cementing transitions. Take for example Burke's argument that force
will be an undesirable instrument to use against the colonies. He
says: "First, permit me to observe that the use of force shall be
temporary." The next paragraph he begins: "My next observation is its
uncertainty." He follows that with: "A further observation to force is
that you impair the object by your very endeavor to preserve it." And
he concludes: "Lastly, we have no sort of experience in favor of force
as an instrument in the rule of our colonies." He used this principle
to perhaps even greater advantage when he argued that "a fierce spirit
of liberty had grown up in the colonies." He supports this with claims
which are introduced as follows:
"First, the people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen."
"They were further confirmed in this pleasing error [their spirit of
liberty] by the form of their provincial legislative assemblies."
"If anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of
government, religion would have given it a complete effect."
"There is, in the South, a circumstance attending these colonies
which, in my opinion, fully counterbalances this difference, and makes
the spirit of liberty still more high and haughty than in those to the
northward. It is that in Virginia and the Carolinas, they have a vast
multitude of slaves."
"Permit me, Sir, to add another circumstance in our colonies, which
contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this
untractable spirit. I mean their education."
"The last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is hardly
less powerful than the rest as it is not merely moral, but laid deep
in the natural constitution of things. Three thousand miles of ocean
lie between you and them."
He finally summarizes these in this way, which further ties them
together.
"Then, Sir, from these six capital sources; of descent; of form of
government; of religion in the northern provinces; of manners in the
southern; of education; of the remoteness of situation from the first
mover of government; from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty
has grown up."
It may be well also to point out more clearly the somewhat special
nature of the first speeches on each side. The first speech of the
affirmative must, of course, make clear to the judges and the audience
what you wish them to believe. This will involve all the steps which
have already been pointed out as necessary to accomplish that result.
The first speaker can gain a great deal for his side by presenting
this material not only with great clearness, but in a manner which
will win the goodwill of the audience toward himself, his team, and
his side of the subject. To do this, he must be genial, honest,
modest, and fair. He must make his hearers feel that he is not giving
a narrow or prejudiced analysis of the question; he must make them
feel that his treatment is open and fair to both sides, and that he
finally reaches the issues not at all because he _wishes_ to find
those issues, but because a thorough analysis of the question will
allow him to reach no others.
The first speaker on the negative side may have much the same work to
do. If, however, he agrees with what the first speaker of the
affirmative has said, he will save time merely by stating that fact
and by summarizing in a sentence or two the steps leading to the
issues. If he does not agree with the interpretation which the
affirmative has given to the question, it will be necessary for him to
interpret the question himself. He must make clear to the judges why
his analysis is correct and that of his opponent faulty.
In presenting the forensic to the judges and audience forget, so far
as possible, that you are debating. You have a proposition in which
you believe and which you want them to accept. Your purpose is not to
make your hearers say: "How well he does it." You want them to say:
"He is right."
Do not rant. Speak clearly, that you may be understood; and with
enough force that you may be heard, but in the same manner that you
use in conversation.
_Good gestures help. Good gestures_ are those that come naturally in
support of your ideas. While practicing alone notice what gestures you
put in involuntarily. They are right. Do not ape anyone in gesture.
Your oral work will be more effective without use of your hands than
it will be with an ineffective use of them. The most ineffective use
is the making of motions that are so violent or extravagant that they
attract the listeners' attention to themselves and away from your
ideas. Remember that the expression of your face is most important of
all gestures. Earnest interest, pleasantness, fairness, and vigor
expressed in the speaker's face at the right times have done more to
win debates than other gestures have ever accomplished.
LESSON VIII
REFUTATION
I. Refutation explained.
II. Refutation may be carried on:
1. By overwhelming constructive argument.
2. By showing the weakness of opponents' argument.
III. The time for refutation:
1. Allotted time.
2. Special times.
IV. The right spirit in refutation.
Our work up to this point has dealt with what is called the
_constructive argument_, i.e., the building up of the proof. But to
make the judges believe as you wish, you must not merely support your
contentions; you must destroy the proof which your opponents are
trying to construct.
As with the successful athletic team and the successful general, so
with the successful debater, it is necessary, not only to attack, but
also to repulse; not only to carry out the plan of your own side, but
to meet and defeat the plan which the other side has developed. In
debating, this repulse, this destruction of the arguments of the
opposition, is called _refutation_ or _rebuttal_.
There are two principal ways in which the refutation of the opponent's
argument can be accomplished. The first is _to destroy it with your
own constructive argument_. The second is _to show that his argument,
even though it is not destroyed by yours, is faulty in itself, and
therefore useless_.
Although only one of them is labeled "Refutation" in the model brief
in the sixth lesson, both types are illustrated there.
There the negative, believing that the first argument of the
affirmative would be, "Inter contests are open to abuse," makes its
first point a counter-assertion. It uses as the first issue: "Contests
between the high schools of northern Illinois are not subject to such
abuses as will warrant their abolition." Which side would gain this
point in the minds of the judges would depend on which side supported
its assertion with the better evidence.
If one side wished to raise this question again in the refutation
speeches, which close the debate, it could do no better than to repeat
and re-emphasize the same material which it used in its construction
argument.
The second method of refuting, i.e., showing an argument to be faulty,
is also illustrated in the brief in the sixth lesson. It is marked
"Refutation." This material was introduced because the negative felt
sure that the affirmative would attempt to use the experience of
Shortridge High School as evidence of the successful working of this
plan. It was shown to be faulty in that the experience of this school
would not apply to the question here debated.
The student's study of what makes good evidence for his own case will
enable him to see the weakness of his opponents' arguments. Apply the
_same_ tests to your opponents' evidence that you apply to your own.
What is there about the evidence introduced that should make the
audience hesitate to accept it? Point these things out to the
audience. It may be that prejudiced, dishonest, or ignorant testimony
has been given. It may be that not enough evidence has been given to
carry weight. Whatever the flaw, point out to the audience that, upon
a critical examination, experience shows the evidence to be weak.
In every debate there is a regular time allowed for rebuttal. This is,
however, not the only time at which it may be introduced. In the
debate, put in refutation wherever it is needed. One of the best plans
is, if possible, to refute with a few sentences at the opening of each
speech what the previous speaker of the opposition has said.
In all refutation, _state clearly what you aim to disprove._ When
quoting the statement of an opponent, be sure to be accurate.
Something like the following is a good form for stating refutation:
Our opponents, in arguing that labor unions have been harmful to the
commerce of America, have stated that they would use as support the
testimony of prominent men. In so doing, they have quoted from X, Y,
and Z. This testimony is without strength. X, as a large employer of
labor, would be open to prejudice; Y, as a non-union laborer, is both
prejudiced and ignorant. The testimony of Z, as an Englishman is
applicable to labor unions as they have affected, not the commerce of
America, but the trade of England.
A similar form is shown in the brief on inter-and intra-high-school
contests in refuting the experience of Shortridge High School.
In all refutation, keep close to the fundamental principles of the
question. Do not be led astray into minute details upon which you
differ. Never tire of recalling attention to the issues of the
question. Show why those are the issues, and you will see that the
strongest refutation almost always consists in pointing out wherein
you have proved these issues, while your opponents have failed to do
so.
In order to be fully prepared, however, it is a good plan to put upon
cards all the points that your opponents may use and that you have not
answered in your constructive argument. Adopt a method similar to
this:
Shortridge argument
I. Will not apply for:
(1) Not this plan.
(2) Conditions differ, for:
_a) School Review_, October, 1911.
Then if your opponents advance arguments that are not met in your
speech, merely lay out these cards while they speak, and use them as
references in your refutation.
The closing rebuttal speech is always a critical one. Here the speaker
should again point out every mistake which his opponents have made.
If their interpretation of the question has been wrong, he should,
while avoiding details, emphasize the chief flaws in their arguments.
On the other hand, he should summarize the argument of his own side
from beginning to end; he should make the support of each of the
issues stand clearly before the judges in its complete, logical form.
In these closing speeches, as in the opening of the debate, much may
be gained by an attitude which will win the favor of the hearers
toward the speaker and his ideas. An attitude of petty criticism, of
narrowness of view, is undesirable at any stage of the debate. The
debater who is inclined to belittle his opponents will only belittle
himself. To the judges it will appear that the speaker who has time to
ridicule his adversaries must be a little short of arguments.
Insinuations of dishonesty and attempts to be sarcastic should be
carefully avoided. These weapons are sharp but they are two-edged and
are more likely to injure the speaker than his opponent.
The right attitude for a debater is always one of fairness. Give your
opponents all possible credit. When you have then refuted their
arguments, your own contentions seem of double strength. It is said
that Lincoln used this method with splendid effect: He would often
restate the argument of his opponent with great force and clearness;
he would make it seem irrefutable. Then, when he began his attack and
caused his opponent's argument to collapse, its fall seemed to be
utter and complete, while his arguments, which had proved themselves
capable of effecting this destruction, appeared all the more powerful.
In your desire to do well in refutation, do not be led to depend upon
that alone. There is no older and better rule than, "Know the other
side as well as you know your own." Do not believe that this is in
order that you may be ready with a clever answer for every point made
by the other side. The most important reason why you should know the
other side of the question is the necessity of your determining the
issues correctly, and thus building a constructive argument that is
overwhelming and impregnable. Many a debate has been lost because the
debaters worked up their own constructive argument first, and only
later, in order to prepare refutation, considered what their opponents
would say. Had they proceeded correctly, they would have destroyed the
proof of their adversaries while they built up their own.
A clever retort in refutation often wins the applause of the
galleries, but an analysis of the question so keen that the real
issues are determined, supported by an organization of evidence so
strong that it sweeps away all opposition as it grows, is more likely
to gain the favorable decision of the judges.
SUGGESTED EXERCISES
1. What is the purpose of refutation? 2. What two principal methods
may be followed?
3. What must one do to refute correctly and well?
4. Do you think it better in refutation to assail the minor points of
your opponent or to attack the main issues?
5. A fellow-student in chemistry said to you: "The chemical symbol for
water is H_{4}0; two of our classmates told me so." You replied: "The
correct symbol, according to our instructor, is H_{2}O." Did you
refute his assertion? How?
6. A classmate makes an argument which could be briefed thus:
Cigarettes are good for high-school boys, for:
I. They aid health of body, for:
(1) Many athletes smoke them, for:
a) X smokes them.
b) Y smokes them.
c) Z smokes them.
If you disagree with this assertion, do not believe they aid health,
and know X does not smoke cigarettes, how would you refute his
contention?
7. If your opponents in a debate quote opinions of others in support
of their views, in what two ways can they be refuted?
8. In a recent campaign, the administration candidate used this
argument: "I should be re-elected, for: Times are good, work is
plentiful, crops are excellent, and products demand a high price."
Show any weakness in this argument.
9. Show the weakness of proof in this argument: Harvard is better at
football than Princeton I. They defeated Princeton in 1912.
10. What general rule can you make from 9 concerning a statement
supported by particular cases?
LESSON IX
MANAGEMENT OF THE DEBATE
_Teams_.--The opposing teams in a debate usually consist of three
persons each. A larger or smaller number is permissible.
_Time of Speaking_.--Each speaker is ordinarily allowed one
constructive speech and one rebuttal speech. The constructive speech
is usually about twice the length of the refutation. Twelve and six,
ten and five, and eight and four minutes are all frequent time-limits
for debates. Many debaters make shorter speeches.
_Order of speaking_.--The debate is opened by the affirmative. The
first speaker is followed by a negative debater, who, in turn, is
followed by a member of the affirmative team, and so on until the
entire constructive argument is presented. A member of the negative
team opens the refutation. Speakers then alternate until the debate is
closed by the affirmative. The order of speakers on each team is often
different in refutation than in constructive argument.
_Presiding chairman_.--Every debate should be presided over by a
chairman. His duties are to state the question to the audience,
introduce each speaker, and announce the decision of the judges. He
sometimes also acts as timekeeper.
_Timekeepers_.--A timekeeper representing each of the competing
organizations should note the moment when each speaker begins and
notify the chair when the allotted time has been consumed. It is
customary to give each speaker as many minutes of warning before his
time expires as he may desire.
_Salutation_.--Good form in debating requires that each speaker shall
begin with a salutation to the various personages whom he addresses.
The most common salutation is: "Mr. Chairman, worthy opponents,
honorable judges, ladies and gentlemen."
_Reference to other speakers_.--In referring to members of the
opposing team never say, "he said," "she said," or "they said." Always
speak of your opponents in the third person in some such way as, "my
honorable opponents," "the first speaker of the negative," "the
gentlemen of the affirmative," or "the gentlemen from X."
In referring to other members of your own team say, "my colleagues,"
or "my colleague, the first speaker," etc.
_The judges_.--There are generally three judges. Where it is
practicable, a larger number is desirable because their opinion is
more nearly the opinion of the audience as a whole. Needless to say
they should be competent and wholly without prejudice as to teams or
question.
_The decision_.--The decision of each judge should be written on a
slip and sealed in an envelope provided for that purpose (see
Appendix IX, "Forms for Judges' Decision"). These should be opened by
the chairman in view of the audience, and the decision announced.
LESSON X
A SUMMARY AND A DIAGRAM
We have now completed our study of debating. We saw first that all
talking and writing is discourse, and that one great division of
discourse--that which aims to gain belief--is argumentation.
Argumentation we divided into spoken and written argumentation. We
found that it varies in formality but that, when carried on orally
under prescribed conditions and with the expectation of having a
decision rendered, it is called debating.
Successful debating we found to require three steps: showing the
hearers what belief is desired; showing them upon what issues belief
depends; and supporting these issues with evidence until we have
established proof.
We learned that the first of these steps could be taken by stating the
question in the form of a definite, single proposition; defining the
terms of this proposition; and then restating the whole matter. We
found that the second step required that the material that both sides
admit, together with all other material that is really not pertinent
to the question, should be first removed, and that the fundamentals of
the question should be stated as the issues. The last step, proving
the issues, we found to involve two processes. It was necessary,
first, to find and select evidence, and, second, to arrange that
evidence in logical order--the brief-form.
[Illustration]
The accompanying diagram is one that has helped many students to
visualize more clearly what is attempted in a debate and to see how
the debate may be made successful.
The doubt that the audience very reasonably has of the new idea
proposed is bridged over by the proposition. But this proposition will
not be strong enough to cause the minds of the listeners to pass from
unbelief to belief unless it is well supported. The whole proposition
is therefore placed upon one or two or three great capitals--the
issues, under each of which is a pillar of proof. These pillars are
composed of evidence of every sort. The intelligent debater has,
however, before placing a single piece of this evidence in the proof,
tested it carefully. He has tested it with the question: "Will it help
bring conviction to the audience; how will it affect my hearers?"
Moreover, not satisfied with this scrupulous choice of evidence, he
has been careful not to pile it in regardless of position, but to
place each piece in the position where it will lend the strongest
support to the entire structure.
When this has been done, the bridge of proof is built solidly upon the
experience of the hearers, and, almost without their knowledge, their
minds have gone from unbelief to belief.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: Baker, _Principles of Argumentation_.]
[Footnote 2: Jevons, _Primer of Logic._]
[Footnote 3: For a thorough discussion of the principle of reference
to experience, see Arthur E. Phillips, _Effective Speaking_, chap.
iii.]
[Footnote 4: Edmund Burke, _On Conciliation with the Colonies_.]
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
HOW AND WHERE TO READ FOR MORE
INFORMATION
Practically every subject that is interesting enough to be a good
subject for debate has been written about by other people. Every good
library contains the books on the following list, and with a little
experience the student can handle them easily. A general treatment of
every important subject can be found in any of the following
encyclopedias: _Americana, New International, Twentieth Century,
Britannica_.
Everything that has been written upon every subject in all general,
technical, and school magazines, can be found by looking up the
desired topic in: _The Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature_, or
_Poole's Index_.
If the matter being studied deals with civics, economics, or
sociology, look in: Bliss, _Encyclopaedia of Social Reform,_ etc.;
Lalor, _Cyclopaedia of Political Science_, etc.; Larned, _History of
Ready Reference and Topical Reading_; Bowker and lies, _Reader's Guide
in Economics_, etc.
What Congress is doing and has done is often important. This can be
found in full in: _The Congressional Record_.
Jones's _Finding List_ tells where to look for any topic in various
government publications.
In studying many subjects the need of definite and reliable statistics
will be felt. These may be found on almost any question in the
following publications: _Statesman's Yearbook, Whitaker's Almanac,
World Almanac, Chicago Daily News Almanac, Hazell's Almanac, U.S.
Census Reports_.
Never consider your reading completed until you have looked for any
special book that may be written upon your subject in the Card
Catalogue of your Library.
Make out a Bibliography or Reading List (as illustrated briefly in
Appendix V) before you proceed to actual reading.
APPENDIX II
ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE THE ISSUES OF THE QUESTION
The two specimens that immediately follow are analyses of the same
question by students of the same university. The first is a selection
from the speech made by Mr. Raymond S. Pruitt in the Towle Debate of
Northwestern University Law School in 1911. The second is the
introduction to the speech made by Mr. Charles Watson of the
Northwestern University Law School in the 1911 debate with the Law
School of the University of Southern California. Students should
observe how the two speakers determine somewhat different issues.
_Resolved_, That in actions against an employer for death or injury of
an employee sustained in the course of an industrial employment the
fellow-servant rule and the rule of the assumption of risk as defined
and interpreted by the common law, should be abolished.
Mr. Pruitt, speaking for the affirmative:
The question which we discuss tonight is partly economic and partly
legal. By that I mean that viewing it from the standpoint of legal
liability, we possibly can agree with the gentlemen of the Negative
that the employer should respond in damages to his injured employee,
only when the injury has been caused by the employer's own fault.
But, on the other hand, viewing the same problem from an economic
standpoint, you cannot deny, that, when through no fault of his own,
a worker is injured in the course of an industrial employment, that
industry should compensate him for the loss.
Here then is the issue--the world-old-problem--established
principles of law in conflict with changing social and economic
conditions; and, as history shows, there can in such cases be but
one solution. The decision of the court, the statute of the
legislature, yes, even the constitution of the nation, must in turn
yield to the march of progress and adapt itself to changing
conditions until once more it shall reflect the sense of public
justice in its own time. Hence, I say that in our discussion this
evening, there can be no confusion of issues. The Affirmative,
according to the wording of the question, are to advocate a change
in our common law, while the Negative in duty bound are to oppose
the proposition for change, and to defend as the Negative always
defend, the order of things as they are.