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Early Typography.
PRINTED AT COLOMBO,
BY WILLIAM SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER,
CEYLON.
EARLY TYPOGRAPHY.
BY
WILLIAM SKEEN.
COLOMBO: CEYLON.
1872.
The accumulation of materials in the writer’s hands in the course of
the last twelve months, has induced him to depart from his original
intention of limiting his labours to a single book. A sketch of the
history of the spread of the Art, after the sack of Mentz in 1462,
with notices of the most material improvements and recent inventions
connected with it, will, consequently, form the subjects of a separate
volume. It only remains for him now thankfully to acknowledge his
obligations to Mrs. J. Ferguson, and Messrs. Iliff, Ronald, and Paatz,
of Colombo, for their most kindly rendered assistance, by which he has
been enabled to complete this portion of his work much earlier than he
otherwise could have done.
_January_ 20, 1872.
INVENTORS of the Art Sublime
Which Knowledge spreads thro’ every clime;
Who far the fabled god excell’d,
Prometheus, from heaven expell’d.
Material fire _he_ brought to earth,
_They_ flames of a diviner birth
Drew from the seven-fold source of light
Seen in the Patmos vision bright,
When, the celestial portals raised,
Man, on the Godhead’s glories gazed.
Majestic Truth they thus reveal’d,
By powers of Darkness long conceal’d;
Ope’d Freedom’s doors to fetter’d Thought
And forces into conflict brought--
Mind against mind--an eager fray
That shall not cease till Time’s last day;
That keener as the contest grows,
Truth greater, purer, mightier shews.
Thus Knowledge each successive age
Advances, wins an onward stage,
And gathers in one focus bright
Each fresh struck spark, each ray of light,
And clears the mists that still are found
Historic names and deeds around.
This light, that truth reveals, t’ impart,
I seek, Disciple of the Art;
That to the famed Teutonic three
Just meeds of praise may given be;
That all aright the men may know
To whom TYPOGRAPHY we owe;
The men whose names immortal ring,
Whose gifts transcendent blessings bring,
Whose monuments in every land
By wisdom rear’d, heart-honor’d stand,
Inscribed in tongues of every clime--
“INVENTORS OF THE ART SUBLIME!”
W. S.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
PREFACE 9
CHAPTER I.--Introductory.--Letter-press Printing the
“Divine and Noble” Art--why so termed.--Freedom
of the Press--where first proclaimed.--Printing
known in China from time immemorial.--Method of
Chinese Printing.--Bibliography and Palæotypography. 11
CHAPTER II.--Date of the Origin of Typography in
Europe.--Alleged Early Engravings.--Playing
Cards.--Block-books.--Mr. F. Holt’s Hypothesis.--Evidence
of Costume.--German “Brief-malers.”--Decree of Government
of Venice.--State of Europe in the Middle Ages.--Cultivation
of Classical Literature at the close of the Fourteenth and
commencement of the Fifteenth Century. 35
CHAPTER III.--John Gutenberg.--First attempts at
Typography in Strasburg.--Difficulties.--Invention of
the Press.--Lawsuit.--Return to Mentz.--Connection
with Faust.--Success.--Mazarin Bible the first Book
printed from Separable Metal Types.--Second
Lawsuit.--Forfeiture of Plant to Faust.--Peter
Schœffer.--Invention of Type-founding.--Faust and
Schœffer.--The Gutenberg “Printing-house.”--Gutenberg
attached to the Court of the Elector of Mentz.--His
Death. 68
CHAPTER IV.--The claims of Coster and Haarlem considered,
as opposed to those of Gutenberg and Mentz.--Claims
based upon Tradition.--No Contemporary Authorities in
their favor.--Abundance of such testimony in favor of
Gutenberg and Mentz.--Probable Origin of
Tradition.--Block-books.--Speculum Humanæ
Salvationis.--Evidence of the Types: wood or metal;
cut or cast?--Books “Jettez en molle.”--Age of the
Paper.--Date of Costume.--Fraternity of Brethren and
Clerks of the Common Life. 201
CHAPTER V.--The works of Faust and Schœffer.--Legend
of the Printer’s Devil.--Monuments in Germany to
Gutenberg, Faust and Schœffer.--Separable Letters
first invented in China.--Characteristics of Ancient
Printed Books.--The “Composing-stick” and
“Setting-rule.”--Early Bindings. 349
APPENDIX.
I.--Account of the Origin of Printing, by J. F. Faust of
Aschaffenberg 393
II.------------------------------by Hadrian Junius 404
III.--Dr. Van Der Linde’s Haarlem-Coster-Legend 408
IV.--Cut Wooden, _versus_ Cast Metal Types 415
ERRATA 424
PREFACE.
The germ of the present work was a Lecture delivered by the writer
before the Members of the Colombo Athenæum, on the 24th February 1853.
That Lecture was fully reported at the time in the _Colombo Observer_,
and a few copies were subsequently printed for private distribution.
These having been disposed of, the writer’s attention was directed
to the preparation of a more extended essay upon the subject. The
result of his labours is now submitted to the public. The work makes
no pretension to the character of an exhaustive treatise; it is, in
fact, but little more than a broad outline of the subject which it
ventures to describe; but it is hoped, that a fresh interest may have
been imparted to some of the topics touched upon, and that they will
be found placed in a light which, if not wholly new, is at any rate
somewhat clearer than that in which they have hitherto been exhibited.
W. S.
_Colombo, Ceylon,
April_ 29, 1871.
Early Typography.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.--LETTER-PRESS PRINTING THE “DIVINE AND
NOBLE” ART--WHY SO TERMED.--FREEDOM OF THE PRESS--WHERE
FIRST PROCLAIMED.--PRINTING KNOWN IN CHINA FROM TIME
IMMEMORIAL.--METHOD OF CHINESE PRINTING.--BIBLIOGRAPHY AND
PALÆOTYPOGRAPHY.
Printing is the art of producing copies of engraved writings or designs,
by pressure, either upon the inked surfaces of characters raised in
relief, or on metal plates, the upper surfaces of which are polished,
and the sunk engravings charged with colour. The most important, if not
the oldest branch of this art, is that of ~TYPOGRAPHY~, or LETTER-PRESS
PRINTING. To this Art, as it was invented and perfected in Europe in the
Fifteenth century, the epithets DIVINE and NOBLE have not untruly been
applied.
It is Noble, not merely because it is one of those arts or professions,
the practice of which was permitted to the nobility of the German
Empire, but because it is the nurse and preserver of all other arts and
sciences; and is unquestionably the most important as well as the most
beneficial invention the world has ever seen. It is the disseminator
of every other discovery; the commemorator of all other inventions:
it hands down to posterity every important event; immortalizes the
actions of the great and good; and requires, moreover, in all who would
thoroughly excel in its practice, the highest attainable combination of
mental alacrity, educated intelligence, and expert manual dexterity.
It is Divine, inasmuch as it is one of the grand instruments in the
hands of Providence for the regeneration of fallen humanity. By it
the mightiest movement the world has ever seen since the days when
the Apostolic Twelve went about “turning it upside down,”--the Great
Reformation of the Sixteenth century,--was mainly effected. Without
it the Word of God could not have been diffused, as it has been, is
being, and will continue to be, to every nation and tribe and people
and tongue throughout the world: while but for it England and the
Anglo-Saxon race, who owe it so much for the stability and uniformity
it gave to their language,[1] would never have attained their present
proud pre-eminence amongst the nations of the earth.
Religion, Arts, Sciences, Commerce, and Civilization, have had the
greatest scope, and been most fully developed, wherever the Press has
been the least restricted. Its free action is as necessary to the
well being of a State, as the free action of the lungs is to the well
being of the human body. This is well illustrated in the history of
unhappy Poland, where the Liberty of the Press was first proclaimed in
the Sixteenth century. But the narrow-minded bigots who succeeded the
monarch who proclaimed it, beheld in it a portent foreboding evil to
themselves; and they not only speedily abrogated it, but followed up
that step with measures destructive of the most cherished privileges
of the Polish nation.[2] The result was fatal, as well to the country
as to the kings who misruled it. Corrupted, crushed, enslaved,--every
vent for the expression of patriotic feeling choked up,--and the voice
of the people stifled by the stern gripe of the strong hand of the
despot,--the doom went forth, and the record against her was written as
against Great Babylon of old,--“MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN.” “God hath
numbered thy kingdom and finished it. Thou art weighed in the balances
and found wanting. Thy kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and
Persians.”
The Freedom of the Press is the birthright of the Anglo-Saxon
race,--the hard-won palladium of all other rights; and yet, while there
are few amongst that race who do not rightly appreciate the blessings
flowing therefrom, the great majority are ignorant of the origin or
the history of the Art, the privileges of which they so highly prize,
and over which, with watchful jealousy, they guard against every thing
that bears the semblance of encroachment. This ignorance is doubtless,
in the main, owing to the expensive nature and technical character
of many of the works in which such information has been published.
These works, forming of themselves a distinct class of literature,
are neither few in number, nor wanting in interest. Some of the more
important are indeed hardly procurable; and in the far East, where
works of the kind must be imported for individual use, writing upon
special subjects of European lore is beset with difficulties from
which authors in the mother country are happily relieved.[3] Acting
however, on the maxim of Lord Bacon, “that every man is a debtor
to his profession, from the which as men do, of course, seek to
receive countenance and profit, so ought they, of duty, to endeavour
themselves by way of amends to be a help thereunto,” I have spared no
pains in this endeavour; and am not without hope of imparting to my
readers some interesting particulars concerning the origin and history
of the Noble Art
“That stamps, renews, and multiplies at will,
And cheaply circulates through distant climes
The fairest relics of the purest times,”--
thus creating “a moral atmosphere which is, as it were, the medium of
intellectual life, on the quality of which, according as it may be
salubrious or vicious, the health of the public mind depends.”[4]
* * * * *
Printing from surfaces of wood, engraved in relief, is an art which
appears to have been known in China from time immemorial. Its origin
there is hidden in the obscurity of bye-gone ages: it may have
been practised by the Chinese from the very commencement of their
empire;[5] or the idea may have been derived at a later period
from blotting-paper impressions of writings, or from tracings or
rubbings of inscriptions, which travellers from ‘the flowery land’
may have taken, in foreign countries, on sheets of paper, such as
are known to have been manufactured in China from times of a very
remote antiquity, and which are to this day better adapted for such
purposes than any papers elsewhere made. Such rubbings, forming a
kind of papier-mâché castings,[6] would naturally suggest, not only
the idea of stereo-blocks, whereon writings in reversed characters
could be engraved in relief, but also the mode of printing, which,
to the present day, prevails throughout the Chinese empire. With the
fact before us, that the Chinese were, up to a certain period in
their history, far ahead of all other nations, not even excepting the
Egyptians, in the development of inventions which could only be the
product of an advanced state of civilization, it is not unreasonable to
conclude, (especially in the absence of positive information to help us
in our researches), that the art of printing from blocks originated in
China in the manner above stated. Whether such were the case or not, Du
Halde, in order to establish its great antiquity, cites the following
proverb, quoted by an old author as written by the Emperor Van Vong,
who flourished 1120 years before Christ--“As the stone Me (a word
signifying ink in the Chinese language) which is used to blacken the
engraved characters, can never become white, so a heart blackened with
vices, will always retain its blackness.” This quotation, however, not
being very conclusive on the subject, he fixes the invention at fifty
years before the Christian era.
Father Couplet, Klaproth, and others, ascribe it to a much later date.
“Under the reign of Mint-song,” writes Klaproth, “in the second of
the years Tchang-hing (932) the ministers Fong-tao and Li-yu proposed
to the Academy Koue-tseu-kien to review the nine king or canonical
books, and to have them engraved upon blocks of wood, that they might
be printed and sold. The emperor adopted the advice; but it was only
in the second of the years Kouan-chun (952) that the engraving of the
blocks was completed. They were then distributed and circulated in all
the cantons of the empire.”
But that the art was known and practised by the Chinese at a period
still more remote, we learn from the 39th volume of the Chinese
Encyclopædia, where we are informed, that on the eighth day of the
twelfth month of the thirteenth year of the reign of Wen-ti, founder
of the Souï dynasty (593) it was ordered by a decree to collect the
worn out drawings and inedited texts, and to engrave them on wood and
publish them. This fact is confirmed by various Chinese writings; and
this, continues the work quoted, was the commencement of printing upon
wooden blocks. Under the Thang dynasty, from 618 to 907, it grew much
into use; made still greater progress during the five lesser dynasties,
from 907 to 960; and reached its perfection and greatest development
between 960 and 1278. But as block-printing was only for the first time
imperially ordered in the year 593, it is very probable that the art
was known long before that date. Had it _then_ been a new invention,
something surely would have been said about its origin and author.
The following particulars relative to Chinese printing are given by Du
Halde.
[Illustration: 西秦原本]
“The work intended to be printed is transcribed by a careful writer
upon thin transparent paper: the engraver glues each of these written
sheets, with its face downwards, upon a smooth tablet of pear or
apple tree, or some other hard wood; and then with gravers and other
instruments, he cuts the wood away in all those parts upon which he
finds nothing traced [as in the fac-simile[7] in the margin]; thus
leaving the reversed characters ready for printing.... When once the
blocks are engraved, the paper is cut, and the ink is ready, one man
with his brush can, without fatigue, print ten thousand sheets in a
day. The block to be printed must be placed level, and firmly fixed.
The man must have two brushes; one of them of a stiffer kind, which he
can hold in his hand, and use at either end. He dips this into the ink,
and rubs the block with it; taking care not to wet it too much, nor to
leave it too dry.... The second brush is used to rub over the paper
with a small degree of pressure, that it may take the impression: this
it does easily, for not being sized with alum, it receives the ink the
instant it comes in contact with it. It is only necessary that the
brush should be passed over every part of the sheet with a greater or
smaller degree of pressure, and repeated in proportion as the printer
finds there is more or less ink upon the block.”
The number of copies which, according to Du Halde, a Chinese workman
can print in a day, is greatly exaggerated. About four thousand, or
four hundred an hour, is the utmost that the most expert workman would
be able to throw off.
To the above account it may be added, that the blocks, each containing
two pages, are frequently engraved on both sides; that the sheets
printed are small, and impressed on one side only; and that each sheet
when dry is folded back, so as to present the appearance of a leaf
impressed on both sides.
The history of printing in China, and the productions of the Chinese
press, are subjects which Oriental bibliographers have more or less
touched upon. Interesting as they are, there will probably be no
occasion to allude to them in these pages more than once again.
But the history of books in Europe, the productions of the early
printers in the various countries to which they carried their art,
is one to which our subject is most closely allied; and European
bibliography is a study to which many men of great ability have
devoted themselves during the last three centuries, in Germany,
Holland, England, Spain, France, Italy, Belgium, and other countries.
To their labours all later writers on the subject are under manifold
obligations.[8] But in attributing various undated books to one or
other of the earliest established presses, guess-work, and the bias
of national prejudice, have largely prevailed amongst even the most
painstaking of European bibliographers. This unscientific method, long
felt to be a reproach to learning and literature, has of late years
been attempted to be remedied by a more close and critical examination
of the Incunabula, or books printed in the Fifteenth century. “The
method of arranging these early books under the countries, towns, and
presses at which they were produced,” says Mr. Henry Bradshaw, the
Librarian of the University of Cambridge, “is the only one which can
really advance our knowledge of the subject. This is comparatively
easy with dated books, though there is no safeguard against the
misleading nature of an erroneous date. But the study is of little use
unless the bibliographer will be content to make such an accurate and
methodical study of the types used and habits of printing observable
at different presses, as to enable him to observe and be guided by
these characteristics in settling the date of a book which bears no
date on the surface. We do not want the _opinion_ or _dictum_ of any
bibliographer, however experienced; we desire that the types and habits
of each printer should be made a special subject of study, and those
points brought forward which shew changes or advance from year to
year, or where practicable, from month to month. When this is done, we
have to say of any dateless or falsely dated book, that it contains
such and such characteristics, and we therefore place it at such a
point of time, the time we name being merely another expression for
the characteristics we notice in the book. In fact each press must
be looked upon as a _genus_, and each book as a _species_, and our
business is to trace the more or less close connection of the different
members of the family, according to the characters which they present
to our observation.”
The study thus defined is designated Palæotypography; and concerning it
Mr. Bradshaw further says, “except Mr. Blades’s monograph of Caxton’s
press,[9] the Hague _Catalogus_[10] and _Monumens Typographiques_[11]
are the only books existing in any literature, so far as I know, which
render the study of palæotypography in any way possible upon a proper
basis. Germany, Italy, France, and Spain, are at present perfectly
impracticable fields of work, and are, I fear, likely to remain so for
some time to come.”[12]
Respecting Mr. Bradshaw’s own labours in this field of investigation,
Mr. Frederick Müller of Amsterdam, an enthusiastic bibliographer of
rare power, bears the following testimony:[13]--“Hardly anybody in
England takes an interest in foreign bibliography--the only exception
being that excellent bibliographer, Henry Bradshaw, Fellow of King’s
College, Cambridge, who is examining with great enthusiasm the
Incunabula Typographica, and who has lately arrived at most surprising
and important results in this department.... I do not know which most
to admire--the acumen of the conjectures about the places where some
of the works were printed, or the clearness with which the writer
treats several very difficult subjects.... This method of ascribing
a work solely from the appearance of the types used, he carries to
the utmost point of application.... Mr. Bradshaw is the first who
turns to advantage the excellent lessons of the French and German
bibliographers, and through him a new light will probably arise in
English bibliography.”
To the researches of Mr. Bradshaw and Mr. Blades, and to the labours of
Mr. Ottley[14] and Mr. Humphreys,[15] in their last published works, I
am greatly indebted. The interesting information they have accumulated
I have freely made use of in the preparation of this volume, although I
differ considerably from some of the conclusions which one or other of
them has arrived at.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] “The multiplication of printed books and the consequent still
greater multiplication of readers, created, what may be termed a
literary public throughout England, and when the printed copies of
a book from Caxton’s press were spread throughout this public, each
member of it used a copy that was uniform with the copies used by
all the rest. But before printing was known, and while copies of a
book could be made in manuscript only, the transcribers were apt to
introduce changes of spelling, of syntax, and of phrase, according to
the dialect of the part of the country to which each copyist belonged.
And the dialects of different parts of England differed then from each
other in a far greater degree than any amount of variation which can
at present be detected by the most zealous philologist. Moreover, each
author wrote in his own dialect, or to speak more correctly, in the
pure native English of his own part of England. Hence the diction of
an author of those times in many cases appears to us more archaic than
the diction of his contemporaries, or even of some of his predecessors.
But in proportion as men of letters became familiar in their reading
with the nearly uniform English language of printed books, they
followed or approached that uniform English in their own writings.
The language continued to receive changes by the introduction of new
words and phrases, and by the zeal for imitating Latin models, which
grew to excess in many of our prose writers not long after the close
of the Fifteenth century. Many more modifications of etymology, and
some of syntax, took place before the modern English language can be
said to have been substantially established throughout the country; but
that amount of uniform establishment never could have been effected
at all, without the intervention and the extended use of the art of
printing.”--Sir Edward S. CREASY’s _History of England_. 8vo. 1870.
vol. ii. pp. 556-7.
What the Art of Printing did in this respect for England, it likewise
did in all other countries to which it was carried, in greater or
lesser degrees, according to the amount of freedom it enjoyed, or
of restriction to which it, and the people to whom it spoke, were
subjected.
[2] _Vide_ Reformation of Poland, by Count V. KRASINSKI, 2 vols. 8vo.
_Nisbet_, 1838-40.
[3] For assistance in this matter, I am much indebted to my father, Mr.
ROBERT SKEEN, under whose able teachings I was thoroughly instructed
in, and made a master of my craft--the Art of Printing. I have also
to acknowledge, with thanks, the material aid received from Mr. H.
W. CASLON, the eminent Type-founder, as well as from my publishers,
Messrs. TRÜBNER and Co., of Paternoster Row.
[4] SOUTHEY’S “Colloquies.”
[5] A reference can scarcely be avoided, in connection with this
subject, to the exclamation of the patriarch Job (ch. xix. 23, 24),
“Oh that my words were now written! Oh that they were printed in a
book! That they were graven with an iron pen, and lead, in the rock for
ever!” The book of Job is commonly supposed to have been written either
by Moses, when residing amongst the Midianites about 1520 years before
the commencement of the Christian era, or by Elihu, one of the speakers
in the book, which would probably carry its antiquity a century and a
half or two centuries further back. The word translated ‘printed’ does
not, however, bear the meaning in the original, which is now generally
attached to it. It evidently refers to the method of inscribing records
on rolls, made of the skins of animals, for the purpose of preserving
them for the benefit of future generations, or on such other substances
as were then used for that purpose; and in the texts quoted the modes
of writing and the instruments for inscribing are expressly referred
to. Plates of metal, and prepared leaves of the talipot palm, are to
this day engraved and inscribed on, in Eastern countries, with iron
‘styles,’ for purposes of record. Books of the laws of Buddha exist on
plates of gold, as well as on the more common olas; and although we
do not know upon what material MOSES transcribed the Law, which GOD
himself commanded him to write, and to place in the side of the Ark of
the Covenant, we may be certain that it would be written on the most
imperishable, as well as the most portable of substances adapted for
such a purpose, Moses being learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,
and having for his assistants the most skilful artisans of the age.
The Ten Commandments we know were graven on tablets of stone hewn out
of the rock. From tablets such as these, and from engraved plates, as
well as from inscribed olas, copies and fac-similes might have been
easily made by a process analogous to that of copper-plate printing;
the only drawback being that in all such copies the printed characters
would have been reversed. That the Hebrews must have been familiar
with books, such as were referred to by Job, is clear. In Egypt,
during the time of their residence in that country, Public Libraries
existed:--“Over the mouldering door which led to the bibliothetical
repository of the Memnonium, said to have been built about the time
of Moses, Champollion read, written over the heads of Thoth and
Safkh, (who were the male and female deities of arts, sciences, and
literature), the remarkably appropriate titles of ‘President of the
Library,’ and ‘Lady of Letters.’” (Kitto’s _Cycl. of Bibl. Literature_,
Art. WRITING). The Egyptians probably derived their knowledge of
writing from Misraim the son of Ham, as did the Canaanites from Canaan
the brother of Misraim, from whom they were descended. There is proof
in the sculptured pictures and inscriptions in the oldest Egyptian
monuments, of about the same age as the Great Pyramid, that 2200 years
B. C., writing was an art well known at that early period. “Whatever
the employment, or whatever the produce being brought to be laid at
the prince’s feet, there were always scribes in attendance to take
down the exact amount in writing on the property rolls.” (Vide _Life
and Work at the Great Pyramid in 1865_, by C. PIAZZI SMYTH, Astronomer
Royal, Scotland; and article in _Good Words_, Part VII, 1867, by the
same author, p. 453.) When the Israelites took possession of the land
of Canaan, among other great and walled cities which they captured was
Debir, whose original name was Kirjath-sepher, or the City of Books,
or Kirjath-sannah, the City of Letters, (Joshua xv. 49; Judges i. 11).
This word “sannah” is evidently the same as “sannas,” the name given to
oblong copper-plates, on which are engraved the record of the grants
of lands, &c., made from very ancient times by the kings of Ceylon, to
temples, chiefs, and others; and which are frequently, under that name,
received in evidence in the law courts in disputes regarding landed
property. They are, in fact, the title-deeds under which most of the
Sin̥halese gentry of ancient family hold their estates. These royal
grants are sometimes on plates of silver, and occasionally cut in the
solid rock or on massive stone tablets.
[6] Plaster casts of inscriptions might also have suggested the same
idea. The use of plaster, for the purposes of inscriptions, dates back
to a very ancient era. It seems to have been as old as the art of
writing itself. We learn from the book of Deuteronomy (xxvii. 2-4),
that while the Children of Israel were yet wandering in the desert,
after their exodus from Egypt, it was ordained, that when they had
passed into Canaan,--the land which should be given them,--great
stones, plaistered over with plaister, should be set up, on which
stones should be written “very plainly” all the words of the law.
[7] “Sy-chong-n̥gén-pon,” the name of a Chinese Song-book.
[8] The following alphabetical list includes the most distinguished of
these writers:--Andrès, Antonio, Baillet, Bayle, Blount, Bouterwek,
Brucker, Brunet, Buhle, Chalmers, Collier, Corniani, De Bure, De Vries,
Dibdin, Ebert, Eichhorn, Falkenstein, Fischer, Foppens, Frere, Gesner,
Ginguéné, Goujet, Graesse, Greswell, Hallam, Hain, Heeren, Horne,
Kästner, Mallinckrot, Maittaire, Maitland, Meiners, Mendez, Montucla,
Naudé, Niceron, Panzer, Portal, Santander, Sismondi, Sprengel, Sotheby,
Tennemann, Tiraboschi, Vanderhaeghen, Van der Meersch, Van Iseghem, Van
Praet, Watt, Wolf, Würdtwein, Zapf.
[9] The Life and Typography of William Caxton, by WILLIAM BLADES. 2
vols. 4to. with 57 fac-simile illustrations. _London_, 1861-63.
[10] Catalogus Librorum Sæc. XVI. impressorum, in Bibliotheca Regia
Haganâ asservatorum, 8vo. _Hagae_, 1856.
[11] Monumens Typographiques des Pays Bas au XVe Siècle, 20
livraisons, imp. 4to. 120 plates of fac-similes. _La Haye_, 1857-66. Of
this magnificent work only 200 copies were printed.
[12] Classified Index of Fifteenth Century Books in the Collection of
the late M. J. de Meyer of Ghent. 8vo. _London_, 1870. pp. 15-16.
[13] TRÜBNER’S American and Oriental Literary Record, July, 1870.
[14] Inquiry concerning the Invention of Printing, by W. Y. OTTLEY.
4to. 37 plates, and other engravings. _London_, 1863.
[15] A History of the Art of Printing: Its Invention and Progress to
the Middle of the Sixteenth Century, by H. Noel HUMPHREYS. imp. 4to.
105 photo-lithographic fac-similes. _London_, 1869.
Early Typography.