon become visible. The day of the

angels who inhabit Meru lasts six months, and their night also six

months.”

Brahmagupta quotes the following passage from the book of Jina, i.e.

Buddha: “Mount Meru is quadrangular, not round.”

[Balabhadra on the same subject.] The commentator Balabhadra says:

“Some people say that the earth is flat, and that Mount Meru is an

illuminating, light-giving body. However, if such were the case, the

planets would not revolve round the horizon of the inhabitants of Meru,

and if it were shining it would be visible because of its height, as

the pole above it is visible. According to some, Meru consists of gold;

according to others it consists of jewels. Âryabhaṭa thinks that it has

not absolute height, but only the height of one yojana, and that it is

round, not quadrangular, the realm of the angels; that it is invisible,

although shining, because it is very distant from [Page 122.] the

inhabited earth, being situated entirely in the high north, in the cold

zone, in the centre of a desert called Nandana-vana. However, if it

were of a great height, it would not be possible on the 66th degree of

latitude for the whole Tropic of Cancer to be visible, and for the sun

to revolve on it, being always visible without ever disappearing.”

[The author criticises Balabhadra.] All that Balabhadra produces is

foolish both in words and matter, and I cannot find why he felt himself

called upon to write a commentary if he had nothing better to say.

If he tries to refute the theory of the flatness of the earth by the

planets revolving round the horizon of Meru, this argument would go

nearer proving the theory than refuting it. For if the earth were a

flat expanse, and everything high on earth were parallel to the

perpendicular height of Meru, there would be no change of horizon, and

the same horizon would be the equinox for all places on earth.

[The statements of Âryabhaṭa examined by the author.] On the words of

Âryabhaṭa as quoted by Balabhadra we make the following remarks.

Let A B be the globe of the earth round the centre H. Further, A is a

place on the earth in the 66th degree of latitude. We cut off from the

circle the arc A B, equal to the greatest declination. Then B is the

place in the zenith of which the pole stands.

Further, we draw the line A C touching the globe in the point A. This

line lies in the plane of the horizon as far as the human eye reaches

round the earth.

We join the points A and H with each other, and draw the line H B C, so

that it is met in C by the line A C. Further, we let fall the

perpendicular A T on H C. Now, it is evident that—

A T is the sine of the greatest declination;

T B the versed sine of the greatest declination;

T H the sine of the complement of the greatest declination.

And as we here occupy ourselves with Âryabhaṭa, we shall, according to

his system, change the sines in kardajât. Accordingly—

A T = 1397.

T H = 3140.

B T = 298.

Because the angle H A C is a right angle, we have the equation—

HT : TA = TA : TC.

And the square of A T is 1,951,609. If we divide it by T H, we get as

quotient 622.

The difference between this number and T B is 324, which is B C. And

the relation of B C to B H, the latter being sinus totus = 3438, is the

same as the relation of the number of yojanas of B C to the yojanas of

B H. The latter number is, according to Âryabhaṭa, 800. If it is

multiplied by the just-mentioned difference of 324 we get the sum of

259,200. And if we divide this number by the sinus totus we get 75 as

quotient, which is the number of yojanas of B C, equal to 600 miles or

200 farsakh.

If the perpendicular of a mountain is 200 farsakh, the ascent will be

nearly the double. Whether Mount Meru has such a height or not, nothing

of it can be visible in the 66th degree of latitude, and it would not

cover anything of the Tropic of Cancer at all (so as to intercept from

it the light of the sun). And if for those latitudes (66° and 23°) Meru

is under the horizon, it is also under the horizon for all places of

less latitude. If you compare Meru with a luminous body like the sun,

you know that the sun sets and disappears under the earth. Indeed Meru

may be compared with the earth. [Page 123.] It is not invisible to us

because of its being far away in the cold zone, but because it lies

below the horizon, because the earth is a globe, and everything heavy

is attracted towards its centre.

Âryabhaṭa further tries to prove that Mount Meru has only a moderate

height by the fact that the Tropic of Cancer is visible in places the

latitude of which is equal to the complement of the greatest

declination. We must remark that this argument is not valid, for we

know the conditions of the lines of latitude and other lines in those

countries only through ratiocination, not from eyesight nor from

tradition, because they are uninhabited and their roads are impassable.

If a man has come from those parts to Âryabhaṭa and told him that the

Tropic of Cancer is visible in that latitude, we may meet this by

stating that a man has also come to us from the same region telling us

that one part of it is there invisible. The only thing which covers the

Tropic of Cancer is this mountain Meru. If Meru did not exist, the

whole tropic would be visible. Who, now, has been able to make out

which of the two reports deserves most credit?

In the book of Âryabhaṭa of Kusumapura we read that the mountain Meru

is in Himavant, the cold zone, not higher than a yojana. In the

translation, however, it has been rendered so as to express that it is

not higher than Himavant by more than a yojana.

This author is not identical with the elder Âryabhaṭa, but he belongs

to his followers, for he quotes him and follows his example. I do not

know which of these two namesakes is meant by Balabhadra.

In general, what we know of the conditions of the place of this

mountain we know only by ratiocination. About the mountain itself they

have many traditions. Some give it the height of one yojana, others

more; some consider it as quadrangular, others as an octagon. We shall

now lay before the reader what the Ṛishis teach regarding this

mountain.

[Matsya-Purâṇa on Mount Meru and the mountains of the earth.] The

Matsya-Purâṇa says: “It is golden and shining like fire which is not

dulled by smoke. It has four different colours on its four sides. The

colour of the eastern side is white like the colour of the Brahmins,

that of the northern is red like that of the Kshatriya, that of the

southern is yellow like the colour of the Vaiśya, and that of the

western is black like the colour of the Śûdra. It is 86,000 yojana

high, and 16,000 of these yojana lie within the earth. Each of its four

sides has 34,000 yojana. There are rivers of sweet water running in it,

and beautiful golden houses inhabited by the spiritual beings, the

Deva, by their singers the Gandharva, and their harlots the Apsaras.

Also Asuras, Daityas, and Râkshasas are living in it. Round the

mountain lies the pond Mânasa, and around it to all four sides are the

Lokapâla, i.e. the guardians of the world and its inhabitants. Mount

Meru has seven knots, i.e. great mountains, the names of which are

Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Śuktibâm (?), Ṛikshabâm (?), Vindhya,

Pâriyâtra. The small mountains are nearly innumerable; they are those

which are inhabited by mankind.

“The great mountains round Meru are the following: Himavant, always

covered with snow, inhabited by the Râkshasa, Piśâca, and Yaksha.

Hemakûṭa, the golden, inhabited by the Gandharva and Apsaras. Nishadha,

inhabited by the Nâga or snakes, which have the following seven

princes: Ananta, Vâsuki, Takshaka, Karkoṭaka, Mahâpadma, Kambala,

Aśvatara. Nîla, peacock-like, of many colours, inhabited by the [Page

124.] Siddha and Brahmarshi, the anchorites. The mountain Śveta,

inhabited by the Daitya and Dânava. The mountain Śṛiṅgavant, inhabited

by the Pitaras, the fathers and grandfathers of the Deva. Not far to

the north of this mountain there are mountain-passes full of jewels and

of trees which remain during a whole kalpa. And in the centre of these

mountains is Ilâvṛita, the highest of all. The whole is called

Purushaparvata. The region between the Himavant and the Śṛiṅgavant is

called Kailâsa, the play-ground of the Râkshasa and Apsaras.”

[Quotations from the Vishṇu, Vâyu, and Âditya Purâṇas.] The

Vishṇu-Purâṇa says: “The great mountains of the middle earth are

Śrî-parvata, Malaya-parvata, Mâlyavant, Vindhya, Trikûṭa, Tripurântika,

and Kailâsa. Their inhabitants drink the water of the rivers, and live

in eternal bliss.”

The Vâyu-Purâṇa contains similar statements about the four sides and

the height of Meru as the hitherto quoted Purâṇas. Besides, it says

that on each side of it there is a quadrangular mountain, in the east

the Mâlyavant, in the north Ânîla, in the west the Gandhamâdana, and in

the south the Nishadha.

The Âditya-Purâṇa gives the same statement about the size of each of

its four sides which we have quoted from the Matsya-Purâṇa, but I have

not found in it a statement about the height of Meru. According to this

Purâṇa, its east side is of gold, the west of silver, the south of

rubies, the north of different jewels.

[The commentator of Patañjali on the same subject.] The extravagant

notions of the dimensions of Meru would be impossible if they had not

the same extravagant notions regarding the earth, and if there is no

limit fixed to guesswork, guesswork may without any hindrance develop

into lying. For instance, the commentator of the book of Patañjali not

only makes Meru quadrangular, but even oblong. The length of one side

he fixes at 15 koṭi, i.e. 150,000,000 yojana, whilst he fixes the

length of the other three sides only at the third of this, i.e. 5 koṭi.

Regarding the four sides of Meru, he says that on the east are the

mountain Mâlava and the ocean, and between them the kingdoms called

Bhadrâśva. On the north are Nîla, Sîta, Śriṅgâdri, and the ocean, and

between them the kingdoms Ramyaka, Hiraṇmaya, and Kuru. On the west are

the mountain Gandhamâdana and the ocean, and between them the kingdom

Ketumâla. On the south are Mrâvarta (?), Nishadha, Hemakûṭa, Himagiri,

and the ocean, and between them the kingdoms Bhâratavârsha, Kiṁpurusha,

and Harivarsha.

[Buddhistic views.] This is all I could find of Hindu traditions

regarding Meru; and as I have never found a Buddhistic book, and never

knew a Buddhist from whom I might have learned their theories on this

subject, all I relate of them I can only relate on the authority of

Alêrânshahrî, though, according to my mind, his report has no claim to

scientific exactness, nor is it the report of a man who has a

scientific knowledge of the subject. According to him, the Buddhists

believe that Meru lies between four worlds in the four cardinal

directions; that it is square at the bottom and round at the top; that

it has the length of 80,000 yojana, one half of which rises into

heaven, whilst the other half goes down into the earth. That side which

is next to our world consists of blue sapphires, which is the reason

why heaven appears to us blue; the other sides are of rubies, yellow

and white gems. Thus Meru is the centre of the earth.

The mountain Ḳâf, as it is called by our common [Page 125.] people, is

with the Hindus the Lokâloka. They maintain that the sun revolves from

Lokâloka towards Meru, and that he illuminates only its inner northern

side.

[A tradition of the Zoroastrians of Sogdiana.] Similar views are held

by the Zoroastrians of Sogdiana, viz. that the mountain Ardiyâ

surrounds the world; that outside of it is khôm, similar to the pupil

of the eye, in which there is something of everything, and that behind

it there is a vacuum. In the centre of the world is the mountain

Girnagar, between our κλίμα and the six other κλίματα, the throne of

heaven. Between each two there is burning sand, on which no foot could

stand. The spheres revolve in the climata like mills, but in ours they

revolve in an inclined course, because our clima, that one inhabited by

mankind, is the uppermost.

CHAPTER XXIV.

TRADITIONS OF THE PURÂṆAS REGARDING EACH OF THE SEVEN DVÎPAS.

[Description of the Dvîpas according to the Matsya and Vishṇu Purâṇas.]

We must ask the reader not to take any offence if he finds all the

words and meanings which occur in the present chapter to be totally

different from anything corresponding in Arabic. As for the difference

of words, it is easily accounted for by the difference of languages in

general; and as regards the difference of the meanings, we mention them

only either in order to draw attention to an idea which might seem

acceptable even to a Muslim, or to point out the irrational nature of a

thing which has no foundation in itself.

We have already spoken of the central Dvîpa when describing the

environs of the mountain in its centre. [1. Jambû-Dvîpa.] It is called

Jambû-Dvîpa, from a tree growing in it, the branches of which extend

over a space of 100 yojana. In a later chapter, devoted to the

description of the inhabitable world and its division, we shall finish

the description of Jambû-Dvîpa. Next, however, we shall describe the

other Dvîpas which surround it, following, as regards the order of the

names, the authority of Matsya-Purâṇa, for the above-mentioned reason

(v. p. 236). But before entering into this subject we shall here insert

a tradition of the Vâyu-Purâṇa regarding the central Dvîpa

(Jambû-Dvîpa).

[The inhabitants of Madhyadeśa, according to Vâyu-Purâṇa.] According to

this source, “there are two kinds of inhabitants in Madhyadeśa. First

the Kiṁpurusha. Their men are known as the gold-coloured ones, their

women as sureṇu. They live a long life without ever being ill. They

never commit a sin, and do not know envy. Their food is a juice which

they express from the dates of the palm trees, called madya (?). The

second kind are the Haripurusha, having the colour of silver. They live

11,000 years, are beardless, and their food is sugar-cane.” Since they

are described as beardless and silver-coloured, one might be inclined

to take them for Turks; but the fact of their eating dates and

sugar-cane compels us to see in them a more southern nation. But where

do we find people of the colour of gold or silver? We know only of the

colour of burnt silver, which occurs, e.g. among the Zanj, who lead a

life without sorrow and envy, as they do not possess anything which

gives birth to these passions. They live no doubt longer than we, but

only a little longer, and by no means twice as long. The Zanj are so

uncivilised that they have no notion of a natural death. If a man dies

a natural death, they think he was poisoned. Every death is suspicious

with them, if a man has not been killed by a weapon. Likewise it is

regarded with suspicion by them, if a man is touched by the breath of a

consumptive person.

[2. Śâka-Dvîpa.] We shall now describe Śâka-Dvîpa. It has, according to

the Matsya-Purâṇa, seven great rivers, one of which equals the Ganges

in purity. In the first ocean there are seven mountains adorned with

jewels, some of which are inhabited by Devas, others by demons. One of

them is a golden, lofty mountain, whence the clouds rise which bring us

the rain. Another contains all the [Page 126.] medicines. Indra, the

ruler, takes from it the rain. Another one is called Soma. Regarding

this mountain they relate the following story:—

[The story of Kadrû and Vinatâ. Garuḍa liberates his mother by means of

the Amṛita.] Kaśyapa had two wives, Kadrû, the mother of the snakes,

and Vinatâ, the mother of the birds. Both lived in a plain where there

was a grey horse. However, the mother of the snakes maintained that the

horse was brown. Now they made the covenant that she who was wrong

should become the slave of the other, but they postponed the decision

till the following day. In the following night the mother of the snakes

sent her black children to the horse, to wind themselves round it and

to conceal its colour. In consequence the mother of the birds became

her slave for a time.

The latter, Vinatâ, had two children, Anûru, the guardian of the tower

of the sun, which is drawn by the horses, and Garuḍa. The latter spoke

to his mother: “Demand from the children nourished at your breast what

may restore you to liberty.” This she did. People also spoke to her of

the ambrosia (amṛita), which is with the Devas. Thereupon Garuḍa flew

to the Devas and demanded it from them, and they fulfilled his wish.

For Amṛita is one of those things peculiar to them, and if somebody

else gets it, he lives as long as the Devas. He humbled himself before

them in order to obtain the Amṛita, for the purpose of freeing

therewith his mother, at the same time promising to bring it back

afterwards. They had pity upon him, and gave it him. Thereupon Garuḍa

went to the mountain Soma, in which the Devas were living. Garuḍa gave

the Amṛita to the Devas, and thereby freed his mother. Then he spoke to

them: “Do not come near the Amṛita unless you have before bathed in the

river Ganges.” This they did, and left the Amṛita where it was.

Meanwhile Garuḍa brought it back to the Devas, and obtained thereby a

high rank in sanctity, so that he became the king of all the birds and

the riding-bird of Vishṇu.

The inhabitants of Śâka-Dvîpa are pious, long-lived beings, who can

dispense with the rule of kings, since they do not know envy nor

ambition. Their lifetime, not capable of any change, is as long as a

Tretayuga. The four colours are among them, i.e. the different castes,

which do not intermarry nor mix with each other. They live in eternal

joy, without ever being sorry. According to Vishṇu-Purâṇa, the names of

their castes are Âryaka, Kurura, Viviṁśa (Vivaṁśa), and Bhâvin (?), and

they worship Vâsudeva.

[3. Kuśa-Dvîpa.] The third Dvîpa is Kuśa-Dvîpa. According to the

Matsya-Purâṇa it has seven mountains containing jewels, fruit, flowers,

odoriferous plants, and cereals. One of them, named Droṇa, contains

famous medicines or drugs, particularly the viśalyakaraṇa, which heals

every wound instantaneously, and mṛitasaṁjîvan, which restores the dead

to life. Another one, called hari, is similar to a black cloud. On this

mountain there is a fire called Mahisha, which has come out of the

water, and will remain there till the destruction of the world; it is

this very fire which will burn the world. Kuśa-Dvîpa has seven kingdoms

and innumerable rivers flowing to the sea, which are then changed by

Indra into rain. To the greatest rivers belong Jaunu (Yamunâ), which

purifies from all sins. About the inhabitants of this Dvîpa,

Matsya-Purâṇa does not give any information. According to Vishṇu-Purâṇa

the inhabitants are pious, sinless people, every one of them living

10,000 years. They worship Janârdana, and the names of their castes are

Damin, Śushmin, Sneha, and Mandeha.

[4. Krauñca-Dvîpa.] The fourth, or Krauñca-Dvîpa, has, according to the

Matsya-Purâṇa, mountains containing jewels, rivers which are branches

of the Ganges, and kingdoms the people of which have a white colour and

are pious and [Page 127.] pure. According to Vishṇu-Purâṇa the people

there live in one and the same place without any distinction among

members of the community, but afterwards it says that the names of

their castes are Pushkara, Pushkala, Dhanya, and Tishya (?). They

worship Janârdana.

[5. Śâlmala-Dvîpa.] The fifth, or Śâlmala-Dvîpa, has, according to the

Matsya-Purâṇa, mountains and rivers. Its inhabitants are pure,

long-lived, mild, and never angry. They never suffer from drought or

dearth, for their food comes to them simply in answer to their wishes,

without their sowing or toiling. They come into existence without being

born; they are never ill nor sorry. They do not require the rule of

kings, since they do not know the desire for property. They live

contented and in safety; they always prefer that which is good and love

virtue. The climate of this Dvîpa never alters in cold or heat, so they

are not bound to protect themselves against either. They have no rain,

but the water bubbles up for them out of the earth and drops down from

the mountains. This is also the case in the following Dvîpas. The

inhabitants are of one kind, without any distinction of caste. Every

one lives 3000 years.

According to the Vishṇu-Purâṇa they have beautiful faces and worship

Bhagavat. They bring offerings to the fire, and every one of them lives

10,000 years. The names of their castes are Kapila, Aruṇa, Pîta, and

Kṛishṇa.

[6. Gomeda-Dvîpa.] The sixth, or Gomeda-Dvîpa, has, according to the

Matsya-Purâṇa, two great mountains, the deep-black Sumanas, which

encompasses the greatest part of the Dvîpa, and the Kumuda, of golden

colour and very lofty; the latter one contains all medicines. This

Dvîpa has two kingdoms.

According to Vishṇu-Purâṇa the inhabitants are pious and without sin

and worship Vishṇu. The names of their castes are Mṛiga, Mâgadha,

Mânasa, and Mandaga. The climate of this Dvîpa is so healthy and

pleasant that the inhabitants of paradise now and then visit it on

account of the fragrancy of its air.

[7. Pushkara-Dvîpa.] The seventh, or Pushkara-Dvîpa, has, according to

the Matsya-Purâṇa, in its eastern part the mountain Citraśâlâ, i.e.

having a variegated roof with horns of jewels. Its height is 34,000

yojana, and its circumference 25,000 yojana. In the west lies the

mountain Mânasa, shining like the full moon; its height is 35,000

yojana. This mountain has a son who protects his father against the

west. In the east of this Dvîpa are two kingdoms where every inhabitant

lives 10,000 years. The water bubbles up for them out of the earth, and

drops down from the mountains. They have no rain and no flowing river;

they know neither summer nor winter. They are of one kind, without any

distinction of caste. They never suffer from dearth, and do not get

old. Everything they wish for comes to them, whilst they live quiet and

happy without knowing anything else but virtue. It is as if they were

in the suburb of paradise. All bliss is given to them; they live long

and are without ambition. So there is no service, no rule, no sin, no

envy, no opposition, no debating, no toiling in agriculture and

diligence in trading.

According to the Vishṇu-Purâṇa, Pushkara-Dvîpa is so called from a

large tree, which is also called nyagrodha. Under this tree is

Brahma-rûpa, i.e. the figure of Brahman, worshipped by the Deva and

Dânava. The inhabitants are equal among each other, not claiming any

superiority, whether they be human beings or beings associating with

the Devas. In this Dvîpa there is only a single mountain, called

Mânasottama, which rises in a round form on the round Dvîpa. From its

top all the other Dvîpas are visible, for its height is 50,000 yojana,

and the breadth the same.

CHAPTER XXV.

ON THE RIVERS OF INDIA, THEIR SOURCES AND COURSES.

[Page 128.]

[Quotation from Vâyu-Purâṇa.] The Vâyu-Purâṇa enumerates the rivers

rising in the well-known great mountains which we have mentioned as the

knots of Mount Meru (vide p. 247). To facilitate the study we exhibit

them in the following table:—

+------------------+----------------------------------------------------+

| The Great Knots. | Names of the Rivers which rise in them in |

| | Nagarasamvṛitta. |

+------------------+----------------------------------------------------+

| Mahendra { | Trisâgâ, Ṛishikulyâ, Ikshulâ, Tripavâ (?), |

| { | Âyanâ (?), Lâṅgûlinî, Vaṁśavara. |

| | |

| Malaya { | Kṛitamâlâ, Tâmravarṇâ, Pushpajâti, Utpalavatî |

| { | (!). |

| | |

| Sahya { | Godâvarî, Bhîmarathî, Kṛishṇa, Vaiṇyâ, Savañjulâ, |

| { | Tuṅgabhadrâ, Suprayogâ, Pâjaya (?), |

| { | Kâverî. |

| | |

| Śukti { | Ṛishîka, Bâlûka (!), Kumârî, Mandavâhinî, |

| { | Kirpa (!), Palâśinî. |

| | |

| Ṛiksha { | Śona, Mahânada, Narmadâ, Surasa, Kirva (?), |

| { | Mandâkinî, Daśârṇâ, Citrakûṭâ, Tamasâ, |

| { | Pipyala, Śroṇî, Karamoda (?), Piśâbika (?), |

| { | Citrapala, Mahâvegâ, Bañjulâ, Bâluvâhiṇî, |

| { | Śuktimatî, Shakruṇâ (?), Tridivâ. |

| | |

| { | Tâpî, Payoshṇî, Nirbindhyâ, Sirvâ (?), Nishadhâ, |

| Vindhya { | Vênvâ, Vaitaranî, Sini, Hâhu (!), |

| { | Kumudvatî, Tobâ, Mahâgaurî, Durgâ, |

| { | Antaśilâ. |

| | |

| { | Vedasmṛiti, Vedavatî, Vṛitraghnî (?), Parṇâśâ, |

| Pâriyâtra { | Nandanâ, Saddânâ (?), Râmadî (?), Parâ, |

| { | Carmaṇvatî, Lûpa (?), Vidiśâ. |

+------------------+----------------------------------------------------+

[The rivers of Europe and Asia rising in the Himalaya and its

extensions to west and east.] The Matsya-Purâṇa and Vâyu-Purâṇa mention

the rivers flowing in Jambû-Dvîpa, and say that they rise in the

mountains of Himavant. In the following table we simply enumerate them,

without following any particular principle of arrangement. The reader

must imagine that the mountains form the boundaries of India. The

northern mountains are the snowy Himavant. In their centre lies

Kashmîr, and they are connected with the country of the Turks. This

mountain region becomes colder and colder till the end of the

inhabitable world and Mount Meru. Because this [Page 129.] mountain has

its chief extension in longitude, the rivers rising on its north side

flow through the countries of the Turks, Tibetans, Khazars, and

Slavonians, and fall into the Sea of Jurjân (the Caspian Sea), or the

sea of Khwârizm (the Aral Sea), or the Sea Pontus (the Black Sea), or

the northern Sea of the Slavonians (the Baltic); whilst the rivers

rising on the southern slopes flow through India and fall into the

great ocean, some reaching it single, others combined.

[Rivers of India.] The rivers of India come either from the cold

mountains in the north or from the eastern mountains, both of which in

reality form one and the same chain, extending towards the east, and

then turning towards the south until they reach the great ocean, where

parts of it penetrate into the sea at the place called the Dike of

Râma. Of course, these mountains differ very much in cold and heat.

We exhibit the names of the rivers in the following table:—

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| | | | (!). | | |

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

[Sindh river.] In the mountains bordering on the kingdom of Kâyabish,

[Page 130.] i.e. Kâbul, rises a river which is called Ghorwand, on

account of its many branches. It is joined by several affluents:—

1. The river of the pass of Ghûzak.

2. The river of the gorge of Panchîr, below the town of Parwân.

3, 4. The river Sharvat and the river Sâwa, which latter flows through

the town of Lanbagâ, i.e. Lamghân; they join the Ghorvand at the

fortress of Drûta.

5, 6. The rivers Nûr and Ḳîrâ.

Swelled by these affluents, the Ghorvand is a great river opposite the

town of Purshâvar, being there called the ford, from a ford near the

village of Mahanâra, on the eastern banks of the river, and it falls

into the river Sindh near the castle of Bîtûr, below the capital of

Alḳandahâr (Gandhâra), i.e. Vaihand.

The river Biyatta, known as Jailam, from the city of [Rivers of the

Panjâb.] this name on its western banks, and the river Candarâha join

each other nearly fifty miles above Jahrâvar, and pass along west of

Multân.

The river Biyâh flows east of Multân, and joins afterwards the Biyatta

and Candarâha.

The river Irâva is joined by the river Kaj, which rises in Nagarkot in

the mountains of Bhâtul. Thereupon follows as the fifth the river

Shatladar (Satlej).

After these five rivers have united below Multân at a place called

Pañcanada, i.e. the meeting-place of the five rivers, they form an

enormous watercourse. In flood-times it sometimes swells to such a

degree as to cover nearly a space of ten farsakh, and to rise above the

trees of the plains, so that afterwards the rubbish carried by the

floods is found in their highest branches like birds-nests.

The Muslims call the river, after it has passed the Sindhî city Aror,

as a united stream, the river of Mihrân. Thus it extends, flowing

straight on, becoming broader and broader, and gaining in purity of

water, enclosing in its course places like islands, until it reaches

Almanṣûra, situated between several of its arms, and flows into the

ocean at two places, near the city Loharânî, and more eastward in the

province of Kacch at a place called Sindhu-sâgara, i.e. the Sindh Sea.

[Eranian tradition.] As the name union of the five rivers occurs in

this part of the world (in Panjâb), we observe that a similar name is

used also to the north of the above-mentioned mountain chains, for the

rivers which flow thence towards the north, after having united near

Tirmidh and having formed the river of Balkh, are called the union of

the seven rivers. The Zoroastrians of Sogdiana have confounded these

two things; for they say that the whole of the seven rivers is Sindh,

and its upper course Barîdîsh. A man descending on it sees the sinking

of the sun on his right side if he turns his face towards the west, as

we see it here on our left side (sic).

[Various rivers of India.] The river Sarsati falls into the sea at the

distance of a bowshot east of Somanâth.

The river Jaun joins the Ganges below Kanoj, which lies west of it. The

united stream falls into the great ocean near Gaṅgâsâgara.

Between the mouths of the rivers Sarsati and Ganges is the mouth of the

river Narmadâ, which descends from the eastern mountains, takes its

course in a south-western direction, and falls into the sea near the

town Bahroj, nearly sixty yojana east of Somanâth.

Behind the Ganges flow the rivers Rahab and Kawînî, which join the

river Sarwa near the city of Bârî.

The Hindus believe that the Ganges in ancient times flowed in Paradise,

and we shall relate at a subsequent opportunity how it happened to come

down upon earth.

[Quotation from Matsya-Purâṇa.] The Matsya-Purâṇa says: “After the

Ganges had settled on earth, it divided itself into seven arms, the

[Page 131.] middle of which is the main stream, known as the Ganges.

Three flowed eastward, Nalinî, Hrâdinî, and Pâvanî, and three westward,

Sîta, Cakshu, and Sindhu.”

The river Sîta rises in the Himavant, and flows through these

countries: Salila, Karstuba, Cîna, Varvara, Yavasa (?), Baha, Pushkara,

Kulata, Maṅgala, Kavara, and Saṅgavanta (?); then it falls into the

western ocean.

South of Sîta flows the river Cakshu, which irrigates the countries

Cîna, Maru, Kâlika (?), Dhûlika (?), Tukhâra, Barbara, Kâca (?),

Palhava, and Bârwancat.

The river Sindh flows through the countries Sindhu, Darada, Zindutunda

(?), Gândhâra, Rûrasa (?), Krûra (?), Śivapaura, Indramaru, Sabâtî (?),

Saindhava, Kubata, Bahîmarvara, Mara, Mrûna, and Sukûrda.

The river Ganges, which is the middle and main stream, flows through

the Gandharva, the musicians, Kiṁnara, Yakshas, Râkshasa, Vidyâdhara,

Uraga, i.e. those who creep on their breasts, the serpents,

Kalâpagrama, i.e. the city of the most virtuous, Kiṁpurusha, Khasa (?),

the mountaineers, Kirâta, Pulinda, the hunters in the plains, robbers,

Kuru, Bharata, Pañcâla, Kaushaka (?), Mâtsya, Magadha, Brahmottara, and

Tâmalipta. These are the good and bad beings through whose territories

the Ganges flows. Afterwards it enters into branches of the mountain

Vindhya, where the elephants live, and then it falls into the southern

ocean.

Of the eastern Ganges arms, the Hrâdinî flows through the countries

Nishaba, Ûpakâna, Dhîvara, Prishaka, Nîlamukha, Kîkara, Ushṭrakarṇa,

i.e. people whose lips are turned like their ears, Kirâta, Kalîdara,

Vivarṇa, i.e. the colourless people, so called on account of their

intense blackness, Kushikâna, and Svargabhûmi, i.e. a country like

Paradise. Finally it falls into the eastern ocean.

The river Pâvanî gives water to the Kupatha (?), who are far from sin,

Indradyumnasaras, i.e. the cisterns of the king Indradyumna,

Kharapatha, Bîtra, and Saṅkupatha. It flows through the steppe

Udyânamarûra, through the country of the Kuśaprâvaraṇa, and Indradvîpa,

and afterwards it falls into the salt sea.

The river Nalinî flows through Tâmara, Haṁsamârga, Samûhuka, and Pûrṇa.

All these are pious people who abstain from evil. Then it flows through

the midst of mountains and passes by the Karṇaprâvaraṇa, i.e. people

whose ears fall down on their shoulders, Aśvamukha, i.e. people with

horse-faces, Parvatamaru, mountainous steppes, and Rûmîmaṇḍala. Finally

it flows into the ocean.

[Vishṇu-Purâṇa.] The Vishṇu-Purâṇa mentions that the great rivers of

the middle earth which flow into the ocean are Anutapata, Shikhi,

Dipâpa, Tridivâ, Karma, Amṛita and Sukṛita.

CHAPTER XXVI.

[Page 132.] ON THE SHAPE OF HEAVEN AND EARTH ACCORDING TO THE HINDU

ASTRONOMERS.

This and similar questions have received at the hands of the Hindus a

treatment and solution totally different from that which they have

received among us Muslims. [The Koran, a certain and clear basis of all

research.] The sentences of the Koran on these and other subjects

necessary for man to know are not such as to require a strained

interpretation in order to become positive certainties in the minds of

the hearers, and the same may be said regarding the holy codes revealed

before the Koran. The sentences of the Koran on the subjects necessary

for man to know are in perfect harmony with the other religious codes,

and at the same time they are perfectly clear, without any ambiguity.

Besides, the Koran does not contain questions which have for ever been

subjects of controversy, nor such questions the solution of which has

always been despaired of, e.g. questions similar to certain puzzles of

chronology.

[Islam falsified: I. By a Judaistic party.] Islam was already in its

earliest times exposed to the machinations of people who were opposed

to it in the bottom of their heart, people who preached Islam with

sectarian tendencies, and who read to simple-minded audiences out of

their Koran-copies passages of which not a single word was ever created

(i.e. revealed) by God. But people believed them and copied these

things on their authority, beguiled by their hypocrisy; nay, they

disregarded the true form of the book which they had had until then,

because the vulgar mind is always inclined to any kind of delusion.

Thus the pure tradition of Islam has been rendered confused by this

Judaistic party.

[II. By the dualists.] Islam encountered a second mishap at the hands

of the Zindîḳs, the followers of Mânî, like Ibn Almuḳaffaʿ,

ʿAbd-alkarîm Ibn ʿAbî-alʿaujâʾ, and others, who, being the fathers of

criticism, and declaring one thing as just, another as admissible, &c.,

raised doubts in weak-minded people as to the One and First, i.e. the

Unique and Eternal God, and directed their sympathies towards dualism.

At the same time they presented the biography of Mânî to the people in

such a beautiful garb that they were gained over to his side. Now this

man did not confine himself to the trash of his sectarian theology, but

also proclaimed his views about the form of the world, as may be seen

from his books, which were intended for deliberate deception. His

opinions were far-spread. Together with the inventions of the

above-mentioned Judaistic party, they formed a religious system which

was declared to be the Islam, but with which God has nothing whatever

to do. Whoso opposes it and firmly adheres to the orthodox faith in

conformity with the Koran is stigmatised by them as an infidel and

heretic and condemned to death, and they will not allow him to hear the

word of the Koran. All these acts of theirs are more impious than even

the words of Pharaoh, “I am your highest lord” (Sura, 79, 24), and “I

do not know of any god for you save myself” (Sura, 28, 38). If party

spirit of this kind will go on and rule for a long time, we may easily

decline from the straight path of honour and duty. We, however, take

our refuge with God, who renders firm the foot of every one who seeks

Him, and who seeks the truth about Him.

[Veneration of the Hindus for their astronomers.] The religious books

of the Hindus and their codes of tradition, the Purâṇas, contain

sentences about the shape of the world which stand in direct opposition

to scientific truth as known to their astronomers. By these books

people are guided in fulfilling the rites of their religion, and by

means of them the great mass of the nation have been wheedled into a

predilection for astronomical calculation and astrological predictions

and warnings. The consequence is, that they show much affection to

their astronomers, declaring that they are excellent men, that it is a

good omen to meet them, and firmly believing that all of them come into

Paradise and [Astronomers admit popular notions into their doctrines.]

none into hell. For this the astronomers requite them by accepting

their popular notions as truth, by conforming themselves to them,

however far from truth most of them may be, and by presenting them with

such spiritual stuff as they stand in need of. This is the reason why

the two theories, the vulgar and the scientific, have become

intermingled in the course of time, why the doctrines of the

astronomers have been disturbed and confused, in particular the

doctrines of those authors—and they are the majority—who simply copy

their predecessors, who take the bases of their science from tradition

and do not make them the objects of independent scientific research.

[General observations on the rotundity of the earth, on Meru and

Vaḍavâmukha.] We shall now explain the views of Hindu astronomers

regarding the present subject, viz. the shape of heaven and earth.

According to them, heaven as well as the whole world is round, and the

earth has a globular shape, the northern half being dry land, the [Page

133.] southern half being covered with water. The dimension of the

earth is larger according to them than it is according to the Greeks

and modern observations, and in their calculations to find this

dimension they have entirely given up any mention of the traditional

seas and Dvîpas, and of the enormous sums of yojana attributed to each

of them. The astronomers follow the theologians in everything which

does not encroach upon their science, e.g. they adopt the theory of

Mount Meru being under the north pole, and that of the island

Vaḍavâmukha lying under the south pole. Now, it is entirely irrelevant

whether Meru is there or not, as it is only required for the

explanation of the particular mill-like rotation, which is necessitated

by the fact that to each spot on the plane of the earth corresponds a

spot in the sky as its zenith. Also the fable of the southern island

Vaḍavâmukha does no harm to their science, although it is possible,

nay, even likely, that each pair of quarters of the earth forms a

coherent, uninterrupted unity, the one as a continent, the other as an

ocean (and that in reality there is no such island under the south

pole). Such a disposition of the earth is required by the law of

gravitation, for according to them the earth is in the centre of the

universe, and everything heavy gravitates towards it. Evidently on

account of this law of gravitation they consider heaven, too, as having

a globular shape.

We shall now exhibit the opinions of the Hindu astronomers on this

subject according to our translation of their works. In case, however,

one word or other in our translation should be used in a meaning

different from that which it generally has in our sciences, we ask the

reader to consider only the original meaning of the word (not the

technical one), for this only is meant.

[Quotation from the Siddhânta of Pulisa.] Pulisa says in his Siddhânta:

“Paulisa the Greek says somewhere that the earth has a globular shape,

whilst in another place he says that it has the shape of a cover (i.e.

of a flat plane). And in both sentences he is right; for the plane or

surface of the earth is round, and its diameter is a straight line.

That he, however, only believed in the globular shape of the earth, may

be proved by many passages of his work. Besides, all scholars agree on

this head, as Varâhamihira, Âryabhaṭa, Deva, Śrîsheṇa, Vishṇucandra,

and Brahman. If the earth were not round, it would not be girded with

the latitudes of the different places on earth, day and night would not

be different in winter and summer, and the conditions of the planets

and of their rotations would be quite different from what they are.

“The position of the earth is central. Half of it is clay, half water.

Mount Meru is in the dry half, the home of the Deva, the angels, and

above it is the pole. In the other half, which is covered by water,

lies Vaḍavâmukha, under the south pole, a continent like an island,

inhabited by the Daitya and Nâga, relatives of the Deva on Meru.

Therefore it is also called Daityântara.

“The line which divides the two earth-halves, the dry and the wet, from

each other, is called Niraksha, i.e. having no latitude, being

identical with our equator. In the four cardinal directions with

relation to this line there are four great cities:—

Yamakoṭi, in the east.

Laṅkâ, in the south.

Romaka, in the west.

Siddhapura, in the north.

“The earth is fastened on the two poles, and held by the axis. When the

sun rises over the line which passes both through Meru and Laṅkâ, that

moment is noon to Yamakoṭi, midnight to the Greeks, and evening to

Siddhapura.”

In the same manner things are represented by Âryabhaṭa.

[Quotation from the Brahmasiddhânta of Brahmagupta.] Brahmagupta, the

son of Jishṇu, a native of Bhillamâla, says in his Brahmasiddhânta:

“Many are the sayings of people about the shape of the earth, specially

among those who study the Purâṇas and the religious [Page 134.] books.

Some say that it is level like a mirror, others say that it is hollow

like a bowl. Others maintain that it is level like a mirror, inclosed

by a sea, this sea being inclosed by an earth, this earth being

inclosed by a sea, &c., all of them being round like collars. Each sea

or earth has the double size of that which it incloses. The outside

earth is sixty-four times as large as the central earth, and the sea

inclosing the outside earth is sixty-four times as large as the sea

inclosing the central earth. Several circumstances, however, compel us

to attribute globular shape both to the earth and heaven, viz. the fact

that the stars rise and set in different places at different times, so

that, e.g. a man in Yamakoṭi observes one identical star rising above

the western horizon, whilst a man in Rûm at the same time observes it

rising above the eastern horizon. Another argument to the same effect

is this, that a man on Meru observes one identical star above the

horizon in the zenith of Laṅkâ, the country of the demons, whilst a man

in Laṅkâ at the same time observes it above his head. Besides, all

astronomical calculations are not correct unless we assume the globular

figure of heaven and earth. Therefore we must declare that heaven is a

globe, because we observe in it all the characteristics of a globe, and

the observation of these characteristics of the world would not be

correct unless in reality it were a globe. Now, it is evident that all

the other theories about the world are futile.”

[Quotations from various astronomers.] Âryabhaṭa inquires into the

nature of the world, and says that it consists of earth, water, fire,

and wind, and that each of these elements is round.

Likewise Vasishṭha and Lâṭa say that the five elements, viz. earth,

water, fire, wind, and heaven, are round.

Varâhamihira says that all things which are perceived by the senses,

are witnesses in favour of the globular shape of the earth, and refute

the possibility of its having another shape.

Âryabhaṭa, Pulisa, Vasishṭha, and Lâṭa agree in this, that when it is

noon in Yamakoṭi, it is midnight in Rûm, beginning of the day in Laṅkâ,

and beginning of the night in Siddhapura, which is not possible if the

world is not round. Likewise the periodicity of the eclipses can only

be explained by the world’s being round.

Lâṭa says: “On each place of the earth only one-half of the globe of

heaven is seen. The more northern our latitude is, the more Meru and

the pole rise above the horizon; as they sink down below the horizon,

the more southern is our latitude. The equator sinks down from the

zenith of places, the greater their latitude is both in north and

south. A man who is north of the equator only sees the north pole,

whilst the south pole is invisible to him, and vice versâ.”

[Considerations regarding the rotundity of the earth, the balance of

gravity between the northern and southern halves, and the attraction of

gravitation.] These are the words of Hindu astronomers regarding the

globular shape of heaven and earth, and what is between them, and

regarding the fact that the earth, situated in the centre of the globe,

is only of a small size in comparison with the visible part of heaven.

These thoughts are the elements of astronomy as contained in the first

chapter of Ptolemy’s Almagest, and of similar books, though they are

not worked out in that scientific form in which we are accustomed to

give them,

(Lacuna,)

for the earth is more heavy than the water, and the water is fluid like

the air. The globular form must be to the earth a physical necessity,

as long as it does not, by the order of God, take another form.

Therefore the [Page 135.] earth could not move towards the north, nor

the water move towards the south, and in consequence one whole half is

not terra firma, nor the other half water, unless we suppose that the

terra firma half be hollow. As far as our observation, based on

induction, goes, the terra firma must be in one of the two northern

quarters, and therefore we guess that the same is the case on the

adjacent quarter. We admit the possibility of the existence of the

island Vaḍavâmukha, but we do not maintain it, since all we know of it

and of Meru is exclusively based on tradition.

The equatorial line does not, in the quarter of the earth known to us,

represent a boundary between terra firma and the ocean. For in certain

places the continent protrudes far into the ocean, so as to pass beyond

the equator, e.g. the plains of the negroes in the west, which protrude

far towards the south, even beyond the mountains of the moon and the

sources of the Nile, in fact, into regions which we do not exactly

know. For that continent is desert and impassable, and likewise the sea

behind Sufâla of the Zanj is unnavigable. No ship which ventured to go

there has ever returned to relate what it had witnessed.

Also a great part of India above the province of Sindh deeply protrudes

far towards the south, and seems even to pass beyond the equator.

In the midst between both lie Arabia and Yemen, but they do not go so

far south as to cross the equator.

Further, as the terra firma stretches far out into the ocean, thus the

ocean too penetrates into terra firma, breaking into it in various

places, and forming bays and gulfs. For instance, the sea extends as a

tongue along the west side of Arabia as far as the neighbourhood of

Central Syria. It is narrowest near Ḳulzum, whence it is also called

the Sea of Ḳulzum.

Another and still larger arm of the sea exists east of Arabia, the

so-called Persian Sea. Between India and China, also, the sea forms a

great curve towards the north.

Hence it is evident that the coast-line of these countries does not

correspond to the equator, nor keep an invariable distance from it,

(Lacuna,)

and the explanation relating to the four cities will follow in its

proper place.

The difference of the times which has been remarked is one of the

results of the rotundity of the earth, and of its occupying the centre

of the globe. And if they attribute to the earth, though it be round,

inhabitants—for cities cannot be imagined without inhabitants—the

existence of men on earth is accounted for by the attraction of

everything heavy towards its centre, i.e. the middle of the world.

[Quotations from the Vâyu and Matsya Purâṇas.] Much to the same effect

are the expressions of Vâyu-Purâṇa, viz. that noon in Amarâvatî is

sunrise in Vaivasvata, midnight in Sukhâ, and sunset in Vibhâ.

Similar, also, are the expressions of Matsya-Purâṇa, for this book

explains that east of Meru lies the city Amarâvatîpura, the residence

of Indra, the ruler, and his wife; south of Meru, the city

Saṁyamanîpura, the residence of Yama, the son of the Sun, where he

punishes and requites mankind; west of Meru, the city Sukhâpura, the

residence of Varuṇa, i.e. the water; and north of Meru, the city

Vibhâvarîpura, belonging to the Moon. Sun and planets revolve round

Meru. When the sun has his noon position in Amarâvatîpura, it is the

beginning of the day in Saṁyamanîpura, midnight in Sukhâ, and the

beginning of the night in Vibhâvarîpura. And when the sun has his noon

position in Saṁyamanîpura, he rises over Sukhâpura, sets over

Amaravatîpura, and has his midnight position with [Page 136.] relation

to Vibhâvarîpura.

[A note of the author on the passage from the Matsya-Purâṇa.] If the

author of the Matsya-Purâṇa says that the sun revolves round Meru, he

means a mill-like rotation round those who inhabit Meru, who, in

consequence of this nature of the rotation, do not know east nor west.

The sun does not rise for the inhabitants of Meru in one particular

place, but in various places. By the word east the author means the

zenith of one city, and by west the zenith of another. Possibly those

four cities of the Matsya-Purâṇa are identical with those mentioned by

the astronomers. But the author has not mentioned how far they are

distant from Meru. What we have besides related as notions of the

Hindus is perfectly correct and borne out by scientific methods;

however, they are wont never to speak of the pole unless they mention

in the same breath also the mountain Meru.

[Brahmagupta and Varâhamihira on the law of gravitation.] In the

definition of what is low the Hindus agree with us, viz. that it is the

centre of the world, but their expressions on this head are subtle,

more particularly as this is one of the great questions which is only

handled by the most eminent of their scholars.

So Brahmagupta says: “Scholars have declared that the globe of the

earth is in the midst of heaven, and that Mount Meru, the home of the

Devas, as well as Vaḍavâmukha below, is the home of their opponents;

the Daitya and Dânava belong to it. But this below is according to them

only a relative one. Disregarding this, we say that the earth on all

its sides is the same; all people on earth stand upright, and all heavy

things fall down to the earth by a law of nature, for it is the nature

of the earth to attract and to keep things, as it is the nature of

water to flow, that of fire to burn, and that of the wind to set in

motion. If a thing wants to go deeper down than the earth, let it try.

The earth is the only low thing, and seeds always return to it, in

whatever direction you may throw them away, and never rise upwards from

the earth.”

Varâhamihira says: “Mountains, seas, rivers, trees, cities, men, and

angels, all are around the globe of the earth. And if Yamakoṭi and Rûm

are opposite to each other, one could not say that the one is low in

its relation to the other, since the low does not exist. How could one

say of one place of the earth that it is low, as it is in every

particular identical with any other place on earth, and one place could

as little fall as any other. Every one speaks to himself with regard to

his own self, ‘I am above and the others are below,’ whilst all of them

are around the globe like the blossoms springing on the branches of a

Kadamba-tree. They encircle it on all sides, but each individual

blossom has the same position as the other, neither the one hanging

downward nor the other standing upright. For the earth attracts that

which is upon her, for it is the below towards all directions, and

heaven is the above towards all directions.”

As the reader will observe, these theories of the Hindus are based on

the correct knowledge of the laws of nature, but, at the same time,

they practise a little deceit upon their traditionalists and

theologians. So [Quotations from Balabhadra, and the author’s

criticisms on them.] Balabhadra the commentator says: “It is the most

correct of the opinions of people, many and different as they are, that

the earth and Meru and the zodiacal sphere are round. And the Âpta

(?)-purâṇa-kâra, i.e. the faithful followers of the Purâṇa, say: ‘The

earth is like the back of a tortoise; it is not round from below.’ They

are perfectly right, because the earth is in the midst of the water,

and that which appears [Page 137.] above the water has the shape of a

tortoise-back; and the sea around the earth is not navigable. The fact

of the earth being round is proved by eyesight.”

Here the reader must notice how Balabhadra declares the theory of the

theologians as to the rotundity of the back to be true. He gives

himself the air of not knowing that they deny that the womb, i.e. the

other half of the globe, is round, and he busies himself with a

traditional element (as to the earth being like the back of a

tortoise), which, in reality, has no connection with the subject.

Further, Balabhadra says: “Human eyesight reaches to a point distant

from the earth and its rotundity the 96th part of 5000 yojana, i.e. 52

yojana (exactly 521⁄12). Therefore man does not observe its rotundity,

and hence the discrepancy of opinions on the subject.”

The southern frontier of India is formed by the ocean. The coast of