SOCIAL LIFE
The Contract-tablets.--We have learnt a great deal about the social
life of Babylonia and Assyria from the contract-tablets which have been
found in enormous numbers in Babylonia. A few have also come from the
library of Nineveh, relating for the most part to the sale and lease of
house property. Some of them have Aramaic dockets attached to them,
giving the names of the persons mentioned in the contract and the
nature of its contents. These dockets serve to verify the method of
cuneiform decipherment, and are an indication that in the time of
Tiglath-pileser III and his successors Aramaic was the common language
of trade.
Some of the Babylonian contract-tablets go back to the time of
Khammurabi and his dynasty, and are in Sumerian. But the larger number
are of much later date, and extend from the reign of Kandalanu, the
predecessor of Nabopolassar, to that of Xerxes. For many years we have
a continuous series of documents dated month by month in each year. A
contract-tablet was often enclosed in an envelope of clay, on which its
principal contents were inscribed. They were kept in large jars which
answered to our modern safes.
Married Life.--From the contracts relating to matrimony we learn that
polygamy was very rare, and that the wife enjoyed a considerable amount
of independence. The dowry she brought with her on marriage had to be
restored to her in case of divorce. Moreover the woman could act apart
from her husband, entering into partnership, trading with her money and
conducting law-suits in her own name. In B.C. 555 we find a father
transferring all his property to his daughter, and reserving only the
use of it during the rest of his life. On the other hand wives, like
concubines, could sometimes be purchased, though in this case if the
husband married again he stipulated that he would send his first wife
back to her home along with a certain sum of money. Children could be
adopted, and there was the utmost freedom as regards the devolution of
property, which could be 'tied up' by will.
Burial.--The dead were buried after complete or partial cremation. With
the exception of the kings they were interred in cemeteries outside the
towns, tombs and tombstones being erected over them, with rivulets,
which symbolized 'the water of life,' flowing at their side.
Slavery.--Slavery was an ancient institution, but the slave was
protected by law as far back as the Sumerian period. In later times he
could even appear as party to a suit, and could recover his freedom by
manumission, by purchase, by proving that he had been unlawfully
enslaved, or by his adoption into the family of a citizen. Slaves could
be impressed into the royal service, so that in selling a slave it was
usual to stipulate that the seller should be responsible for any
trouble arising from such a cause. Poor parents sometimes sold their
children into slavery, and the Sumerian law ordered a son who denied
his father to be shorn and sold as a slave.
Lowness of Wages.--Few persons were so poor as not to be able to keep
one slave at least. But the existence of slavery caused wages to be
low, and lowered the character and position of the free labourer. Thus
we find that a skilled labourer, like a coppersmith, received only six
_qas_ (about 8-1/2 quarts) of flour for overlaying a chariot with a
lining of copper, and that only 1_s._ 6_d._ was paid for painting the
stucco of a wall.
Property.--The tenure of a farm was of various kinds. Sometimes the
property belonged half to the landlord, half to the tenant, the tenant
doing all the work and handing the landlord's half of the produce to
his agent. Sometimes while the tenant gave his work, the landlord
provided him with carts, oxen, and other necessaries. At other times
the tenant received only a third, a fourth, or even a tenth of the
produce, besides paying a fixed rent of two-thirds of the dates
gathered from the palms on the estate. The landlord could dismiss the
tenant, who was also required to build the farm house if one did not
already exist.
When house property or land was let or sold it was minutely described,
and numerous witnesses to the deed of sale or lease were required. The
length of the lease as well as the rent had to be stated, any
transgression of the terms of the lease being punished with a severe
fine. The tenant had to return the property in the state in which he
found it. The rent of course depended on the size and value of the
property, and could be paid half-yearly as well as three times a year.
Houses, further, might be bought and sold through the intervention of
an agent.
Taxes.--Taxation was probably heavy. In the time of Sennacherib,
Nineveh had to pay the treasury 30 talents a year, while Carchemish
was assessed at 100 talents. Taxes were also levied in kind, and there
was an _octroi_ duty upon goods entering the town. The metal,--gold,
silver, and bronze,--was measured out by weight, a coinage not making
its appearance until late in Babylonian history, though, as in Egypt,
rings of gold or silver, which took the place of coins, were used at
an early time.
Prices.--The value of grain and dates necessarily varied from time to
time. Under Nebuchadrezzar, the quart of sesame cost a little over a
penny, in the twelfth year of Nabonidos it was a little less than
1-1/2_d._ In the seventh year of Nebuchadrezzar dates were about a
halfpenny a quart, in his thirty-eighth year the quart was only 1/25
of a penny. In the reign of Cambyses a quart of corn cost 2-1/2_d._
The prices of other things were higher. In the reign of Darius a lady
sold 200 sheep for L135, in that of Nebuchadrezzar an ox, sacrificed
in the temple of the Sun-god at Sippara, cost L2. We hear of asses
sold for L7 10_s._, and L2, and of five casks of wine purchased for L1
10_s._
Usury.--Deeds of partnership are common; so also are deeds relating
to money-lending. The usurer, in fact, was a prominent person in the
trading community of Babylonia. Under Nebuchadrezzar and his successors
the usual rate of interest was 20 per cent., the interest being paid
each month, though we also hear of 13-1/3 per cent. In concluding a
bargain, it was usually stipulated that if the money were not paid by a
specified date, interest should be paid upon it until it was paid in
full.
The Army.--By the side of the commercial class stood a numerous body
of military and civil officials. At the head of the Assyrian army was
the Tartan (_turtannu_) or Commander-in-chief, and under him came a
large staff of officers. The army itself was highly organized. In
addition to the infantry and cavalry there were numerous chariots, in
one of which the king rode when he commanded in person. In the time of
Tiglath-pileser III, saddles, leathern drawers, and high boots were
introduced for the cavalry, and a corps of slingers and pioneers was
created by Sennacherib. The infantry were divided into heavy-armed and
light-armed, many of the heavy-armed wearing coats of mail formed of
metal scales sewn to a leather shirt. Helmets were largely used, as
well as shields. The army carried with it on the march various engines
for attacking the walls of a town--battering-rams, ladders, crow-bars,
and the like--as well as tents. The royal tent was accompanied by a
cooking and a dining-tent, and was elaborately furnished. We learn
from the contract-tablets, that in the reign of Nabonidos, rather more
than 2-1/2 bushels of wheat were furnished to each of the bowmen,
while 54 _qas_ (75 quarts) of beer were provided on a particular day,
'for the troops which had marched from Babylon.'
Navy.--A fleet was kept in Babylonia, and the king had a State-barge on
the Euphrates. The Assyrians, however, were not a naval people, and the
biremes, employed by Sennacherib when he attacked the Chaldaean colony
in the Persian Gulf, were built and manned by Phoenicians.
The Bureaucracy.--The prefects or satraps of the Assyrian provinces
and subject cities were appointed by the king, like the military
officers, and were responsible to him. A certain number of them were
eligible for the post of _limmu_, or eponym, after whom the year was
named--an honour which they shared with the monarch. The office does
not appear to have existed in Babylonia.
Among the tablets which have come from the library of Nineveh are some
which contain long lists of Assyrian officials. They were a very
numerous body, but we need mention only the Rab-shakeh (_Rab-saki_),
'chief of the princes,' or Vizier, the Rab-saris (_Rab-sa-resi_) or
'chief of the nobles,' and the Rab-mag (_Rab-mugi_) or 'chief
physician.' The identification of the two last is due to Mr. Pinches.
The priests and judges have already been alluded to, as also the clerks
or scribes, many of whom, at least in Babylonia, were also priests.
Poets and musicians were attached to the court, and we hear of a grant
of land being made to a court-poet, in Babylonia, for some verses in
which he had doubtless flattered the king. Society, in short, was
highly organized, and the principle of a subdivision of labour was
fully understood.
In one important respect, however, the basis upon which society rested
in Babylonia and in Assyria was different. The government of Babylonia
was theocratic, that of Assyria was military. While Assyria with its
bureaucratic centralization is an anticipation of imperial Rome,
Babylonia with its theocratic constitution is an anticipation of papal
Rome. The king was the adopted son of Bel, and his right to rule was
based on the fact that Bel, the true lord and ruler of the State, had
delegated to him his power.
APPENDIX
ASSYRIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
60 Uban ('fingers') 1 Ammat ('cubit').
6 Ammat 1 Qanu ('reed').
2 Qanu 1 Gar.
60 Gar 1 Sussu ('soss').
30 Sussi 1 Kaspu.
MEASURES OF CAPACITY[6].
10 GAR[7] 1 QA.
27 QA 1 AP.
36 QA 1 PI (or Persian Ardeb).
60 QA 1 Homer.
3 Homers (or 5 Ardebs) 1 GUR (about 250 quarts).
[6] As determined by Dr. Oppert.
[7] Capitals denote that the Semitic pronunciation of the
ideograph is unknown.
MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND COINAGE.
60 Shekels 1 Silver Mana ('Mina') = L9.
60 Silver Manas 1 Silver Talent.
60 Gold Manas 1 Gold Talent (L8400).
The silver shekel was worth about 3_s._
THE MONTHS OF THE YEAR.
Assyrian Name. Sumerian Name.
Zodiacal Sign. Corresponding Months.
(1) Nisannu (Nisan) Month of 'the dweller in the Asherah[8]
Aries March-April.
(2) Aaru (Iyyar) 'The directing bull'
Taurus April-May.
(3) Sivanu (Sivan) 'Bricks' (?)
Gemini May-June.
(4) Duzu (Tammuz) 'The growth of seed'
Cancer June-July.
(5) Abu (Ab) 'The fiery-hot'
Leo July-August.
(6) Ululu (Elul) 'The message of Istar'
Virgo August-September.
(7) Tasritu (Tisri) 'The holy mound'
Libra September-October.
(8) Arakh-savna 'Opposite the foundation (of the year)
(Marchesvan, 'the eighth month')
Scorpio October-November.
(9) Kisilivu (Chisleu) 'The cloudy'
Sagittarius November-December.
(10) Dhabitu (Tebet) 'The cave of the dawn' (?)
Capricornus December-January.
(11) Sabadhu (Sebat) 'The curse of rain'
Aquarius January-February.
(12) Addaru (Adar) The month of 'cultivation'
Pisces February-March.
(13) Arakh-makhru (Ve-Adar), the intercalary month.
[8] _Zaggara_, rendered by the Semitic _bit ili_ (Beth-el),
'house of God,' as well as by _asirtu_, 'the symbol of the
goddess Asherah' (mistranslated 'grove' in the Authorized
Version of the Old Testament).
BABYLONIAN KINGS.
B.C.
Sargon of Akkad 3800
Naram-Sin his son 3700
(1) The Dynasty of Babylon: 11 kings for 304 years 2478-2174
The sixth king of the dynasty was Khammurabi 2356-2301
(2) The Dynasty of Lagas: 11 kings for 368 years 2174-1806
(3) The Kassite Dynasty: 36 kings for 576 years 9 months 1806-1229
Among the kings of this dynasty were Burna-buryas (cir. B.C. 1420),
the contemporary of the Egyptian Pharaohs Amenophis III and Amenophis
IV, and Kuri-galzu (cir. B.C. 1400).
The last six kings were:
Rimmon-nadin-suma 1297
Conquest of Babylon by Tiglath-Uras of Assyria 1291
Expulsion of the Assyrians; Rimmon-suma-natsir king 1284
Meli-sipak 1261
Merodach-baladan I 1246
Zamama-nadin-sumi 1233
Bel-suma-nadin 1232
(4) The Dynasty of Isin: 11 kings for 72 years 6 months 1229-1156
(5) The Dynasty of the Sea-coast: 3 kings for
21 years 5 months 1156-1135
(6) The Dynasty of Bit-Bazi: 3 kings for
20 years 3 months 1135-1115
(7) An Elamite usurper for 6 years 1115-1109
(8) The 31 [kings] of the Dynasty of Babylon[9] 1109- 730
Among them were:
Nebuchadrezzar I 1109-1096
Merodach-nadin-akhi 1096-1090
Merodach-sapik-zirrat cir. 1075
Nebo-baladan cir. 880
Merodach-balasu-iqbi cir. 820
Nabu-natsir (Nabonassar) 747
Nabu-nadin-ziri (Nadios) his son 733
Nabu-suma-yukin his son 731
(9) The Dynasty of Sape: Yukin-zira (Chinziros) 730
(10) The Assyrian Dynasties:
Pulu (Pul, Poros), called Tiglath-pileser III in Assyria 727
Ulula, called Shalmaneser IV in Assyria 725
Merodach-baladan II, the Chaldaean from the Sea-coast 721
Sargon of Assyria 709
Sennacherib his son 704
Merodach-zakir-sumi for 1 month 702
Merodach-baladan III for six months 702
Bel-ebus of Babylon 702
Assur-nadin-suma son of Sennacherib 700
Nergal-yusezib 694
Musezib-Merodach 693
Sennacherib a second time 689
Esar-haddon his son 681
Samas-suma-yukin (Saosduchinos) 668
Kandalanu (Kineladanos) 648
Nabu-pal-utsur (Nabopolassar) 626
Nabu-kudurri-utsar (Nebuchadrezzar) his son 605
Evil-Merodach his son 562
Nergal-sarra-utsur (Nergalsharezer) 560
Laborosoarchod, his son, for 3 months 556
Nabu-nahid (Nabonidos) 556
Cyrus conquers Babylon 538
Cambyses his son 529
Gomates (Gaumata) the Magian (the pseudo-Bardes or Smerdis) 521
Dareios (Darayavaush) the son of Hystaspes (Vishtaspa) 521
Xerxes I (Khshayarsha) his son 485
Samas-erba, rebel-king 480
Xerxes restored 479
Artaxerxes I (Artakshatra) Longimanus his son 465
Xerxes II, his son, for two months 425
Sogdianos, his half-brother, for seven months 425
Dareios II, Nothos (or Okhos) his brother 424
Artaxerxes II (Mnemon) his son 405
Okhos (Uvasu) the son of Artaxerxes 362
Arses his son 339
Dareios III, Kodomannos 336
Conquered by Alexander the Great 330
[9] The fracture of the tablet makes the arrangement of this
Dynasty not absolutely certain.
ASSYRIAN KINGS.
Sargon asserts he was preceded by 330 Assyrian kings.
HIGH PRIESTS OF ASSUR.
B.C.
Isme-Dagon cir. 1850
Samas-Rimmon I his son 1820
Igur-Kapkapu ?
Samas-Rimmon II his brother ?
Khallu ?
Irisum his son ?
KINGS OF ASSYRIA.
B.C.
Bel-Kapkapu 'the founder of the monarchy' ?
Ada'si ?
Bel-basi his son ?
Assur-bil-nisi-su, cir. 1450
Buzur-Assur, 1440
Assur-nadin-akhi, 1420
Assur-yuballidh his son, 1400
Bel-nirari his son, 1380
Pudilu (Pedael) his son, 1360
Rimmon-nirari I his son, 1340
Shalmaneser I his son (founder of Calah), 1320
Tiglath-Uras I his son, 1300
Assur-natsir-pal I his son, 1280
Assur-narara, 1270
Nebo-dan his son, 1265
Bel-kudurri-utsur, 1230
Uras-pileser, 1215
Assur-dan I his son, 1185
Mutaggil-Nebo his son, 1160
Assur-ris-ilim his son, 1140
Tiglath-pileser I his son, 1115
Assur-bil-kala his son, 1090
Samas-Rimmon I his brother, 1070
Assur-irbi ?
Tiglath-pileser II, 950
Assur-dan II his son, 930
Rimmon-nirari II his son, B.C. 911
Tiglath-Uras II his son, 889
Assur-natsir-pal II his son, 883
Shalmaneser II his son 858
Assur-dain-pal (Sardanapallos), rebel-king 825
Samas-Rimmon II his brother 823
Rimmon-nirari III his son 810
Shalmaneser III 781
Assur-dan III 771
Assur-nirari 753
Tiglath-pileser III, Pulu (Pul, Poros), usurper 745
Shalmaneser IV, Ulula, usurper 727
Sargon usurper 722
Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-erba) his son 705
Esar-haddon I (Assur-akhi-iddina) his son 681
Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapallos) his son 668
Assur-etil-ilani-yukinni his son ?
Sin-sarra-iskun (Sarakos) ?
Destruction of Nineveh 606
SYNCHRONISMS BETWEEN ASSYRIAN AND BIBLICAL HISTORY.
B.C.
Battle of Qarqar; Shalmaneser II defeats Hadadezer of
Damascus, Ahab of Israel, &c. 853
Campaigns against Hadadezer of Damascus 850-845
Campaign against Hazael of Damascus; tribute paid
to Shalmaneser by Jehu 'the son of Omri' 41
Damascus captured by Rimmon-nirari III; tribute paid
by Samaria 804
Pul, who takes the name of Tiglath-pileser III, usurps
the throne, April 745
War with Hamath; submission of Uzziah; fall of Arpad 843-840
Tribute paid to Tiglath-pileser (Pul) by Menahem of
Samaria and Rezon of Damascus 738
Damascus besieged; the tribes beyond the Jordan carried
away; Jehoahaz (Ahaz) of Judah becomes an Assyrian vassal 734
Pekah put to death; Hosea succeeds 733 (? 729)
Damascus captured; Rezon slain; Ahaz at Damascus 732
Capture of Samaria by Sargon 722
Embassy of Merodach-baladan to Hezekiah 712
Capture of Ashdod by the Assyrians 711
Campaign of Sennacherib against Judah 701
Murder of Sennacherib 681
Manasseh of Judah tributary to Esar-haddon 676
Destruction of Thebes (No-Amon) in Egypt by the Assyrians 665
Babylonian invasion of Egypt 567
THE PRINCIPAL DEITIES OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.
Arm (Sumerian Ana), the sky-god of Erech, and wife Anat.
Bel the elder (Sum. Mul-lil or El-lil), the earth-god of Nipur,
and wife Beltis.
Ea, the water-god of Eridu, and wife Dav-kina.
Bel-Merodach (Maruduk) of Babylon, the son of Ea, and wife Zarpanit.
Istar, the goddess of the evening-star, the daughter of Sin.
Sin, the Moon-god of Ur, the son of Bel of Nipur.
Samas, the Sun-god, the son of Sin; also called A.
Rimmon (Rammanu) or Barqu (Sum. Mer), the air-god.
Uras[10], the warrior-god of Nipur, the minister of the elder Bel.
Nebo (Nabu), 'the prophet' of Borsippa, the minister of Merodach.
Tasmit, 'the hearer,' the wife of Nebo.
Nusku, a Sumerian deity identified with Nebo.
Nergal, the warrior-god of Kutha.
Assur, the national-god of Assyria.
[10] The reading of the name of this god is doubtful. It has
been variously transcribed Bar, Nin-ip, and Adar, the last of
which, however, is certainly wrong.
Oxford
HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
End of Project Gutenberg's A Primer of Assyriology, by Archibald Henry Sayce