_STEAM NAVIGATION--THE ‘GREAT EASTERN’ STEAM-SHIP, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT
OF THE UNDERTAKING TO THE LAUNCH._
A.D. 1851--1857. ÆTATIS 46--52.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS--THE AUSTRALIAN STEAM NAVIGATION
COMPANY--STATEMENT OF MR. BRUNEL’S PROJECT OF A LINE OF LARGE SHIPS
(JUNE 10, 1852)--ADOPTION OF HIS PLANS BY THE EASTERN STEAM
NAVIGATION COMPANY--EXTRACT FROM A LETTER DESCRIBING THE SCHEME
(JULY 1, 1852)--LETTER TO J. SCOTT RUSSELL, ESQ., ON THE FORM AND
DIMENSIONS OF THE GREAT SHIP (JULY 13, 1852)--REPORT ON MODE OF
PROCEEDING (JULY 21, 1852)--REPORT ON ENQUIRIES RELATING TO THE
DRAUGHT AND FORM OF THE VESSEL (OCTOBER 6, 1852)--REPORT ON THE
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER MR. BRUNEL’S
PLANS (MARCH 21, 1853)--TENDERS INVITED FOR THE SHIP AND
ENGINES--REPORT ON TENDERS (MAY 18, 1853)--PREPARATION OF THE
CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS--EXTRACTS FROM MR. BRUNEL’S MEMORANDA
(A.D. 1852, 1853, 1854)--LETTER ON HIS POSITION AND DUTIES AS
ENGINEER OF THE COMPANY (AUGUST 16, 1854)--LETTER ON AN ARTICLE IN
A NEWSPAPER (NOVEMBER 16, 1854)--REPORT ON THE UNDERTAKING
(FEBRUARY 5, 1855)--ARRANGEMENTS PROPOSED FOR OBTAINING
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS--LETTER TO G. B. AIRY, ESQ., ASTRONOMER
ROYAL (OCTOBER 5, 1852)--APPOINTMENT OF MR. WILLIAM HARRISON TO THE
COMMAND OF THE SHIP--MEMORANDUM ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THE GREAT SHIP
(OCTOBER, 1855)--LETTER ON THE DUTIES OF THE CHIEF ENGINEER (MARCH
19, 1857)--SUSPENSION AND RESUMPTION OF THE WORKS.
Mr. Brunel’s earlier labours in connection with the progress of Ocean
Steam Navigation have been described in the chapters on the ‘Great
Western’ and ‘Great Britain’ steam-ships.[139] The ‘Great Eastern’ is
but the result of the application, under different circumstances, of the
same principles which had guided him in his previous under-takings, the
practical working out of the ‘idea which he had frequently entertained,
that, to make long voyages economically and speedily by steam, required
the vessels to be large enough to carry the coal for the entire voyage
at least outwards; and, unless the facility for obtaining coal was very
great at the out port, then for the return voyage also; and that vessels
much larger than had been previously built could be navigated with great
advantage from the mere effect of size.’[140]
In 1851, four years after the release of the ‘Great Britain’ from
Dundrum Bay, Mr. Brunel became again connected with the construction of
steam-ships. In that year he was consulted by the Directors of the
Australian Mail Company upon the class of vessels which it would be
advantageous for them to purchase, in order to carry out their contract
for the conveyance of the mails to Australia. He advised them to have
ships of from 5,000 to 6,000 tons burden, in order that they might only
have to touch for coal at the Cape.
Some of the Directors would not hear of so startling a proposition; but
they nevertheless asked Mr. Brunel to become their Engineer; and he
retained the post till February 1853. Two ships were built under his
direction by Mr. J. Scott Russell--the ‘Victoria’ and the ‘Adelaide.’
It was, no doubt, his connection with the Australian Mail Company that
led Mr. Brunel to work out into practical shape the idea of ‘a great
ship’ for the Indian or Australian service, which had so long occupied
his mind; and it appears that in the latter part of 1851 and the
beginning of 1852 he devoted much time and thought to the subject. He
collected facts relating to the trade with India and Australia which
demonstrated the advantages to be gained by a rapid and direct
communication for the conveyance of passengers and troops, as well as of
merchandise. It was with these enlarged views that Mr. Brunel entered
upon the construction of the ‘Great Eastern.’ He writes in February
1854, ‘In February and March 1852 I matured my ideas of the large ship
with nearly all my present details, and in March I made my first sketch
of one with paddles and screw. The size I then proposed was 600 × 70,
and in June and July I determined on the mode of construction now
adopted of cellular bottom; intending then to make the outer skin of
wood for the sake of coppering.’
In the spring of 1852 he communicated the results at which he had
arrived to Mr. John Scott Russell, Captain Claxton, and other scientific
friends, and also to several Directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation
Company.
This Company had been formed in January 1851 for the purpose of
establishing an additional line of steam communication by the overland
route, for the conveyance of mails, passengers, &c., between England,
India, and China, with a branch to Australia. However, in March 1852 the
Government determined to grant the contract for the whole service to the
Peninsular and Oriental Company. The Directors of the Eastern Steam
Company were therefore obliged to report to their shareholders that the
object for which the Company had been incorporated could not be carried
out.
At about this time Mr. Brunel’s scheme was brought before the Directors,
and he submitted to them a detailed statement of his project.
After describing the size and capacities of the vessels then used on the
route between England and the East, and the amount and cost of the coals
they consumed, he continued:--
June 10, 1852.
The same amount of capital and the same expenditure in money for
fuel now required for a line of ships of the present dimensions
would build and work ships to carry in the year double the number
of passengers, with far superior accommodation, and in about half
the time, and two or three times the amount of cargo; the whole
difference being produced simply by making the vessel _large enough
to carry its own coal_, exactly as when the ‘Great Western’ was
projected for the New York line, the passage had been considered an
impossible one for steamboats, or, if possible, only at a total
sacrifice of all return for the cost. Certainly, no steamboat then
built could get across except by a chance fair weather passage, and
then only by being completely filled with coals and leaving no room
for passengers or cargo. Simply by building a ship of the size
necessary to take the coal, over and above the accommodation
required for a due number of passengers and a reasonable quantity
of cargo, the passage was rendered perfectly easy and certain, and
has since become a mere matter of course, and an ordinary and
profitable trading voyage.
The increased size, instead of being a disadvantage, was found, as
predicted by the projectors, to be a great benefit, and gave
increased speed, even beyond that proportionate to the power; and
this steamboat, built in 1836, is still as good as any of her size
afloat.
Nothing more novel is proposed now, but again to build a vessel _of
the size required to carry her own coals for the voyage_. The use
of iron, which has since 1836 become common, removes all difficulty
in the construction, and the experience of several years has
proved, what was believed before by most unprejudiced persons, that
size in a ship is an element of speed, and of strength, and of
safety, and of great relative economy, instead of a disadvantage;
and that it is limited only by the extent of demand for freight,
and by the circumstances of the ports to be frequented.
A Committee was appointed to confer with Mr. Brunel and with Mr. Scott
Russell, ‘who was fully acquainted with all Mr. Brunel’s plans, and had
ably assisted him in maturing them.’[141]
The Committee reported to the Directors that they had met on the day
after their appointment, when, Mr. Brunel being unavoidably absent, Mr.
Russell had attended and entered into a very full explanation of Mr.
Brunel’s plans, and that a long investigation of his proposition had
taken place; that a few days later they had met again, when Mr. Brunel
attended, and that after a further and most satisfactory investigation,
they had come to an unanimous decision in favour of the scheme. This
resolution was adopted, and Mr. Brunel was appointed Engineer to the
Company.
The following extracts from his reports and correspondence carry on the
narrative till the date of the next meeting of the shareholders
(December 1, 1852), when the details of the project were laid before
them:--
_Extract from a Letter describing the Scheme._
July 1, 1852.
The principle is, as I explained to you, a very simple one--that of
building ships to carry their own coals, instead of incurring large
expenses and great delay in coaling at numerous intermediate
stations; and the result is a large vessel certainly, but one
which, at the same cost of fuel as is now required for small ones,
has, besides that room, for 4,000 or even 5,000 tons (measurement)
of cargo, and as many passengers as offer. Thus the capital
embarked in the one vessel is not so great in proportion to the
tonnage space for cargo as the capital embarked in several smaller
vessels carrying the same amount; while the current expenses are
greatly less, and the speed, and economy of time by that speed and
by avoiding tedious stoppages, greatly in favour of the large one.
Practical men concur with me, not merely in the practicability of
constructing the vessel, but in the great advantage as regards
speed, seaworthiness, and safety resulting merely from the
increased size; while all the mercantile men concur in the opinion
that if goods can be carried direct in thirty to thirty-five days,
the certainty of freight ensures a return far beyond all present
proportion of return to cost.... On these points, of course, I
quote only the opinions of the Directors. On the mechanical part I
offer my own opinion, and may quote those of the first practical
men of the day--Messrs. Maudslay, Messrs. Watt and Co., and J.
Scott Russell, all of whom have assisted me in the project, and are
prepared to join in it.
_Letter to J. Scott Russell, Esq., on the Form and Dimensions of the
Great Ship._
July 13, 1852.
The adoption of this plan being now determined upon, we must
proceed to determine the details, and the first step unquestionably
is the determination of the size and form of the ship. Now, in
preparing the general design, I think the following conditions
should be strictly complied with. If any of them appear to involve
any great sacrifice in cost, or to involve any other peculiar
difficulties, these difficulties can be considered afterwards; but
the wisest and safest plan in striking out a new path is to go
straight in the direction which we believe to be right,
disregarding the small impediments which may appear to be in our
way--to design everything in the first instance for the best
possible results strictly according to the principles which theory,
so far as it is supported by practice, teaches us, and without
yielding in the least to any prejudices now existing unsupported by
theory and practice, or any fear of the consequences; we can then
afterwards weigh and balance deliberately the advantages of
adhering to or giving up this or that particular part, or modifying
dimensions, either from motives of economy, or as yielding to
public opinion from motives of policy.
In determining the lines of the ship, for instance, I should adopt
that which we have reason to believe the best possible without any
concession, or any compromise or regard to any assumed difficulties
of construction, or regard to assumed opinions; these difficulties
will very likely vanish afterwards if disregarded in the first
instance, as in the case of the continuous curve, in which my fresh
ideas had the advantage even of your much greater knowledge,
hampered by a little preconceived idea. With respect to the size,
to arrive at it by constructive calculations from the fixed
conditions that we can lay down is perhaps possible, but rather
difficult, and I think we know sufficiently nearly now what the
minimum size must be to work upon; that, and a trifling alteration
afterwards in the scale, will suffice to bring it to the exact
required capacity.
The positive conditions, then, are a maximum draught of water of 24
feet, when leaving the Hooghly with the coals for the voyage home;
and the capacity must be at least 21,000 tons of displacement at
this draught of 24 feet.
I think you will find that to effect this comfortably you must give
a length of 650 feet at least, and an extreme breadth of 80 feet,
but this beam of 80 feet requiring no fuller entrance than you
would make with a beam of 70 feet, the 80 feet being obtained
entirely by continuing a gentle curvature throughout the whole
length, instead of having any parallel lines.
If the experiments upon the friction of surfaces turn out as I
hope, and give us reason to expect a very much less resistance from
a copper surface than that now created by painted iron, I suspect
we may be led rather to increase our length and diminish the
proportion of beam; but this is a very serious question, not
entirely dependent on the consideration of the form of least
resistance including friction, but also materially affected by the
consideration of the advantages of the extreme steadiness of motion
which length seems to give. It is a subject which must be well
discussed and well considered, with the assistance of all those
whose opinions and experience are likely to be of use to us. My own
impressions, I confess, derived from considering the cases which we
have, even after the striking result of the ‘Ocean Queen,’ are that
positive length, independently of relative length, has much to do
with it. When I see that the ‘Great Britain,’ although with a beam
of about one-sixth of her length at the water line, and a midship
section favourable to rolling, is nevertheless steady, I must
conclude that positive length may compensate very greatly for a
relatively wide beam. Now, we shall unquestionably have abundance
of positive length. We must then be careful not to sacrifice much
to keep a small beam, without being very sure that there are very
great advantages; and, except for the assumed advantages of the
long parallel or equal bearings, the form of least resistance,
including friction, with a draught limited to 24 feet, and a
required displacement of 21,000 tons, would, I apprehend, give us a
beam nearer 90 feet than 70 feet. I should like to know exactly
what the proportion would be without regard to the theory of the
long narrow parallel forms; and then let us consider how much, if
anything, should be sacrificed to attain the advantage assumed to
be attained by relative length.
Let us therefore have at once the draft of a vessel of 21,000 tons
displacement at the 24 feet water line, and of such form as will in
your opinion give the greatest speed in smooth water, without
seeking to make it narrow.
We must, of course, also bear in mind the comparative weakness of
form caused by length, and the consequent increased thickness of
material required, besides an actual increase of surface, involving
a very considerably greater quantity and weight of material in the
ship, which last consideration is very greatly in favour of breadth
of beam; for I think you will find that the quantity of iron in
two ships of 600 and 700 feet in length respectively, with the same
displacement and the same ultimate strength to resist strains, will
be fully in the ratio of their length.
_Report to the Directors on Mode of Proceeding._
July 21, 1852.
Since the adoption by the general meeting of the plan recommended
by the Directors, I have been engaged very constantly in maturing
the details of that plan, and considering the course which it would
be necessary to follow in order to carry them out in the surest,
safest, and most efficient manner.
The steps which are about to be taken are unquestionably in the
right direction, but they are considerable ones, and must be taken
with deliberation and certainty, and without leaving anything
doubtful; and, when determined upon, they must be followed up with
decision.
Although you will probably determine upon constructing not less
than two vessels in the first instance, yet they must both be
proceeded with at once, and must in fact be exact duplicates of
each other. The success of the two, therefore, depends upon that of
each; there can be no average struck in such a case, but the two
ships must be designed and executed on such principles and with
such perfection that no doubt can exist of the result.
By well considering all that has been done, by selecting all that
has been most successful, and by a judicious application of such
results to the peculiar circumstances of our case, all this
certainly can, I think, be assured, but it can be assured only by
proceeding with the caution and the decision which the
circumstances demand.
In the first place, as to the designing of the whole, the principle
being determined upon, much may be ascertained by mere calculation,
but for these calculations data are required, which nothing but
experience can furnish. I have, therefore, availed myself of the
assistance of those most competent to afford the required
information. I have called in to my assistance the gentlemen whom I
had already named to you as best able to give strength to our
position by the value of their opinions, and best able to execute
the various parts of the work with that experience and perfection
which are essential to our success.
With respect to the form and construction of the vessel itself,
nobody can, in my opinion, bring more scientific and practical
knowledge to bear than Mr. Scott Russell. As to the proportion of
power to be adopted, the form and construction of the engines,
screw, and paddles, besides Mr. Scott Russell, I have had the
benefit of the deliberate consideration and advice of Mr. Field, of
the firm of Maudslay and Field, and of Mr. Blake, of the firm of
Watt and Co. I have written also to my friend Mr. F. P. Smith, to
whom the public are indebted for the success of the screw, for his
advice on the subject. With such assistance I think we may rely
upon the certainty of being able to design and to execute all that
is best in the mechanical and ship-building department. In the
naval department I have had the opportunity also of consulting two
gentlemen, Captain Claxton and Captain Robert Ford, who possess
special knowledge and experience on the subject. I have had several
conferences with all these gentlemen, I have explained fully my
views, and, with their assistance, settled preliminarily some of
the principal points of detail. What I should propose to the
Directors now is, that with that assistance I should proceed to
prepare in detail the design of the ship, and the exact dimensions
and form of the engines; that, in the meantime, I should obtain
information upon certain points which will govern you as to the
mode of contracting for the construction of the ships, and also
that I should be authorised to adopt some means of determining one
or two most important points which must govern some of the
principal dimensions.[142]
_Report to the Directors on Enquiries relating to the Draught and Form
of the Vessel._
October 6, 1852.
Since the date of my last letter to you, recommending that certain
enquiries and investigations should be set on foot to determine
several points which would materially influence the plans I should
have to submit to you, many circumstances have occurred to delay
these investigations. Not having sent any competent person
expressly to Calcutta to ascertain with certainty the draught of
water that might be adopted, I have endeavoured to obtain as much
information as possible upon this point from persons capable of
affording it, who might be in England.
Several very competent men, captains of long experience in that
particular navigation, and even local pilots of the first standing,
happened to be within reach, and I have had personal communication
with these gentlemen. Notwithstanding, however, these fortunate
opportunities of obtaining information from the best existing
authorities, we are left in pretty nearly the same state of doubt
as to the maximum depth as we should be by a mere inspection of the
charts, the opinion of very competent men varying so much as to fix
this maximum as low as 21 and as high as 23½ and even 24 feet. They
all concur, however, in fixing Diamond Harbour as the point in the
Hooghly which may easily be reached, but beyond which it would be
almost impossible to go.
A question as to the extent of swell which in so large a ship might
be given to the sides, increasing the capacity without materially
increasing the resistance, involved one of the experiments to which
I referred in my former letter; these experiments have been made,
and the result, such as it was, of the enquiries before referred to
as to the navigation of the Hooghly, led me to direct the
preparation of draughts of three different models of ships, and
upon further consideration of these three, and under the
circumstances, I have come to the conclusion of recommending one
which will have the following dimensions:--namely, 670 feet in
length, 85 feet beam, and a deep water draught of 30 feet.
Such a vessel would be able to carry her own coal for the voyage
home out of the Hooghly with about 23 feet draught; but if between
now and the period when the exact arrangement must be determined,
it is found expedient not to attempt so great a draught in the
Hooghly, the same vessel will, by coaling at Trincomalee on the
return voyage, be exactly adapted to work out of the Hooghly with a
good cargo of goods and coals for Trincomalee with only 20 to 21
feet draught.
I have been in communication with the eminent engine builders whose
names I have mentioned on a former occasion, and with Mr. F. P.
Smith, the inventor of the screw propeller. Some trials and
investigations are still in progress to determine the relative
advantages of a copper and iron bottom, on which question may
depend the arrangements which may be requisite to provide for
docking or rather laying up for cleaning, and when these points are
determined I shall be prepared to lay before you a complete design
of ship and engines for your consideration.
Efforts were made to induce the public to assist in carrying out the
project. In February 1853, the Chairman (the late Mr. Henry Thomas Hope)
and several of his colleagues formed themselves into a committee for the
purpose of communicating with Mr. Brunel on the subject of his plans,
and reporting to the Board thereon.
The results of this conference were embodied in the following report
which Mr. Brunel addressed to the Directors:--
_Report on the Proceedings of the Committee._
March 21, 1853.
To enable the Committee to arrive at a correct conclusion on this
difficult question, I had gone through rather lengthy calculations
of the minimum dimensions and the comparative estimated cost of the
ships which would in each case answer the purpose under the several
different circumstances which might be assumed; and the results of
these calculations were laid before the Committee, and the relative
advantages and disadvantages of each assumed case discussed....[143]
After much discussion, and comparing the probable receipts with the
estimated expenditure, and allowing fully for interest of capital
embarked, I think it appeared to the Committee that as a mere
mercantile transaction, and with reference only to the Australian
trade, the larger vessel would be the most economical, showing not
merely the means of securing the largest return, but involving an
actual diminution of annual expenditure....
The Committee were unanimously of opinion that the largest size of
the first class would be the best, and would in every way answer
the objects of the Company.
The dimensions arrived at by calculation for this ship would be in
round numbers, 670 feet long, 80 feet beam.
This sized vessel would combine most of the advantages which we
seek to obtain. It would carry coal to Diamond Harbour and back to
Trincomalee; it would afford room for about 800 separate cabins
larger than those now fitted up in packet ships, with large
saloons, capable of accommodating 1,000 or 1,500 first and
second-class passengers; and would carry 3,000 tons weight of
cargo, without making any allowance for that increase of speed
proportionate to the mere increase of size of which we see every
day fresh proofs; the average speed of the ship, with the proposed
power of engine and calculated consumption of coal, would be 14
knots at the average, making the passage out in 34½ days, say 36;
but with that increased speed which has been shown to take place
with increased dimensions, we may speculate upon the voyage being
performed in 30 days.
This same vessel, fitted up for the Australian voyage, and loaded
deeper, would carry coals to Australia and back, would take out
3,000 passengers easily, and a small amount of cargo only, but
could bring back any amount that could be conveniently collected,
or if provision were made for taking in 3,000 or 4,000 tons of coal
in Australia, that additional amount of cargo might be taken in the
passage out. The passage out to Port Philip should be made easily
in 36 days, and home by Cape Horn in the same time.
The Committee having come to the conclusion that this class of
vessel would best fulfil the several conditions which the
circumstances imposed, I have been engaged in determining the
several details consequent upon this selection of size, and have
put in hand drawings of the ship, which will enable me to arrive
more correctly at the cost, and will enable us to obtain tenders
for the construction. These details involve a great deal of study
and consideration, and the making of the drawings alone requires
some considerable time, so that I do not think much advance can be
made under three weeks from the present date, but I will endeavour
to expedite the work as much as possible.
Mr. Brunel was authorized to continue his communications with
engine-makers and ship-builders, and to invite tenders.
After very detailed and careful calculations of the smallest capacity
that would secure the attainment of the objects sought for, the
dimensions of the vessel and the power of the engines were finally
determined; tenders were received from Mr. Scott Russell, Messrs. Watt
and Co., and Messrs. Humphrys and Co. for both sets of engines, and from
Mr. Russell for the construction of the hull of the ship and for placing
her afloat.
A meeting of the Directors was held on May 18, when Mr. Brunel submitted
the various tenders he had received. The Board agreed to adopt his
recommendations, and to accept the tenders of Mr. Scott Russell for the
ship and paddle engines, and that of Messrs. James Watt and Co. for the
screw engines.
The following report, which Mr. Brunel placed before the Directors,
gives a detailed account of the steps he had taken to procure the
tenders, and the grounds on which he had formed his judgment of them:--
_Report on Tenders._[144]
May 18, 1853.
According to your instructions, I applied to the several parties
with whom I had previously been in communication on the subject of
the engines and ship, for tenders for their supply. As regards the
engines, I drew up a short specification, defining generally what
was required, and leaving the parties to make their own designs and
propose to me the form of engine they would adopt.
With respect to the ship, where no such variation could be
permitted, I have had very detailed drawings and specifications
prepared.
Copies of the specifications are annexed.
In defining the power of the engines and boilers, I have, in
conformity with my own views and of those of several of the
Directors, who have expressed themselves strongly on the subject,
required a very full amount of power, without naming the nominal
horse-power, which is a very vague mode of defining anything but
the cost which by custom is made dependent upon that nominal power;
but I have defined dimensions of parts and surface of boilers which
will ensure the means of exerting a very large amount of power.
As regards the ship, I have not spared strength of materials, and
have required the best workmanship.
The result of this application for designs and tenders is, upon the
whole, very satisfactory, although two of the parties from whom I
had hoped to have received proposals have not been able to send
any....
Mr. Blake, of the firm of Watt and Co., and Mr. J. S. Russell and
Mr. Humphrys, have, as I had before reported, devoted much
attention to the subject: from these gentlemen I have received
distinct well-considered designs of the screw and paddle-engines.
I have been in frequent communication with these gentlemen, and
have seen their plans while in progress, and have made my
suggestions upon them, and assisted more or less in maturing them,
and at all events in preventing the adoption of any principle or
arrangement that I should afterwards object to. Notwithstanding
this, the three designs, particularly for the screw engines, are
totally dissimilar, and I am placed in the difficulty of having to
choose between three totally different plans, each designed by
skilful and experienced men, and each possessing many known and
acknowledged advantages.
I should also observe that, although I have known the general
arrangement which each would adopt, I did not receive the plans or
the tenders which I now forward until last evening, and that of Mr.
Humphrys as late as 10 o’clock this morning, and that I have not
therefore had time to draw up any very detailed report upon them.
The following are, however, the principal considerations which
influence me in the selection which I am disposed to recommend.
It must be borne in mind that the screw engines will be the largest
engines that have yet been made. The principal part of the
propelling power of the ship will be thrown upon the screw; and
upon these engines therefore will mainly depend the performance of
the ship, and particularly upon their constant never-failing
working, probably for thirty or forty days and nights, must depend
the certainty of the ship’s performance.[145] Under all these
circumstances, the compactness and stiffness of framing, the
greatest possible simplicity of construction, and the fewest
possible number of parts, and, finally, the absence of any novelty,
however promising, that can introduce any unforeseen difficulties,
are conditions which would outweigh in my mind many advantages that
might, and I think would, be attained by several arrangements which
have been suggested.
All the designs now submitted comply with these conditions to a
very considerable extent ... but the extreme simplicity of Mr.
Blake’s engine leads me to prefer it.
As regards the paddle engine, I unhesitatingly give the preference
to that proposed by Mr. Russell. I believe it to be as simple an
arrangement as can be adopted for engines with such a slow motion
and so long a stroke as these must have, and the single crank in
the centre I consider a great advantage....
As regards a contract for the ship, I have found it more difficult
to proceed in the ordinary course. The conditions which we must
ensure of quality of workmanship and execution, under close
inspection and within reach of one’s own supervision, are not
easily attained; and, though as a matter of course readily promised
and undertaken by all ship-builders, they are rarely secured. It is
essential also that the ship should be built where the engines can
be readily fixed on board before launching, and in a yard which can
be devoted to the purposes of the ship, and whence the launching
can be effected with the engines and boilers on board.
All these are conditions not easily secured. I have been in
communication with one or two parties, and the result is a tender
from Mr. J. Scott Russell, which I enclose, and which has in fact
been framed upon my calculations. Owing to the recent rise in iron
it is somewhat, but not materially, above the amount at which I had
originally estimated the vessels; but the tender, founded upon the
supposition of two such vessels being ultimately ordered, is as
nearly as may be the same as my original estimate, and upon the
whole I consider the tenders both for engines and ships very
satisfactory and confirming fully our previous calculations.
These tenders do not include, in the case of the engines, either
the screw itself or the paddle wheels, nor, in the case of the
vessel, the cabin fittings, masts, and rigging, boats, or stores. I
should estimate these roughly at 50,000_l._ more,--at least such an
allowance ought to be ample; but these details will require a great
deal of consideration, and could not be included in the original
contracts; while at the same time they can mostly be better and
more economically supplied by competition or by arrangement with
the special makers of the respective articles....
During the next six months Mr. Brunel was engaged in preparing the
formal contracts and specifications. These documents were settled with
much care, and after frequent communications with the contractors, who
consented to the insertion of clauses which gave the full control and
supervision over every part of the work to the Engineer, with very large
powers of interpretation. They required, however, that, should Mr.
Brunel cease to act as Engineer, any disputed point should be settled by
arbitration, and not by his successor.
Besides the delay occasioned by the magnitude and novelty of the
undertaking, there were other difficulties which helped to postpone the
commencement of the works. The Directors were unable, under their
charter, to enter into any contracts until a certain amount of their
capital was actually paid up; and, as several shareholders had retired
when the change of plans was determined upon, it was no easy work to get
the shares taken. That this was eventually accomplished was due mainly
to the exertions of Mr. Brunel and Mr. Charles Geach, one of the
Directors.[146] ‘Could I have foreseen,’ Mr. Brunel writes, ‘the work I
have had to go through, I would never have entered upon it; but I never
flinch when I have once begun, and do it we will.’
Several times they nearly broke down, but at length the contracts were
signed, and on the same day, December 22, Mr. Brunel gave the formal
notice to the contractors to proceed with the works. ‘After two years’
exertions (he wrote), ‘we are set going, the contracts entered into, and
the work commenced.’
_Extracts from Mr. Brunel’s Memoranda_, A.D. 1852-1853.
_July 11, 1852._--The dimensions I commenced with in March last, of
650 × 70 × 30 appear after all to be not far wrong, according to
present views. I make them now 700 × 70 × 24 about; but much
depends upon the last dimension, the draught. If another foot or
two can be safely taken it will be of great advantage.... With this
size of vessel, having a midship section of about 1,800, and a
length of 700, I assume a nominal horse-power of about 2,500. The
first question of importance is, in what proportion shall this be
divided between the screw and paddles?... My present impression is
to halve the power between the two.
In both the engines every known means must be adopted to secure
efficiency:--1, An excess of boiler power; 2, expansion
permanently, say at ⅓; 3, steam of not less pressure than 20
lbs., and I should prefer 25 lbs.; 4, that cylinders, particularly
top and bottom, slide chest, and steam pipes, be all jacketed, and
the jacket supplied with steam from an auxiliary boiler of at least
10 lbs. more pressure than that of main boilers; and it would be
very desirable to make some experiments to determine whether it is
not worth having a heating apparatus to heat the steam immediately
before it enters the cylinders.[147]
_July 17._--After a long conference with Mr. Field, I continue of
the opinion that it would be well to apply about three-fifths of
the power to the screw and two-fifths to the paddles, and probably,
as the vessel gets light, diminishing a little the expenditure of
power on the paddles, and keeping up the full power on the screw.
Mr. Field is not in favour of increasing the pressure of steam
beyond 12 lbs. or 15 lbs., on the ground that all the mechanical
difficulties increase rapidly without a corresponding advantage,
particularly where size and weight are not so important. There
seems much truth in this.... The possible advantages of a slight
increase are not sufficient to justify the risk of the possible new
difficulties in a work on so large a scale. Nothing uncertain must
be risked. These arguments do not apply to the jacketing and
heating, which Mr. Field also deprecated, or rather discouraged,
simply on the ground of the trouble and difficulty of effecting it,
but he admitted that all experience went to show the advantages of
it; and as to the difficulties, which I could not see, they involve
no other risk than that of being useless: they cannot do mischief.
The heating of the top and bottom of the cylinders, I think, must
be particularly important in a short-stroked engine working
expansively. In a cylinder of 80 inches diameter and 40 inches
stroke, having regard to the _time_ of contact, the area of the
bottom will be nearly equal in effect to the surface of the
cylinder.
_July 19._--After much consideration, I think I feel satisfied that
the best construction will be to have strong bulkheads every 30
feet or thereabouts, this distance being dependent on what is
required for one set of boilers and its stock of coals; these
bulkheads being carried right up wherever practicable--I think
every alternate one may be--and then place the main ribs of the
ship, and even at least two main deck beams, _longitudinal_ instead
of _transverse_.
_February 2, 1853._--Several drafts of ships have been made and
much consideration given to the subject, and frequent discussions
with various parties. The result of all is that my present views
are as follows:--
The ship, all iron, double bottom, and sides up to water line, with
ribs longitudinal like the Britannia tube. I have not been able to
devise any good mode of determining the relative amount of friction
of a copper and an iron surface; and, although I believe in copper,
it would not do to act on mere belief. I therefore at present
settle iron, the surface being carefully made smooth. Doubts have
come across me also as to whether with a very long surface the
difference between the smoothness will so much affect the total
resistance. Is not a film of water, after a certain distance,
carried with the body? and, if so, its greater or less roughness,
if not producing currents, is almost unimportant. Would there be
any difference in the resistance of a fine file or a rough one
drawn through tallow, if they both covered themselves with grease?
Is there any similarity? As to size, if we are to go round the
world,[148] I do not think we can do with less than--length, 730;
beam, 85; draught deep, 34; and I assume a nominal horse-power of
engines equal to 1¼ of the sectional area at 30 feet; but, taking
consumption as a better measure, and assuming that every possible
economy is practised, and every refinement introduced that can
produce economy, I shall assume 7½ lbs. per hour per nominal
horse-power, or say 0·08 ton per day per horse-power; and as I
assume the horse-power to be 1¼ sectional area, it makes the
consumption =0·1 ton per day per foot of sectional area. And this
is a very large allowance and ought to ensure a very high speed. In
order to effect the utmost economy, I should work up to 20 lbs.
steam (calling it 16 lbs.), cutting off certainly at ⅓ the
stroke, and adopting every precaution to keep the steam hot and the
condenser cool. The latter depends, I believe, solely upon the
perfect dispersion of the injection water, so that the condensation
of the steam may take place suddenly, otherwise the same amount of
water may condense the steam _in time_, the same amount of heat be
given off, the same quantity of injection water used, and yet the
condenser be always full of steam at a good pressure. It might be
well worth the experiment to try the effect of a large injection at
the moment of the exhaust port being opened; but above all things I
believe the heating of the steam to be important; and for this
purpose I should jacket the steam pipes and cylinders top and
bottom, and heat with high pressure steam, say at 60 lbs.--I have
increased this pressure the more I think of it; 60 lbs. would be
above 300 degrees, and 20 lbs. not quite 260 degrees; therefore
there would be a full 40 degrees of surplus to ensure the
temperature. I have a great tendency to believe in the advantage of
further heating even, which might be done by a Perkins’ arrangement
of hot water; but possibly the new conditions, as regards oiling,
&c., might involve difficulties not desirable to introduce in this
case. In the boilers it will also be necessary to adopt every
refinement which has been found really to answer, although not
always adopted; above all, every means of keeping them clean--scum
pans, and Field’s exchanging apparatus. But what would be even more
effectual would be some easy means of removing a whole bundle of
tubes and replacing them by clean ones; and surely this would not
be difficult, the tubes being large and with plenty of space, so
that a man could pass his arm between. A rather important addition
to boilers would also be a means of blowing off without noise.
Several modes would seem to be possible, but whatever plan is
adopted, it should be one which is completely self-acting, and
perfectly effectual when used suddenly and without any preparation,
and at a moment of confusion and alarm. Blowing through a wire
gauze pipe would probably be as likely a way as any.[149]
The more consideration I give to the subject the more disposed I am
to adopt oscillating engines for both screw and paddles. The
extreme simplicity and small number of parts, and compactness, and
the direct action of every resistance to the force which it is
wanted to resist, seem to leave nothing to be desired, and would
seem to make it a better and more mechanical arrangement of a
cylinder and crank than any other, quite independently of the
object for which it was originally designed, which was simply
‘stumpiness.’
_February 21._--The original line (to Calcutta) seems likely, after
all, as usual with most original ideas, to be the best; at all
events, so good that the vessel must be built to be able to go
there. The dimensions best fitted for this would seem to
be--length, 700 feet; beam, 85 feet; depth of hold, 58 feet; screw,
24 feet; paddle 60 feet. If arranged for Calcutta, we must arrive
there on an even keel, and therefore, to maintain the most equal
level for the paddles, they must be kept well forward, and the
change principally at the stern. Engines indicated horse-power
8,000; steam at 25 lbs.; auxiliary steam at 60 lbs.
The ship to be lighted with gas, to be thoroughly ventilated by
mechanical means, having large air trunks, with small pipes and
valves to each cabin, with the means of warming this air in cold
latitudes and seasons, and cooling it in the more frequent cases of
hot climates. The ship must be steered from the forecastle, whence
a perfect look-out must be kept with fixed telescope, &c., and
speaking pipes and bells to the engine rooms.
_March_ 14.--At a meeting of the Committee, held this evening here,
the several costs and qualities of four different sizes of ships,
of which all the calculations had been made by me, namely:--
No. Length Breadth Mid. Sec. Draught
1 663 79·9 1,646 24
2 634 76·39 1,640 25
3 609 73·5 1,639 26
4 730 87 2,090 28
were discussed, and the No. 1 determined upon as the best under all
the circumstances. I should propose, therefore, to make the
dimensions of No. 1:--length, 680 feet; beam, 81 feet, to be
swelled to 83 feet; extreme draught, 30 feet; mean, 24 feet; daily
consumption, say 200 tons.
This ship can carry her coal to Calcutta, and arrive and leave with
only 21 feet 6 inches draught, having 9 days’ coal and 3,000 tons
cargo; or she could first go to Australia and back, without or with
very little cargo out, and consequently would take out as much
cargo as you might choose to send coal for her to Australia....
These dimensions are worked out in the design No. 5 (April 9,
1853), but they would be better for a slight increase, if the 83
feet were made 85 feet, and the 680 feet were made 700. We should
have an increase in capacity of 83 × 680=56,440 to 85 × 700=59,500,
or 6 per cent. of displacement. This would bring the displacement
at 32 feet draught up to 31,250 tons.
_March_ 22.--Settled the various dimensions of scantlings with S.
Russell to enable him to direct drawings of all details to be got
out.
_April_ 28.--We are now seeking tenders for engines and ship of
the following dimensions:--Length, 680 feet; beam, 83 feet; mean
draught, about 25 feet; screw engine, indicated horse-power 4,000;
nominal horse-power, 1,600; paddle, indicated horse-power, 2,600;
nominal horse-power, 1,000; to work with steam 15 lbs. to 25 lbs.;
speed of screw, 45 to 55 revolutions; paddle, 10 to 12.
Among the details of improvements still to be considered are the
receiving through measures the coal from the bunkers, and running
it on tramways and waggons to the front of the fires, thus at the
same time measuring out accurately the hourly consumption, and
saving labour; but a still more important object, the use of clean
water--that is, using the same water over again--is well worth
considering; and it is well worth the experiment, whether cooling
down the water of condensation to use again is not in fact the
easiest way. With an unlimited supply of cooling water this ought
to be easy.
_August 7._--Memoranda for engines.--Very sensitive governors to be
applied to both engines to prevent running away.
_November 18._--It is curious that the above should be the last
memorandum, as I now open the book to make the same in consequence
of the accident to the ‘Agamemnon.’[150]
There can be no reason why a sensitive governor should not act in
less than one revolution of the crank, and act upon a tumbler which
should shut off instantly the expansion valve. There should be two
such governors, one to each end of the crank shaft, and they should
work direct from a spur wheel from the shaft without any
intermediate shafting, to give elasticity, or to risk breaking.
(Query, hydraulic governors?)
The auxiliary engine and boiler to be at least 20 feet from bottom,
and, better still, above load water line, or so boxed as to be out
of reach of water; so that if the ship grounded and filled, this
engine would remain serviceable for pumping or anything else.
The history of the ‘Great Eastern’ has now been traced up to the date of
the contracts for the construction of the ship and her engines.
The following selections from Mr. Brunel’s memoranda illustrate the
progress of the design during the early months of the year 1854:--
_February 25, 1854._--The details of construction, both of engines
and ship, involve an immense amount of thought and labour. I have
devoted a great deal of time to it already, and yet even the
preliminary details either of engines or ship are far from being
satisfactorily settled. I have no record of the many consultations
hitherto held on the subject, but shall hope to keep one hereafter.
On the 6th inst., some of the drawings of the ship and of parts of
the engines, having been several times revised and altered, being
ready, I spent the greater part of the day at Millwall[151] in
going again into them, and settled some parts, such as the
dimensions, &c., of cranks, and bearings, general form of engine
frame, and some of the general principles of framing and plating of
the ship. Some other consultations have been held, and again to-day
(February 26) I have spent some hours at Millwall.... Discussed the
details of a midship section, the drawings of which were in a
forward state; directed that the cabins should positively be made 6
feet 6 inches each in the clear, and the bulkheads made subordinate
to this; found that it could be done without difficulty, and
without causing any mechanical objections in construction. I am
anxious to have some approximate estimates of weights.
It is evident that large weights may most easily be wasted or saved
by a careless or close consideration of the best application of
iron in every single detail. I found, for instance, an unnecessary
introduction of a filling piece or strip, such as is frequently
used in ship-building to avoid bending to angle irons; made a
slight alteration in the disposition of the plates that rendered
this unnecessary; found that we thus saved 40 tons weight of iron,
or say 1,200_l._ of money in first cost, and 40 tons of cargo
freight--at least 3,000_l._ a year. The principle of construction
of the ship is in fact entirely new, if merely from the rule which
I have laid down, and shall rigidly preserve, that no materials
shall be employed on any part except at the place, and in the
direction, and in the proportion, in which it is required, and can
be usefully employed for the strength of the ship, and none merely
for the purpose of facilitating the framing and first construction.
In the present construction of iron ships the plates are not
proportioned to the strength required at different parts, and
nearly 20 per cent, of the total weight is expended in angle irons
or frames, which may be useful or convenient in the mere putting
together of the whole as a great box, but is almost useless, or
very much misapplied, in affecting the strength of the structure as
a ship.
All this misconstruction I forbid, and the consequence is that
every part has to be considered and designed as if an iron ship had
never before been built; indeed I believe we should get on much
quicker if we had no previous habits and prejudices on the subject.
_March 3._--Mr. Blake [_of the firm of Messrs. James Watt and
Co._], called, and went fully into the general drawings which he
brought. On the necessity of large surfaces he quite concurred with
me. The extent to which such a general principle should be carried
is of course very difficult to determine; my idea is that it has
never yet been approached....
_March 10._--Engaged all the afternoon at Millwall.... Settled and
signed the drawings of crank and piston rods. Went into many
details of ship....
The extracts from Mr. Brunel’s correspondence which follow, have been
selected as containing a definition in his own words of the position he
held as Engineer to the Company by which the great ship was built.
_Letter to the Secretary of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company._
[This letter was written in consequence of a resolution of the
Directors, asking Mr. Brunel to recommend them a resident engineer,
in order that constant supervision might be exercised over the
works, and frequent reports made to the Board.
The Directors rescinded their resolution; but this letter is
inserted as showing, in clear and forcible language, Mr. Brunel’s
view of the nature of his duties and responsibilities, and as
laying down what in his opinion ought to be the relations between
the Directors of a Company and their Engineer.]
August 16, 1854.
...It surely cannot be necessary to remind the Directors that the
very unusual stake which as a professional man I have been willing,
perhaps imprudently, to risk on the success of this project--I mean
stake of professional character, not mere pecuniary risk--must
secure a much greater amount of attention to any step, and
supervision of any detail on my part, than any ordinary
professional engagement would obtain; the heavy responsibility of
having induced more than half of the present Directors of the
Company to join, and the equally heavy responsibility towards the
holders of nearly half of the capital, must ensure on my part an
amount of anxious and constant attention to the whole business of
the Company which is rarely given by a professional man to any one
subject, and, as it seems to me, ought to command a proportionate
degree of confidence, or rather command entire confidence, in me,
if any at all, for in such a case there can hardly be any medium.
The fact is, that I never embarked in any one thing to which I have
so entirely devoted myself, and to which I have devoted so much
time, thought, and labour, on the success of which I have staked so
much reputation, and to which I have so largely committed myself
and those who were disposed to place faith in me; nor was I ever
engaged in a work which from its nature required for its conduct
and success that it should be entrusted so entirely to my
individual management and control....
The Directors have a right to expect, and will ever receive, from
me the fullest information and the most unreserved communication
upon all points as they arise, as from one who feels the
responsibility of being their sole professional adviser in a very
important and serious business, in which we are all embarked, and
all deeply interested; but I cannot act under any supervision, or
form part of any system which recognises any other adviser than
myself, or any other source of information than mine, on any
question connected with the construction or mode of carrying out
practically this great project, on which I have staked my
character; nor could I continue to act if it could be assumed for a
moment that the work required to be looked after by a Director, or
by anybody but myself or those employed directly by me and for me
personally for that purpose.
If any doubt ever arises on these points I must cease to be
responsible, and cease to act.
_Letter to the Secretary of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company._
[In explanation of the following letter it need only be stated that
an elaborate article on the great ship appeared in one of the
London newspapers of November 1854. Mr. Brunel’s name was only once
mentioned throughout the whole of it, and in these words: ‘Mr.
Brunel, the Engineer of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company,
approved of the project, and Mr. Scott Russell undertook to carry
out the design.’]
November 16, 1854.
Since I wrote to you I have taken the trouble to read through the
long article in the----, and am much annoyed by it. I have always
made it a rule, which I have found by some years’ experience a safe
and profitable one, to have nothing to do with newspaper articles;
but then, if on the one hand the works I have been connected with
have rarely been puffed (never by me), they have also been rarely
affected by misstatements; as such notices, when not inserted by
interested parties, are always slight and unauthentic, and drop
without producing any effect. This article in the----, however,
bears rather evidently a stamp of authority, or at least it
professes to give an amount of detail which could only be obtained
from ourselves; and if, as I think is the case, copies of it have
been circulated by us, it may acquire the character of being an
authorized statement; and, as such, I am individually much annoyed
by a great deal that is in it, and by the omission of much that
might with propriety have been introduced.
What is constantly repeated or implied, and remains uncontradicted,
is at last received almost unconsciously as fact even by those who
have the means of knowing it to be incorrect, if they thought about
it; and, although from system I have never interfered with
newspaper statements, it has not been from any affected or real
indifference to public opinion, perhaps it was more from pride than
modesty, and therefore I am by no means indifferent to a statement
which would lead the public, and perhaps by degrees our own
friends, to forget the origin of our present scheme, and to believe
that I, happening at the time to be the consulting Engineer of this
Company, which I was not, and having had no peculiar connection
with previous successful improvements in steam navigation, allowed
them to adopt some plan suggested by others, who I suspect, if even
such were the case, would never appear to share with me the
responsibility if any failure should result. Of this certainly I
have no fear, but at the same time I am desirous of something more
than mere immunity from blame.
I not only read this article once, but I was so struck by the
marked care shown in depreciating those efforts which I had
successfully made in advancing steam navigation, and mainly on the
strength of which no doubt I originally obtained the confidence of
the Directors, which induced them to enter upon our present bold
undertaking, that I read the paper a second time, and for the very
reason that I have for so many years shunned public writings,
namely, to escape misstatements, I feel compelled on the present
occasion to take some steps publicly to correct those erroneous
impressions, which must be created by a document having the
appearance of emanating from ourselves....
The objectionable points that I refer to evidently did not strike
you, and that is a strong proof how easily incorrect impressions
insinuate themselves unawares; but I feel strongly that a judicious
friend would not have failed to do justice to the spirited
merchants of Bristol, who, in spite of the strongest condemnation
of the plan by the highest authorities, and the ridicule of others,
persevered in building and starting the first transatlantic
steamer. The circumstances as regards the ‘Sirius’ are coloured so
as to be quite incorrect; and the same friendly hand would not have
thrown ridicule, and that by a positive false statement, upon that
which he at the same time admits to have been the means of almost
introducing two of the greatest improvements in steam navigation. A
writer wishing success to our enterprise would not have omitted to
mention that I had a claim to public confidence on this occasion,
for the reason that I was at least the principal adviser in those
previously successful attempts.
And lastly, I cannot allow it to be stated, apparently on
authority, while I have the whole heavy responsibility of its
success resting on my shoulders, that I am a mere passive approver
of the project of another, which in fact originated solely with me,
and has been worked out by me at great cost of labour and thought
devoted to it now for not less than three years....
The works had been commenced in the spring of the year 1854, and the
progress of the ship towards completion was eagerly watched, both by
scientific men and by the general public.
The newspapers and periodicals of the day frequently contained
descriptions of the work, and statements of the anticipated performances
of the ship, often very much exaggerated. The writers seem to have been
quite at a loss how to convey to their readers any idea of her size, and
they generally attempted to do so by comparing her dimensions with those
of some of the well-known streets and squares in London.[152]
In the beginning of the year 1855, the longitudinal and transverse
bulkheads, which formed the main framework of the ship, were completed
for nearly 400 feet of the centre portion, and the plating was being
fixed in place.
As the general design was now settled, it was thought that the time had
arrived when it would be desirable for Mr. Brunel to describe at some
length the nature of the undertaking, and the manner in which it was
being carried out.
_Report to the Directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company._
[This Report was published at the time and excited much
attention.[153] The paragraphs which describe the arrangements
proposed for launching the ship have been omitted, as they will
more conveniently be inserted in the following chapter.]
February 5, 1855.
* * * * *
Although the simple description of the present state of the works
of the ship and engines, and of what has been done during the last
six months, may be summed up in a few words, I shall, in compliance
with the request of the Directors, embody in this the substance of
the several other reports which I have from time to time made to
the Court of Directors during this half year, and take this
opportunity of laying before the proprietors the fullest
information upon our plans and proceedings. In doing this it may be
difficult to avoid some appearance of repetition of statements
previously made; but I have thought it better, even at the risk of
this, to refer to the objects we have had in view, and explain
fully the nature of the works we have undertaken, and the manner in
which we are carrying them out.
The construction of the vessel is the portion of our work which,
without being actually novel, involved in all its details the
greatest amount of special consideration and contrivance.
The unusual dimensions, the general form and the mode of
construction of all the parts involved by these dimensions, the
necessity of studying each part in detail, so as to obtain, by
judicious mode of construction alone, the greatest amount of
strength with the minimum amount of material; all these
circumstances, and particularly the last, have rendered necessary a
very large, though unseen, amount of labour in the preliminary
plans and stages of the work; and, although I had for nearly two
years before the contracts were entered into, devoted a great deal
of time and thought to the subject, yet of course until the exact
size of the vessel, and the general plans of the Company, had been
finally determined upon none of these matters could be entered into
in detail. Much time has consequently been required to mature and
prepare these plans; and as I have made it a rule from the first
that no part of the work should be commenced until it had been
specially considered and determined upon, and working drawings in
full detail prepared, and, after due deliberation, formally settled
and signed, the work did not make at the onset that display of
progress which might have been made, if less regard had been paid
to establishing a good system which would prevent delays hereafter,
and ensure a more perfect and satisfactory result. I am not
prepared to say that the work is in that state of progress which
will ensure its completion within the period fixed in the contract;
but I am quite certain that if we had proceeded with less system we
should have considerably delayed the final completion.
I shall now refer to a few of the principal peculiarities in the
construction of the ship.
In the preparation of the detailed plans, I have carried out fully
those principles which I originally described as leading features
of the construction.
The whole of the vessel is divided transversely into ten separate
perfectly water-tight compartments by bulkheads carried up to the
upper-deck, and consequently far above the deepest water lines,
even if the ship were water-logged, so far as such a ship could be;
and these are not nominal divisions, but complete substantial
bulkheads, water-tight, and of strength sufficient to bear the
pressure of the water, should a compartment be even filled with
water; so that if the ship were supposed to be cut in two, the
separate portions would float; and no damage, however great, to the
ship’s bottom, in one or even two of these compartments would
endanger the floating of the whole, or even damage the cargo in the
rest of the ship, or above the main-decks of the compartment in
question, and all damageable cargo would be stowed above that deck.
Besides these principal bulkheads there is in each compartment a
second intermediate bulkhead, forming a coal bunker, and carried up
to the main-deck, which can, on an emergency, also be closed.
There are no openings under the deep-water line through the
principal bulkheads, except one continuous gallery or pipe near the
water line, through which the steam pipes pass, and which will be
so constructed as to remain closed, the opening being the
exception, and the closing again being easy, and the height being
such that, under the most improbable circumstances of damage to the
ship, ample time would be afforded to close it leisurely, and to
make it perfectly water-tight. I have also adopted the system, to
be followed rigidly and without exception, of making no openings
whatever--even by pipes and cocks--through the ship’s bottom, or
through the inner skin below the load water line, and I attach much
importance to this system.
In the majority of cases in which steamboats are compelled to put
into port from failure of bilge-pumps and other really trifling
defects, no such serious consequence would have resulted, but from
the difficulty and almost impossibility of remedying at sea any
defects in the numerous pipes and openings now carried through the
ship’s bottom, wherever convenient, and without much regard to the
danger of doing so.
I have found no great difficulty in carrying out this system
completely, and the advantages, both as regards safety and the
facility of remedying defects without delaying the ship on her
voyage, must be obvious.
Independently of the security attained by the perfect division of
the ship into really water-tight compartments of a sufficient
number, so that the entire filling of one or even two of them will
not endanger the buoyancy of the whole, the chances of any such
damage as can cause the filling of one of them are greatly
diminished by the mode adopted in the construction of the ship’s
bottom. The whole of the vessel (except the extreme stem and stern,
the whole buoyancy of which is comparatively unimportant from the
fineness of the lines), up to a height considerably above the
deepest water line, is formed with a double skin, with an
intervening space of about three feet. This arrangement resulted
originally from the system of construction I adopted, in which the
bulkheads, placed at intervals of twenty feet, form the main
transverse frames or ribs of the ship, and in the intermediate
space the material is disposed longitudinally in webs connecting
the two skins, giving to the whole much greater strength with the
same amount of material; but one of the most important results has
been the great increased security attained, as the outer skin may
be torn or rent against a rock without causing the ship to leak.
The space between these two skins is thus divided, by the
longitudinal beams or webs and the principal bulkheads, into some
fifty separate water-tight compartments, any one or more of which
may be allowed to fill without materially affecting the immersion
of the ship.
Besides the main transverse bulkheads, at about 60 feet intervals,
there are two longitudinal bulkheads of iron running fore and aft,
at about 40 feet in width, adding greatly to the strength of the
whole, and forming, with the transverse bulkheads, being all
carried up to the upper deck, fire-proof party walls, cutting up
the whole into so many separate parts, that any danger from fire
may be almost entirely prevented.
The transverse bulkheads being perfect, there being only one
door--and that of iron--in each, at one of the upper decks, all
currents of air or means of communicating fire may be completely
cut off; and with an additional precaution, which I will refer to
afterwards, besides the most ample means of supplying water, I
believe that all possibility of danger from fire may be completely
prevented.
All these principles of construction being kept in view, the
details of construction--that is, the arrangement and due
apportionment of the strength and sizes of all the plates, and the
mode of fastening them--having been determined separately, the
plates have been made at once of the required dimensions, and the
work has proceeded systematically. This system is the most
important, as securing not only good work, but affecting, to a much
greater extent than might at first be supposed, the total weight of
the ship; which, although the terms of the contract protect the
Company against any excess of expenditure beyond a certain fixed
sum, is yet of the greatest importance, as will be easily
understood when I mention the fact that several merely trifling
alterations in the modes of arranging the plates and other details
have caused an economy of 20 to 50 tons each, and that the vessel
may thus be made capable of carrying 200 to 300 tons more of coal,
cargo, or provisions; or iron to the same amount may be usefully
applied to strengthen other parts or effect useful additions.
The details of the engines have all been settled; and the principal
parts, as already stated, are in an advanced state of completion.
In considering the plans of those engines, the largest that have
yet been manufactured, I have endeavoured to ascertain what may be
termed the weak points of the best engines hitherto constructed by
the same or by other makers--those points in which experience has
pointed out deficiencies--and to provide fully against similar
defects in our case.
Before commencing the boilers, I have taken every means in my power
of profiting by the experience of others, and have collected all
the evidence and opinions as to the precise form and proportions
which have been found most efficient; and particularly such as have
been found best suited to the combustion of anthracite coal. A very
great difference is found to exist in the useful and economical
results of boilers, even of good manufacture. Some are noted for
the power of producing rapidly abundance of steam, at the cost of
great consumption of fuel; others have the opposite qualities, and
some combine successfully both those qualities which are desirable.
It might have been supposed that all points of such a simple
subject would have been long since settled, and that no boiler
would be made inferior to the best. Such is not, however, the case;
and although the differences of construction are in themselves
slight, the difference of result is often considerable.
I have taken some pains to satisfy myself on these points, and have
endeavoured to select and to copy the most successful boilers; and
in order to remove all doubts as to their fitness for the use of
anthracite, I have made an experimental boiler, and, after numerous
trials, determined upon the form and dimensions to be adopted.
In the consideration of these details, as indeed on all other
points affecting the success of this undertaking, I have not
hesitated to consult everybody whose opinions I considered
valuable, and to bring the result of their opinions in aid of my
own and the manufacturer’s experience.
I have only to add, that after giving much consideration to the
question of the diameter of the paddle-wheels and screw, I have
determined them sufficiently for fixing the position of the shafts,
and am now engaged in considering the best form and construction of
the propeller itself, and also the construction of the stern-frame
and rudder of the ship.
The position of the paddle-shaft, and the diameter of the paddles,
have been questions of some difficulty. It being necessary to
provide for a considerable variation in the draught of water,
though not proportionably so great as with many existing large
steamers, and to balance well the relative advantages of securing
the highest average speed, at all the various draughts, or the
highest speed at a light draught, and to combine as far as possible
the two, so that the vessel may be as well adapted to perform
comparatively short and very quick passages to ports not affording
a great draught of water, as long voyages, heavily laden, at a
more moderate maximum, but still a large average rate of speed.
Although the full advantage of the great capacity of the vessel for
carrying coal for long voyages would not be felt in a voyage, for
instance, to New York, or in other short voyages, yet,
unquestionably, she would exceed all other vessels in speed and
extent of accommodation; and if it should be found desirable to
make such voyages, your vessels ought to be able to command almost
a monopoly by their superior capabilities, and I have therefore
endeavoured so to place the paddle-shaft, and so to construct the
wheels, that they may be adapted to the convenient application of
the full power of the engine at a light draught of water and at
very high speed.
As regards the screw, the same points have to be considered, and a
choice made amongst the various forms and proportions more or less
successfully adopted at the present time. I have always found the
reports made upon the results of various forms of screws and
propellers, and the performance of different vessels, so little to
be depended upon, even when apparently made in good faith, and the
results obtained from good authority, that I have been long since
compelled to adopt no conclusion, unless from results witnessed by
myself or by persons observing for me. I have for some time past
availed myself of every opportunity that offered of observing and
obtaining something like accurate results upon the various points
affecting immersion of paddles or screw, and I am engaged in
considering those results.
I have referred to the subject of protection from fire; it is one
of considerable importance, and I have some hopes that a process,
which has been recently patented by Lieutenant Jackson, may be
successfully applied to rendering wood uninflammable. Some door
panels have been already experimented upon with results which have
induced me to pursue the experiments, and I am about to try the
comparative inflammability of various qualities of wood, both
prepared and unprepared; and if we can succeed in preventing the
wood producing a flame, and thus communicating the fire; with the
numerous metallic subdivisions we shall have in the ship, the
spreading of fire, even from cargo or furniture, would become
impossible. I am also engaged in determining the character and
extent of mast and sail to be carried, as provision must now be
made in the construction of the ship for receiving the masts.
The Directors are aware that I have been in communication with
Professor Airy as to the instruments which may be used in such a
ship, to ensure more accurate and frequent observations, and as to
the nature of these observations; an enquiry into which he has
entered with that liberality and desire to assist all improvements,
in navigation especially, for which he is so well known. Several
new instruments are now making for trials.
Sir W. Snow Harris has promised to turn his attention to the
subject of the lightning conductors; and as soon as the iron work
is a little more advanced, and while the form and position of all
the principal masses are visible, the subject of local attraction
and the adjustment of the compasses will be considered by those
most competent to advise; and I am not without hope that the means
of correction may be rendered much more certain and perfect than
usual. I mention these, as some of the numerous points which
require and are receiving attention.
In the last paragraph but one of this report Mr. Brunel mentions that he
proposed to adopt a system for obtaining continuous observations in
order to determine the position of the ship.[154]
His first letter to the Astronomer Royal, which is dated as early as
October 1852, explains the object with which he began his
investigations:--
October 5, 1852.
You may possibly have heard of a project in which I am engaged, of
building some _very large_ steamboats.... Among the several
requirements, which it appears to me are involved in such a large
project, is one in which I hope for your advice and assistance, and
I trust you will consider the subject worthy of your attention. In
such a voyage, where so much depends upon perfect navigation, and
with such a capital at stake, no means can be too perfect and no
expense or trouble must be spared to ensure the constant
determination, with the greatest attainable accuracy, of the ship’s
position and course. The determination of her speed, the effect of
winds and currents, and the variation of her compasses, together
with meteorological observations, are all involved in this; and I
propose to have an observatory and establishment of observers,
whose duty it will be to be constantly engaged, day and night, at
any moment when anything can be visible in the heavens, in taking
such observations as will determine more or less accurately,
according to the nature of the observations that the state of the
weather or other circumstances may admit of, the several points to
be ascertained. Now, the questions to be determined are, what is
the nature of the various observations that can best be made under
all the different, and the favourable and unfavourable
circumstances that may daily arise? what the instruments required,
and what the character and extent of the staff of observers
required; and even whether any, and if any what, new tables might
be useful for such a purpose? The primary object being to be
_constantly_ determining either correctly or approximately the
ship’s true position, and in like manner _constantly_ checking the
compasses and giving her true course. I will not unnecessarily
expose my ignorance in such matters by stating what I have assumed
to be practicable. I will only remind you that experience proves
that in a vessel of such size there will be great steadiness of
motion, and therefore unusual facilities for accurate observation.
Mr. Airy entered very warmly into the subject, as did also Professor
Piazzi Smyth, the Astronomer Royal for Scotland; and a long and
interesting correspondence passed between them and Mr. Brunel.
Experiments were conducted, principally with the view of obtaining a
stand for astronomical instruments by means of the contrivance known as
the gyroscope, the principle of which had been already adopted by Mr.
Brunel in a level designed by him in 1829.
In connection with the observers’ department, Mr. Brunel paid much
attention to designs of sounding apparatus and means for accurately
measuring the speed of the ship. He also intended to have a stream of
surface water constantly pumped up through the observers’ cabin, which
should, by its change of temperature, immediately indicate the presence
of icebergs, instead of the plan of an occasional bucketful being hauled
up on to the deck according to the humour of the officer of the watch.
Mr. Brunel made a very curious contrivance for enabling the man on the
look-out to keep his eyes open in a gale of wind. This consisted of two
sets of vertical plates of tin placed one behind another, diverging from
the direction of the wind, with a clear wide passage between the two
sets of plates. The wind, entering at the end of the apparatus, became
separated by the first two inclined plates, and the residue that passed
on in the direct line was again subdivided, so that at the end of the
last set of plates there was no rush of air between them, and a man
looking through the aperture, with his face to the wind, was in a
perfect calm. This was a useful arrangement, the look-out man’s eyes
being as well protected as though behind a glass. A glass would not
answer the purpose, as it would become obscured with spray.
The unfortunate circumstances which attended the completion of the ship
prevented the introduction of these and many other arrangements which
Mr. Brunel had originally proposed.[155]
In November 1855, the Directors proceeded to appoint a commander to the
ship; and their choice fell upon Mr. William Harrison, one of the most
distinguished of the captains of the Cunard Company’s steamers.
This appointment gave Mr. Brunel great satisfaction; he found in Captain
Harrison a warm and faithful friend, and an able adviser on all matters
connected with the completion and equipment of the ship.[156]
Before they came to a decision, the Directors asked Mr. Brunel to
communicate to them his views on the considerations which ought to
influence them in their choice.
The memorandum he drew up on the management of the great ship, and a
letter on the duties of the chief engineer, are inserted at length, as
forming a complete record of the principles which, in his opinion,
should be followed ‘in the use of this new machine,’ while employed on
the voyages which she was specially designed to make.
_Memorandum on the Management of the Great Ship._
October, 1855.
The question of the principles to be followed in the use of this
new machine, for such it must be considered, and the character and
the qualifications of the man to whom it is to be entrusted, and
the points to which his attention must be particularly devoted,
have long been subjects of deep and serious consideration with
me.[157]
And the difficulties are complicated by the consideration that
public opinion, and those established and universally received
opinions which, being the result of experience, cannot be called
prejudices, have to be considered, and must be yielded to to a
great extent, even when somewhat opposed to sound reasoning, or to
conclusions deliberately formed upon a due consideration of the
novel circumstances under which we have to act; but, while
conceding much to past experience, and to preconceived opinions,
the real requirements of the case must have the first
consideration.
Thus, as it is a ship that we have to navigate, public opinion, if
nothing else, requires that we should have a sailor of undoubted
experience and skill to command her; but although seamanship may be
one of the essential conditions or qualifications for the
commander, I think we shall find, upon examination, that the work
we have to do, and the duties to be performed, and the
qualifications we consequently require in the man who is to conduct
this work, are so peculiar that mere seamanship, in the ordinary
sense of the term, if it were to be solely relied upon, would be
even a disadvantage rather than otherwise, and that we require much
that is not necessarily found in the most perfect specimen of a
seaman, and much that is far more difficult to find than the
ordinary qualifications.
I wish particularly to impress this upon you: the subject has
occupied long, frequent, and serious deliberations. I have come to
the conclusion which you will no doubt readily acquiesce in, that
our first practical mechanical success, upon which so much of our
financial success hangs (although others might reap the benefit
even of our failure in the first instance), will depend mainly upon
the skilful management in our earliest voyages of the machine we
are about to set afloat; but I have also come to the conclusion,
the correctness of which may not be so immediately apparent to you,
that this machine, though nominally a ship, not only admits of, but
requires, a totally different management from that which may have
successfully navigated ordinary ships, and that most of the habits,
feelings, and sensations, amounting to instinct, possessed by a
good sailor, and the peculiar power of skilful adaptation of
expedients to emergencies, which constitute the merits of a
first-rate sailor, have to be put aside for a time rather than
applied in the first instance to make a successful commander of the
vessel.
In navigating a small vessel, a man has to study the appearance of
the weather, the direction of the wind, and that of the seas; to
consider the probabilities of change; to vary his course more or
less with reference to any of these causes, and according not only
to the then state of all these operating causes, but also with
reference to the probabilities of change; and with their
consideration his mind is principally occupied, and it is in the
exercise of judgment and foresight in these points that he shows
his skill.
Steam navigation, and the gradual increase in the size of vessels,
have no doubt materially modified this, but much still remains to
occupy the mind of the commander of a steamer, with which not only
we shall have nothing to do, but too much attention to which, from
previous habits, would divert his attention from that which, under
the different circumstances, will become much more important.
In the same manner, in manœuvring such a vessel in harbour, the
ordinary modes would be totally inapplicable; whereas, by entirely
discarding all previous practices, and keeping in his mind and
making use of the peculiar powers which are at command in this
vessel, and judiciously attending to the immense effect of the _vis
inertiæ_, or momentum of such a mass, so far beyond that of
anything now afloat that it becomes a totally _new_ influence, this
machine may be managed by a skilful man with a facility which is
not attainable with small craft; while such a mass would be
destruction to itself or to anything that comes in contact with it,
if treated at all in the same manner as even the largest steamers
are now handled.
Another peculiarity to be attended to in the management of this
mighty mass is that by no possibility must she be allowed to touch
the ground.
Our ship will be found, I believe, if tried, to possess unusual
strength: no combination of circumstances within the range of
ordinary probabilities can cause such damage to her as to sink her,
even if she were to be run on sharp rocks with deep water around;
and I believe she might remain for months aground, exposed to the
heaviest seas without serious damage. The lives of the passengers,
and even the cargo generally, will be safe, almost perfectly safe,
and so far she will be very different from and very superior to any
vessel now afloat; but there will also be another great difference,
although she may remain safely aground, she will probably remain so
for a long time.
If she were to ground at high water or where there is a little
tide, and when she happens to be rather light of coal, and should
take in any water so as to deepen her, no ordinary appliances in
the power of the crew will get her off, or, at all events, not
without great loss of time, and at very heavy sacrifices. Such an
event in the first year of her career would probably ruin our
Company, as the grounding of the ‘Great Britain’ did the Great
Western Steam-Ship Company, although it proved the good qualities
of that ship, and thus advanced iron ship-building. A sailor will
no doubt receive with disgust and as an insult the suggestion of
the possibility of his running his ship ashore. We cannot afford,
however, to rest contented with this expression of feeling, natural
and praiseworthy as it may be: our circumstances are totally
different; and that which is considered certainly as a serious
evil, but still only an evil more or less serious, would be to us
fatal; it is no longer a question of degree of injury--it is death.
I have had some costly experience; I have had to do with many
steamers--several remarkable for their size and their value,
according to the ideas of the time, and two of them each in their
day considered Leviathans, more wondered at than even ours, and
exciting much more anxiety on the part of their promoters, and
there was as much care taken in the selection of commanders as I
ask you to take now; nevertheless both of these, to the ruin of the
Company in one case, and almost every other steamer I have had
anything to do with, has not merely touched, but been aground. Not
a season hardly passes without a case of even a Queen’s ship going
ashore, although navigated by men educated for the purpose, with
the advantage of every appliance hitherto thought necessary and
sufficient, and with fearful responsibility attached to them. All
these are published cases known to the world; and if the log books
of all the steamers were searched, I believe the result would be a
list in which the ships that had not been aground would form the
exceptions, and, in the majority of cases, the blunder is so gross,
that the most far-fetched excuses of errors of compass and unknown
currents, although in well-known channels, are obliged to be
invented.
The real explanation is a simple one. Ships are navigated with far
too reckless a confidence in the mere personal instinct and skill
of those in command, and in their ability to get out of a scrape in
time. Methodical systems and mechanical means of ensuring accuracy
are far too much neglected, or rather have not kept pace at all
with the great improvements in speed and the power of locomotion
which science has introduced, whether in the construction of steam
vessels or even of sailing ships, and which the advance of the day
now calls for. There are no means at present used of taking
soundings worth having while a ship is going fast through the
water, or in time to be of any use if the soundings shoal rapidly;
the trouble is so great and the operation so slow that it is not
resorted to sufficiently often. The steering by compass is so rough
and so coarse, that no real accuracy is attained. Good observations
to determine position are taken at too long intervals of distance
run, and consequently are subject to be interrupted for too long a
period by what is called and supposed to be continual bad weather;
although it would rarely happen, if persons were continually on the
watch, who had nothing else to do or to think of, that twenty-four
hours would pass without some glimpses of a star or of the sun.
Thus with a speed of ten or fifteen knots, and cloudy weather, and,
above all, with that unfortunate confidence of seamen to which I
have referred, there is never any certainty just at the time when
it is really required. No doubt, skilful seamen do generally arrive
at an astonishing approximation in their estimates, and the results
on the average are most successful, and remarkable proofs of the
skill brought into action. But the instrumental means of attaining
accuracy are lamentably in rear of the improvements that have been
made in the means of locomotion, and have not at all kept pace with
the vast increase of capital embarked in each individual case.
All these deficiencies are, however, easily remedied; the means do
exist, or can be devised, and might be applied if we insisted on
their application. We have seen numerous instances where the
difficulties are admitted and grappled with systematically, and
with what patience and skill a fleet has been piloted up unknown
rivers full of shoals in China, and through intricate channels with
covered rocks in the Baltic. In our case, the object to be attained
is a vital one to us; and what I most dread is the confidence of
our commander resulting from his previous experience preventing his
appreciating the peculiarities of the case, and applying that
greatly increased amount of method and system which is essential to
change that, which is now rendered only highly probable by the
skill of man, into mechanical certainty. The man who takes charge
of such a machine, in which is embarked so large a capital, must
have a mind capable of setting aside, without forgetting, all his
previous experience and habits, and must be prepared to commence as
an observer of new facts, and seize rapidly the results. A man of
sense and observation, with a good mechanical head, and with
decision and courage, would succeed without much previous nautical
knowledge; but, unquestionably, a man familiar with all that is
going on around would be much more competent, provided he does not
allow his habits derived from former experience to induce him to
neglect any of the new means of information in his power, to all
which his former knowledge should be made subservient.
If much has to be unlearnt, or rather carefully set aside for the
time, as generally inapplicable in its present shape, there is also
much to be learnt in the navigation of such a vessel; and one of
the most essential qualifications of the commander would be a
belief in his want of experience, and a readiness to see the
novelty of his position, and a cautious and sound but quick
perception of the new and powerful influences and _new_ effects of
those same causes with which he may have been familiar under very
different circumstances.
The great mass and size of this vessel must necessarily render it
so much less affected by the ordinary disturbing causes of wind and
sea, that, practically, little attention ought to be paid to these,
at least not as expecting the ordinary results; but other effects
may be produced which must be carefully studied and learnt in the
early voyages, so that they may be met and counteracted as they
have been by experienced men under the present system. Thus, as an
example of this class of effects to which I would refer, there is
reason to believe that this vessel, although apparently unaffected
by a wind on the beam, or a cross sea, which would be very
noticeable even with the largest of the present steamers, would
nevertheless have a steady and rather strong tendency to come up to
the wind. A certain direction of a cross sea is not unlikely to
produce a contrary effect. It is quite possible also that the
apparent lee-way, or the deviation of the axis (or keel) of the
ship from the line of the course, will be greater with the wind on
the beam than with smaller vessels, although the actual drift or
lee-way may be less; and all these effects will result from her
great length (unless counteracted by causes I do not now foresee),
and will probably be totally different in degree from any similar
effects now felt. These effects must be carefully studied, and with
a mind prepared to consider them as new, for they will be new and
distinct from anything now experienced. In the same manner, and to
a much greater degree, the effects of the speed which we must hope
to attain will upset all the usual methods of determining
accurately the position and the course of the vessel, and still
more the precautions to be taken in approaching land. A 24 hours’
run, at 20 miles per hour, without a good observation, and with a
possible error of estimate, or a doubt, at all events, of the exact
effect of the set of currents, or of the speed of the ship through
the water, or of the precise amount of lee-way, may easily make an
error of 20 or 30 miles in position at the end of the day’s run.
On the other hand, by almost abandoning the present modes, and
adopting measures which I shall point out presently, adapted to the
new circumstances, a much greater degree of certainty and accuracy
may be attained than is now even sought for. I have had the best
advice on these points, both astronomical and nautical: the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. Airy, who both as a man of science and a
practical man, and by his official position, is the first authority
on such matters, and Professor Smyth, of the Edinburgh Observatory,
Captain Beecher of the Admiralty, and several other scientific
naval men, have assisted me; and, under their advice, instruments
are being constructed, and a system devised, which will admit of
continuous observations being made with great accuracy at all times
of the day, and particularly at night, and by means of which also a
continuous correction of the ship’s compasses with the most minute
accuracy can be kept up, and her position be ascertained with
almost the same accuracy as a point on land; and I have their
authority for saying that such improved means are desirable, and
are attainable.
The importance and advantage of continuous observation throughout
the twenty-four hours, whenever a glimpse can be obtained of any
object which will answer the purpose, and even when the horizon is
invisible, may not at first be evident, but it cannot be
over-estimated. An exact knowledge of the ship’s movements will be
soon acquired that would almost replace observation, and the
average of numerous observations secures an accuracy which cannot
be approached by any other method.
By a careful and continuous comparison of the exact distances run,
with accurate records of the speed of the engine and of the ship
through the water, registered by good instruments (the performance
of which has been tested, and which are being made), and having
proper reference to the varying draught of water of the vessel, the
most precise measure of the speed of the vessel through the water
can be learnt; and by careful observation of the force and
direction of the wind, the effect of any given wind, and an
accurate measure of her drift or lee-way, may be obtained; and
then, by adhering strictly, without regard to wind or weather, to a
course previously laid down on good charts, having upon them the
sets of currents, as already observed, the true position of the
ship may be determined at any moment, and there need never be the
slightest hesitation, or any time or distance lost by doubts.
In addition to the instruments above named, I hope to be able to
provide the means of sounding at moderate depths while the ship is
going her full speed.
Having the means, then, of determining the ship’s course and
position with much greater accuracy than is now practised, we must
seek to make that course, or the distance to be run, the shortest
possible, that is to say, the course which will occupy the least
time.
The exact course to be taken by such a vessel must be determined
upon and laid down upon the charts after a due consideration of all
the circumstances which can possibly affect the time occupied in
the voyage between any two points, and particularly by examining
and considering well all the information which scientific observers
have collected and recorded as to the currents, probabilities of
fogs, or of ice, and other impediments, the chances of meeting
vessels, which must be avoided as much as possible, the average
direction of prevailing winds, varying such course, perhaps, in
certain latitudes with the season of the year, but certainly not
with the temporary direction or force of the winds or state of
weather at the moment; for the speed which we shall attain renders
these causes of secondary consideration, and would interfere with
all ordinary calculations derived from present experience of the
probable state of the wind in the new position which the ship would
attain after a few hours’ run. The business of the commander would
be, therefore, to adhere rigidly to the exact course previously
deliberately determined upon, and not to be tempted to deviate
except slightly, and even then only according to rules which he
shall have previously laid down for himself.
The importance of adhering strictly to this rule cannot be
over-estimated. The period occupied in a voyage will be materially
influenced by the exact course followed, and as such course must
be determined upon only by a calm and somewhat laborious study of
documents, it cannot be safely determined upon except in the
closet, that is, _before the voyage_, and uninfluenced by the
excitement of hopes or by disappointments caused by difficulties.
The safety of the ship and of the enterprise may also mainly depend
upon the rigid adherence to this rule.
With the means at his disposal for checking that course, and with
the method and regularity involved by a rigid adherence to it, and
a correction at once of any departure from it, a degree of
certainty will be attained as to the ship’s position which will
almost preclude the possibility of an accident, and which I
consider practically invaluable as affecting the safety of our
vessel. This rigid adherence to an exactly prescribed course will
prevent any risk of that which is the cause of the greater number
of losses. No inducement of fine weather, or a happy state of mind
and body of the captain, or a desire to save time, or to show the
beauties of a coast, or any other temporary cause, will lead to a
nearer approach to dangerous points than had been previously
determined upon as safe. The shortest and best route, the safest
from all dangers, and giving the widest berth to all shores or
shoals, having been laid down, must be kept to against all
temptations.
Economy of fuel is another consideration of the highest importance.
The engines are of power sufficient, if fully worked, to consume
considerably more than the cargo provided. Large as may be the
supply which the ship is capable of carrying, it is no more than
that which is calculated as necessary for the voyage intended, with
a moderate allowance for contingencies; and it must be borne in
mind that the ordinary means of making up any deficiencies would be
totally inapplicable in our case, since no supply capable of being
drawn in an emergency from other sources would be sufficient.
The precise quantity calculated and provided must be made
sufficient, or the consequences would be serious. The usual
practice, therefore, of going ahead as fast as the engines will
take the ship must be entirely abandoned. Careful observations,
systematically pursued, will show the speed which, under different
states of immersion, can be attained without a disproportionate
expenditure of power, and to this speed the engines must be
limited. A little experience will probably show that, under certain
circumstances of immersion of the ship, or of the state of the sea,
it may be economical to force the screw or the paddle engine, the
one more than the other. This can only be determined by somewhat
delicate and very precise and accurate observations. These must be
made. It is not merely a question of degree, but our whole success
depends upon the application, not of one, but of all these
refinements.
A close study of the relative speed of the ship, as ascertained by
the self-registering logs, and by continuous astronomical
observations, compared with the expenditure of power in the engines
as indicated by the number of revolutions constantly registered,
and the power expended as measured and recorded by the chief
engineer, will be necessary for some time to come, and until indeed
the management of such large ships becomes as much a matter of rule
as it is now, or perhaps ought to be more than it is, with smaller
ones.
As to the use of the sails, while the engines are nevertheless in
full action, it must be entirely a matter of experiment, and an
experiment in which, again, all previous habits and prejudices must
be set aside.
Whether a sail steadies such a ship usefully or not can be, and
must therefore be, positively determined by measurement with proper
instruments, and not by the sensations; and the result upon the
speed of the vessel as compared with the power expended must, in
like manner, be ascertained by positive observations and
measurements. No past experience can do other than mislead. It is
quite possible that the same means which improve the rate of the
present large steamers may be prejudicial to our performance.
The commander must appreciate the necessity of all this study and
attention to what is rather mechanical than nautical, or our voyage
will be a failure. The difference between the peculiar qualities of
such a floating mass as compared with those of the largest steamer
now afloat, is likely to be as great as between the last and a
100-ton cutter; and the most prejudiced believer in the acquired
skill of an old sailor who had learnt to manage the small vessel in
the most perfect and masterly manner, would not expect him to be
able to handle one of the present large steamers, still less to
elicit the best performance out of her. In the same degree the man
who takes the command of our ship must, if he is to succeed, enter
upon his duties with a belief that he has nearly all to learn, at
the same time that this feeling is perfectly consistent with a
proper confidence in his own powers to master the new
circumstances, and to succeed with this as he may have done with
other vessels.
Finally, the commander’s attention must be devoted exclusively to
the general management of the whole system under his control, and
his attention must not be diverted by frivolous pursuits and
unimportant occupations. I believe that even in the present large
steamers much advantage would result from relieving the captain
from all care of the passengers and cargo; but in our case, where
we may have to provide for thousands instead of hundreds, and
arranged in different classes, and living in completely separate
saloons and compartments, the present system of a captain dining at
the table and associating with the passengers would be
impracticable, even if it were desirable. But for much more
important reasons, and on general grounds, I think that while the
commander is of course supreme over every department, he should not
be embarrassed by undertaking any one, still less should he have
his mind occupied with the troublesome and frivolous concerns of a
vast hotel, nor should he be hampered by the necessity of attending
to the hours and the forms of a large society. Moreover, I consider
it essential that he should by his presence and control keep up the
position and the sense of responsibility of the chief officers
under him, by living and messing with them; the commander and those
acting immediately under him must occupy a more dignified position
than they now do.
The result of all these general views is, that the command of this
ship must be considered to consist mainly in the superintending and
keeping up in a high state of order the perfect working of a highly
methodical pre-arranged system, by means of which the ship is to be
made to go like a piece of very accurate machinery, precisely in
the course which has been pre-arranged, and precisely at the speed,
and with the consumption of power, which has been ascertained to be
the highest attainable with the requisite economy; and there must
be a proper establishment of assistants, competent to control each
department of this system. As regards the constitution of this
establishment, I consider the commander should have a staff of
chief officers or captains. I believe three will be necessary, with
a fourth performing general duties and ready to take the place of
any one of the three; that one of them should always be in command
of the ship (under the commander); that, besides these chief
officers, there should be a master, corresponding to a master in a
Queen’s ship, who would have assistants and calculators or clerks,
whose duties would be to keep the ship’s reckoning, to keep up
perfect and continuous observations, to calculate with precision
and set from hour to hour the exact course by compass which has to
be followed, to keep in the course determined upon by the captain,
to keep a series of accurate observations and records of all
matters that can affect the ship’s movements--duties involving an
amount of science and practical astronomical and mathematical
knowledge which requires a superior education, and which is found
only in this class of men. The duty of the master would be
therefore to supply the science necessary for the conduct of the
ship, and to be the commander’s cyclopædia and book of reference,
to be able at any moment to report to the commander the exact
position of the ship and her course, and the variation of her
compasses, and take the soundings, if any, to note the fact of a
change in the temperature of the water, indicating approach of ice,
and any other symptom or fact which can affect the ship’s
movements--all which should be determined by continuous
observations methodically and mechanically made, and not be
dependent upon the chance of the commander’s anxiety or greater or
less forethought. The chief engineer should also be a superior man,
selected more for his general qualifications as a good director of
men and machinery, than as a mere marine engineer. These should
form a staff, and be of a standing to live and mess with the
commander; so that each department should thus be furnished with a
chief competent for the special duties of his department, and
reporting to and acting under the general control of the commander.
That the principles thus laid down as to following exactly a
prescribed and predetermined course, and as to regulating exactly
the consumption of power and consequently of fuel, and the keeping
up a system of what may be termed scientific observation for the
purpose of ensuring this regularity, I submit should be rigidly
enforced; and the commander should be required to adopt these
principles as the guide of his conduct, and to use the measures
that are placed at his disposal for working this machine in the
manner and with the precision pointed out.
_Letter on the Duties of the Chief Engineer._
March 19, 1857.
The duties which I apprehend will devolve upon the chief engineer
of our ship will be, firstly, the supreme direction and management
of both the principal engines, and all the auxiliary engines and
machinery worked by them in the ship; and as the construction of
such a ship, and of many of its adjuncts, such as the iron masts
and yards, steering apparatus, and other parts, are strictly of an
engineering character, and such as in the event of repairs,
particularly at sea or in foreign ports, would require a mechanical
engineer rather than a shipwright, I think it must be made part of
your duty, as the most competent officer, to make yourself
thoroughly acquainted with the construction of the ship and all its
parts, and all mechanism within it, so as to be prepared to take
such share of responsibility as to the state of the structure of
the ship as it may be found desirable to throw upon you as chief
engineer, and at all events to be prepared to be the captain’s
chief authority and responsible adviser on all matters of
mechanical engineering.
The principal duty, however, will of course be the management of
the engines, including the care of the paddle, screw, and other
machinery immediately connected with the engines, or worked by
them; and as the success of the ship as a steamboat will depend
entirely upon the amount of power developed by the engines, in
proportion to the fuel consumed, there is no limit to the degree of
attention, of judgment, and of skill, that not only may be usefully
applied, but that must be applied to ensure success.
I have no wish to alarm you as to the amount of work or
responsibility that will devolve upon you; my object is rather to
show you the opportunity afforded of displaying judgment, skill,
and assiduous attention, and thus, as I hope, to excite your
ambition, when I seek to draw your attention very strongly to the
peculiarities of this case.
In ordinary steam navigation, whatever perfection has as yet been
sought for or attained, the business of the engineer has been
mainly to keep the engines in perfect order, and to develope the
greatest amount of power possible, and, secondly, to effect as
great economy as possible in the consumption of fuel; but the
latter has been merely a question of economy in a pecuniary point
of view, and not of necessity, and has been entirely secondary to
the first condition, so much so that the most successful ships have
not been by any means the most economical, on the contrary, they
have been rather extravagant consumers.
In the present case, the circumstances are totally different, and
it will be essential that you should change altogether your
accustomed views on this subject.
This ship is built to go round the world with a defined and limited
amount of fuel, which you have no power to exceed, or rather, if
you exceed it, at any part of the voyage, the whole is a failure.
The circumstances are therefore reversed, with this additional
condition, that there is no medium or partial success. In the
ordinary cases you have a limited power of engine and an excess of
fuel, in which it is desirable but not essential that you should
effect economy; in the present case you have a limited and defined
quantity of fuel to consume, with an excess of engine power, and
the art will be to obtain the largest total amount of power from
this fuel, expending it progressively, and in such a manner as to
reach a given point. To effect this, and obtain the best possible
results, will require of course that the engines should be kept in
the best possible order; but this, although a preliminary
condition, is an ordinary one, requiring no peculiar duties or
exercise of judgment, and must be assumed, as on all occasions, a
matter of course. The peculiar duties in our case will be the
continuous study in every trifling detail that can effect the
result of the means of obtaining the largest amount of steam from
the defined expenditure of fuel and the use of this steam, so as to
obtain the largest amount of power, and the largest amount of
result.
The mere study of this question must necessarily occupy some time,
and for several voyages it will be a subject of experiment; but the
more rapidly positive information can be obtained, the more prompt
and certain will be our success. To attain success will require a
degree of attention to every minute detail, which it has never yet
been necessary or profitable to devote to this branch.
The continuous weighing out of coals and measure of the products of
each boiler (for which means will be provided), the continual
observation of the extent to which blowing-off is desirable, the
continuous measure by indicator of the performance of the engines
under different pressures and degrees of expansion, so that you can
at all times furnish the captain with the exact performances of the
two engines, and the cost of fuel required to produce given results
in each; so that he may have the means of comparing your
expenditure with the results he obtained in the speed of the ship,
and of learning the relative beneficial effects of employing more
or less the paddle or the screw in different states of weather, or
different immersions of the ship, will be required; and every
method of increasing the performance of each gang of stokers, and
of stimulating their skill and care, and every refinement in each
separate branch of the work, to effect economy of fuel, or rather,
development of power with a given amount of fuel, will be
necessary. We all know full well how, if every effort is
continuously made and every possible care is continuously bestowed
in each department, 4 or 5 per cent. can be saved or gained in many
points, and at many times in the 24 hours, between the drawing of
the coals from the bunkers and the development of power at the
paddle board or the screw blades; and if only 1 per cent. can be
thus gained in a few points, the aggregate will soon amount to 10
per cent., which with us may make the difference between success
and failure. All these things will require judgment, thought and
attention, rather than labour, and, above all, close watching and
method, and good management of men.
Besides these more than ordinary duties during the voyage, the only
peculiarity in the service will be that, with such a costly
machine, the mere interest of money and fixed expenditure upon
which will not be short of 200_l_. a day, and the perfect state of
which is so essential, you will be required to give more attention
to the machinery when in port than is usually required.
I trust that this strong but not exaggerated statement of what
would be expected of the chief engineer, will excite your desire to
undertake the duties, rather than deter you from seeking the post;
and that, if the Directors should accept the offer of your
services, you will enter upon the duties with confidence, though
with a sense of their serious importance. In the event of your
appointment, it will be a necessary condition that you should be
able to commence at once the supervision of the erection of the
engines. This work is already much farther advanced than I should
have wished it to be before the chief engineer had taken charge of
it. I attach great importance to his having that familiar knowledge
of all the parts and their condition, which no study of drawings
can give so well as actual inspection during erection, and I wish
also that he should satisfy himself of the perfect truth of every
adjustment.
It will be seen from the documents which have been printed in this
chapter how ‘deeply and seriously’ Mr. Brunel had considered all the
conditions which were, in his opinion, necessary for the economical
construction, and the successful employment, of the great ship; but it
is hardly possible, by means of extracts from his correspondence, to
convey an adequate impression of the amount of labour he expended--from
the year 1852 to the last days of his life--on the supervision of every
detail of the work. ‘The fact is,’ he said, ‘I never embarked in any one
thing to which I have so entirely devoted myself, and to which I have
devoted so much time, thought, and labour, and on the success of which I
have staked so much reputation.’
Heavy as Mr. Brunel’s duties were in October 1854, when he wrote these
words, a far greater amount of labour was subsequently imposed upon him.
During the year 1855 financial difficulties arose which interfered with
the progress of the ship; and at last, in February 1856, although Mr.
Brunel had done everything in his power to prevent the necessity of such
a step, the works were suspended; and they were not resumed till the end
of May, after which date they were carried on by the Company under the
supervision of the existing staff. It was greatly against Mr. Brunel’s
wishes that this was attempted, except as a temporary measure, as he
considered it impossible for a company to carry on such a work
efficiently and economically.
Notwithstanding all these difficulties, that which seemed at first only
a confused mass of iron assumed by slow degrees the graceful proportions
of a ‘great ship’; and the hull of the vessel was completed by the end
of the summer of 1857, so far as it was desirable to proceed before the
commencement of the launching operations.