of about eighty princes of the blood; and during their ravages the
ancient nobility of England was almost annihilated. Yet in these fierce
wars comparatively little damage was done to the general population or to
industry and trade. The wars derived their name from the fact that the
partisans of the house of Lancaster took the red rose as their badge, and
those of York chose the white rose.
The enemies of the Duke of York soon found it in their power to make
advantage of his excessive caution. Henry being so far recovered from his
distemper as to carry the appearance of exercising the royal power, they
moved him to resume his authority, to annul the protectorship of the
Duke, and to commit the administration into the hands of Somerset (1455).
Richard, sensible of the dangers which might attend his former acceptance
of the parliamentary commission should he submit to the annulling of it,
levied an army, but still without advancing any pretensions to the crown.
He complained only of the King's ministers, and demanded a reformation of
the government.
A battle was fought at St. Albans, in which the Yorkists were superior,
and, without suffering any material loss, slew about five thousand
of their enemies, among whom were the Duke of Somerset, the Earl
of Northumberland, the Earl of Stafford, eldest son of the Duke of
Buckingham, Lord Clifford, and many other persons of distinction. The
King himself fell into the hands of the Duke of York, who treated him
with great respect and tenderness; he was only obliged--which he regarded
as no hardship--to commit the whole authority of the crown into the hands
of his rival.
Affairs did not immediately proceed to the last extremities; the
nation was kept some time in suspense; the vigor and spirit of Queen
Margaret,[1] supporting her small power, still proved a balance to the
great authority of Richard, which was checked by his irresolute temper.
A parliament, which was soon after assembled, plainly discovered, by the
contrariety of their proceedings, the contrariety of the motives by which
they were actuated. They granted the Yorkists a general indemnity; and
they restored the protectorship to the Duke, but at the same time they
renewed their oaths of fealty to Henry, and fixed the continuance of the
protectorship to the majority of his son Edward.
It was not found difficult to wrest power from hands so little tenacious
as those of the Duke of York. Margaret, availing herself of that Prince's
absence, produced her husband before the House of Lords; and as his state
of health permitted him at that time to act his part with some tolerable
decency, he declared his intentions of resuming the government, and of
putting an end to Richard's authority. The House of Lords assented to
Henry's proposal, and the King was declared to be reinstated. Even the
Duke of York acquiesced in this irregular act of the peers, and no
disturbance ensued. But that Prince's claim to the crown was too well
known, and the steps which he had taken to promote it were too evident
ever to allow sincere trust and confidence to have place between the
parties.
The court retired to Coventry, and invited the Duke of York and the Earls
of Salisbury and Warwick to attend the King's person. When they were on
the road, they received intelligence that designs were formed against
their liberties and lives. They immediately separated themselves; Richard
withdrew to his castle of Wigmore; Salisbury to Middleham, in Yorkshire;
and Warwick to his government of Calais, which had been committed to him
after the battle of St. Albans, and which, as it gave him the command of
the only regular military force maintained by England, was of the utmost
importance in the present juncture. Still, men of peaceable dispositions,
and among the rest Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, thought it not
too late to interpose with their good offices in order to prevent that
effusion of blood with which the kingdom was threatened; and the awe in
which each party stood of the other rendered the mediation for some time
successful.
It was agreed that all the great leaders on both sides should meet in
London and be solemnly reconciled. The Duke of York and his partisans
came thither with numerous retinues, and took up their quarters near each
other for mutual security. The leaders of the Lancastrian party used the
same precaution. The mayor, at the head of five thousand men, kept a
strict watch night and day, and was extremely vigilant in maintaining
peace between them. Terms were adjusted, which removed not the ground of
difference. An outward reconciliation only was procured; and in order to
notify this accord to the whole people, a solemn procession to St. Paul's
was appointed, where the Duke of York led Queen Margaret, and a leader of
one party marched hand in hand with a leader of the opposite. The less
real cordiality prevailed, the more were the exterior demonstrations of
amity redoubled. But it was evident that a contest for a crown could
not thus be peaceably accommodated, that each party watched only for an
opportunity of subverting the other, and that much blood must yet be
spilt ere the nation could be restored to perfect tranquillity or enjoy a
settled and established government.
Even the smallest accident, without any formed design, was sufficient, in
the present disposition of men's minds, to dissolve the seeming harmony
between the parties; and, had the intentions of the leaders been ever so
amicable, they would have found it difficult to restrain the animosity of
their followers. One of the King's retinue insulted one of the Earl of
Warwick's; their companions on both sides took part in the quarrel; a
fierce combat ensued; the Earl apprehended his life to be aimed at; he
fled to his government of Calais; and both parties, in every county of
England, openly made preparations for deciding the contest by war and
arms.
The Earl of Salisbury, marching to join the Duke of York, was overtaken
at Blore Heath, on the borders of Staffordshire, by Lord Audley, who
commanded much superior forces; and a small rivulet with steep banks ran
between the armies. Salisbury here supplied his defect in numbers by
stratagem a refinement of which there occur few instances in the English
civil wars, where a headlong courage, more than military conduct, is
commonly to be remarked. He feigned a retreat, and allured Audley to
follow him with precipitation; but when the van of the royal army had
passed the brook, Salisbury suddenly turned upon them, and partly by the
surprise, partly by the division of the enemy's forces, put this body to
rout; the example of flight was followed by the rest of the army; and
Salisbury, obtaining a complete victory, reached the general rendezvous
of the Yorkists at Ludlow. The Earl of Warwick brought over to this
rendezvous a choice body of veterans from Calais, on whom, it was
thought, the fortune of the war would much depend; but this reënforcement
occasioned, in the issue, the immediate ruin of the Duke of York's party.
When the royal army approached, and a general action was every hour
expected, Sir Andrew Trollop, who commanded the veterans, deserted to
the King in the night-time; and the Yorkists were so dismayed at this
instance of treachery, which made every man suspicious of his fellow,
that they separated next day without striking a blow; the Duke fled to
Ireland; the Earl of Warwick, attended by many of the other leaders,
escaped to Calais, where his great popularity among all orders of men,
particularly among the military, soon drew to him partisans, and rendered
his power very formidable. The friends of the house of York in England
kept themselves everywhere in readiness to rise on the first summons from
their leaders.
After meeting with some successes at sea, Warwick landed in Kent, with
the Earl of Salisbury and the Earl of March, eldest son of the Duke of
York; and being met by the Primate, by Lord Cobham, and other persons of
distinction, he marched, amid the acclamations of the people, to London.
The city immediately opened its gates to him; and, his troops increasing
on every day's march, he soon found himself in a condition to face the
royal army, which hastened from Coventry to attack him. The battle was
fought at Northampton, and was soon decided against the royalists by the
infidelity of Lord Grey of Ruthin, who, commanding Henry's van, deserted
to the enemy during the heat of action, and spread a consternation
through the troops. The Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, the
Lords Beaumont and Egremont, and Sir William Lucie were killed in the
action or pursuit; the slaughter fell chiefly on the gentry and nobility;
the common people were spared by orders of the Earls of Warwick and
March. Henry himself, that empty shadow of a king, was again taken
prisoner; and as the innocence and simplicity of his manners, which bore
the appearance of sanctity, had procured him the tender regard of
the people, the Earl of Warwick and the other leaders took care to
distinguish themselves by their respectful demeanor toward him.
A parliament was summoned in the King's name, and met at Westminster,
where the Duke soon after appeared from Ireland. This Prince had never
hitherto advanced openly any claim to the crown. He advanced toward the
throne; and being met by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who asked him
whether he had yet paid his respects to the King, he replied that he knew
of none to whom he owed that title. He then stood near the throne, and,
addressing himself to the House of Peers, he gave them a deduction of his
title by descent, and pleaded his cause before them. The lords remained
in suspense, and no one ventured to utter a word. Richard was much
disappointed at their silence; but, desiring them to reflect on what he
had proposed to them, he departed the house.
The peers, after deliberating, declared the title of the duke of York to
be certain and indefeasible; but in consideration that Henry had
enjoyed the crown, without dispute or controversy, during the course of
thirty-eight years, they determined that he should continue to possess
the title and dignity during the remainder of his life; that the
administration of the government, meanwhile, should remain with Richard;
that he should be acknowledged the true and lawful heir of the monarchy;
that everyone should swear to maintain his succession, and it should
be treason to attempt his life. The act thus passed with the unanimous
consent of the whole legislative body.
The Duke, apprehending his chief danger to arise from Queen Margaret,
sought a pretence for banishing her the kingdom; he sent her in the
King's name a summons to come immediately to London, intending, in case
of her disobedience, to proceed to extremities against her. But the Queen
needed not this menace to excite her activity in defending the rights of
her family. After the defeat of Northampton she had fled with her infant
son to Durham, thence to Scotland; but soon returning she applied to the
northern barons, and employed every motive to procure their assistance.
Her affability, insinuation, and address--qualities in which she
excelled--her caresses, her promises, wrought a powerful effect on
everyone who approached her; the admiration of her great qualities was
succeeded by compassion toward her helpless condition; the nobility of
that quarter, who regarded themselves as the most warlike in the kingdom,
were moved by indignation to find the southern barons pretend to dispose
of the crown and settle the government. And, that they might allure
the people to their standard, they promised them the spoils of all the
provinces on the other side of the Trent. By these means the Queen had
collected an army twenty thousand strong, with a celerity which was
neither expected by her friends nor apprehended by her enemies.
The Duke of York, informed of her appearance in the north, hastened
thither with a body of five thousand men, to suppress, as he imagined,
the beginnings of an insurrection; when, on his arrival at Wakefield, he
found himself so much outnumbered by the enemy. He threw himself into
Sandal castle, which was situated in the neighborhood; and he was advised
by the Earl of Salisbury and other prudent counsellors to remain in that
fortress till his son, the Earl of March, who was levying forces in the
borders of Wales, could advance to his assistance. But the Duke, though
deficient in political courage, possessed personal bravery in an eminent
degree; and notwithstanding his wisdom and experience, he thought that he
should be forever disgraced if, by taking shelter behind walls, he should
for a moment resign the victory to a woman. He descended into the plain
and offered battle to the enemy, which was instantly accepted. The great
inequality of numbers was sufficient alone to decide the victory; but the
Queen, by sending a detachment, who fell on the back of the Duke's army,
rendered her advantage still more certain and undisputed. The Duke
himself was killed in the action; and as his body was found among the
slain, the head was cut off by Margaret's orders and fixed on the gates
of York, with a paper crown upon it, in derision of his pretended title.
The Queen, after this important victory, divided her army. She sent the
smaller division, under Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, half brother to
the King, against Edward the new Duke of York. She herself marched with
the larger division toward London, where the Earl of Warwick had been
left with the command of the Yorkists. Pembroke was defeated by Edward
at Mortimer's Cross, in Herefordshire, his army was dispersed, and he
himself escaped by flight.
Margaret compensated this defeat by a victory which she obtained over the
Earl of Warwick. That nobleman, on the approach of the Lancastrians, led
out his army, reënforced by a strong body of the Londoners, who were
affectionate to his cause; and he gave battle to the Queen at St.
Albans. While the armies were warmly engaged, Lovelace, who commanded a
considerable body of the Yorkists, withdrew from the combat; and this
treacherous conduct decided the victory in favor of the Queen. The person
of the King fell again into the hands of his own party. Lord Bonville, to
whose care he had been intrusted by the Yorkists, remained with him after
the defeat, on assurances of pardon given him by Henry; but Margaret,
regardless of her husband's promise, immediately ordered the head of that
nobleman to be struck off by the executioner. Sir Thomas Kiriel, a brave
warrior, who had signalized himself in the French wars, was treated in
the same manner.
The Queen made no great advantage of this victory. Young Edward advanced
upon her from the other side, and, collecting the remains of Warwick's
army, was soon in a condition of giving her battle with superior forces.
She found it necessary to retreat to the north. Edward entered the
capital amid the acclamations of the citizens, and immediately opened a
new scene to his party. This Prince, in the bloom of youth, remarkable
for the beauty of his person, for his bravery, his activity, his
affability, and every popular quality, found himself so much possessed of
public favor that, elated with the spirit natural to his age, he resolved
no longer to confine himself within those narrow limits which his father
had prescribed to himself, and which had been found by experience so
prejudicial to his cause. He determined to assume the name and dignity
of king, to insist openly on his claim, and thenceforth to treat the
opposite party as traitors and rebels to his lawful authority. His army
was ordered to assemble in St. John's Fields, and great numbers of
people surrounded them. They were asked whether they would have Henry of
Lancaster for king. They unanimously exclaimed against the proposal It
was then demanded whether they would accept of Edward, eldest son of
the late Duke of York. They expressed their assent by loud and joyful
acclamations. A great number of bishops, lords, magistrates, and other
persons of distinction were next assembled at Baynard's castle, who
ratified the popular election; and the new king was on the subsequent day
proclaimed in London by the title of Edward IV.
In this manner ended the reign of Henry VI, a monarch who while in his
cradle had been proclaimed king both of France and England, and who began
his life with the most splendid prospects that any prince in Europe had
ever enjoyed.
Young Edward, now in his twentieth year, was bold, active, and
enterprising. The very commencement of his reign gave symptoms of his
sanguinary disposition. The scaffold, as well as the field, incessantly
streamed with the noblest blood of England. Queen Margaret had prudently
retired northward among her own partisans, and she was able in a few days
to assemble an army sixty thousand strong in Yorkshire. The King and the
Earl of Warwick hastened, with an army of forty thousand men, to check
her progress; and when they reached Pomfret they despatched a body of
troops, under the command of Lord Fitzwalter, to secure the passage of
Ferrybridge over the river Are, which lay between them and the enemy.
Fitzwalter took possession of the post assigned him, but was not able
to maintain it against Lord Clifford, who attacked him with superior
numbers. The Yorkists were chased back with great slaughter, and Lord
Fitzwalter himself was slain in the action.
The Earl of Warwick, dreading the consequences of this disaster, at a
time when a decisive action was every hour expected, immediately ordered
his horse to be brought him, which he stabbed before the whole army, and,
kissing the hilt of his sword, swore that he was determined to share the
fate of the meanest soldier. A proclamation was at the same time issued,
giving to everyone full liberty to retire, but menacing the severest
punishment to those who should discover any symptoms of cowardice in the
ensuing battle. Lord Falconberg was sent to recover the post which had
been lost. He passed the river some miles above Ferrybridge, and, falling
unexpectedly on Lord Clifford, revenged the former disaster by the defeat
of the party and the death of their leader.
The hostile armies met at Touton, and a fierce and bloody battle ensued.
While the Yorkists were advancing to the charge, there happened a great
fall of snow, which, driving full in the faces of their enemies,
blinded them; and this advantage was improved by a stratagem of Lord
Falconberg's. That nobleman ordered some infantry to advance before the
line, and, after having sent a volley of flight arrows (as they were
called) amid the enemy, immediately to retire. The Lancastrians,
imagining that they were gotten within reach of the opposite army,
discharged all their arrows, which thus fell short of the Yorkists. After
the quivers of the enemy were emptied, Edward advanced his line and did
execution with impunity on the dismayed Lancastrians. The bow, however,
was soon laid aside, and the sword decided the combat, which ended in a
total victory on the side of the Yorkists. Edward issued orders to give
no quarter. The routed army was pursued to Tadcaster with great bloodshed
and confusion, and above thirty-six thousand men are computed to have
fallen in the battle and pursuit. Henry and Margaret had remained at York
during the action; but, learning the defeat of their army, they fled into
Scotland.
Scotland had never exerted itself to take advantage either of the wars
which England carried on with France or of the civil commotions between
the contending families. James I avoided all hostilities with foreign
nations. After the murder of that excellent Prince, the minority of
his son and successor, James II, and the distractions incident to it,
retained the Scots in the same state of neutrality. But when the quarrel
commenced between the houses of York and Lancaster, and became absolutely
incurable but by the total extinction of one party, James, who had now
risen to man's estate, was tempted to seize the opportunity, and he
endeavored to recover those places which the English had formerly
conquered from his ancestors. He laid siege to the castle of Roxburghe in
1460, and had provided himself with a small train of artillery for that
enterprise; but his cannon was so ill-framed that one of them burst as he
was firing it, and put an end to his life in the flower of his age.
His son and successor, James III, was also a minor on his accession; the
usual distractions ensued in the government: the Queen Dowager, Anne
of Gueldres, aspired to the regency; the family of Douglas opposed her
pretensions; and Queen Margaret, when she fled into Scotland, found there
a people little less divided by faction than those by whom she had been
expelled. Though she pleaded the connections between the royal family
of Scotland and the house of Lancaster, she could engage the Scottish
council to go no further than to express their good wishes in her favor;
but on her offer to deliver to them immediately the important fortress of
Berwick, and to contract her son in marriage with a sister of King James,
she found a better reception; and the Scots promised the assistance of
their arms to reinstate her family upon the throne. But Edward did not
pursue the fugitive King and Queen into their retreat; he returned to
London, where a parliament was summoned for settling the government.
On the meeting of this assembly, Edward found the good effects of his
vigorous measure in assuming the crown, as well as of his victory at
Touton, by which he had secured it. The parliament no longer hesitated
between the two families, or proposed any of those ambiguous decisions
which could only serve to perpetuate and to inflame the animosities
of party. They recognized the title of Edward, by hereditary descent,
through the family of Mortimer, and declared that he was king by right,
from the death of his father, who had also the same lawful title; and
that he was in possession of the crown from the day that he assumed the
government, tendered to him by the acclamations of the people. They
reinstated the King in all the possessions which had belonged to the
crown at the pretended deposition of Richard II.