weak solution of aquafortis, half an ounce to the pint, and then
finish with the following:--Put four ounces and a half of dragon's
blood and an ounce of soda, both well bruised, to three pints of
spirits of wine; let it stand in a warm place, shake frequently,
strain, and lay on with a soft brush, repeating till of a proper
colour; polish with linseed oil or varnish.
1436. Wood. _Purple_
Brush the work several times with the logwood decoction used for No.
vi. _black_ (_see par_. 1430), and when perfectly dry, give a coat of
pearlash solution--one drachm to a quart--taking care to lay it on
evenly.
1437. Wood. _Red_.
i. Boil a pound of Brazil wood and an ounce of pearlash in a gallon
of water, and while hot brush over the work until of a proper
colour. Dissolve two ounces of alum in a quart of water, and brush
the solution over the work before it dries.
ii. Take a gallon of the above stain, add two more ounces of
pearlash; use hot, and brush often with the alum solution.
iii. Use a cold infusion of archil, and brush over with the pearlash
solution used for No. 1434.
1438. Imitation of Rosewood.
i. Boil half a pound of logwood in three pints of water till it is
of a very dark red, add half an ounce of salt of tartar; stain the
work with the liquor while _boiling hot_, giving three coats; then,
with a painter's graining brush, form streaks with No. viii. _black
stain_ (_see par_. 1430); let the work dry, and varnish.
ii. Brush over with the logwood decoction used for No. vi. _black_,
three or four times; put half a pound of iron filings into two
quarts of vinegar; then with a graining brush, or cane bruised at
the end, apply the iron filing solution in the form required, and
polish with bees'-wax and turpentine when dry, or varnish.
1439. Wood. _Yellow_.
i. Brush over with the tincture of turmeric.
ii. Warm the work and brush over with weak aquafortis, then hold to
the fire. Varnish or oil as usual.
1440. Laws of Employers and Employed.
1441. Hiring and Dismissal.
It is customary with respect to domestic servants, that if the terms
are not otherwise defined, the hiring is by the month, and may be put
an end to by either party giving a month's warning; or, at the will of
the employer, a month's wages.
1442. Dismissal.
An employer may dismiss a servant upon paying wages for one month
beyond the date of actual dismissal, the wages without service being
deemed equivalent to the extra board and lodging with service.
1443. Distinctions.
There are Distinctions with respect to clerks, and servants of a
superior class. A month's warning or wages will not determine the
engagements of servants of this class.
1444. Terms.
The Terms on which clerks and superior servants are employed being
very various, it is desirable to have some specific agreement, or
other proof of the conditions of service and wages.
1445. Need for Stamping.
Agreements with menial servants need not be stamped; but contracts of
a higher and special character should be.
1446. Terms of Agreement.
The Terms of an Agreement should be distinctly expressed, and be
signed by both parties. And the conditions under which the agreement
may be terminated by either party should be fully stated.
1447. Mutuality of Interest.
Every Agreement should bear Evidence of Mutuality of interest. If one
party agrees to stay with another, and give gratuitous services, with
the view of acquiring knowledge of a business, and the other party
does not agree to employ and to _teach_, the agreement is void, as
being without consideration.
1448. Contract.
An employer must Contract to employ, as well as a servant to _serve_,
otherwise the employer may put an end to the contract at his own
pleasure. In such a case a servant may be dismissed without notice.
1449. Permanency.
An Agreement to give Permanent Employment is received as extending
only to a substantial and reasonable period of time, and that there
shall be no immediate and peremptory dismissal, without cause.
1450. Stipulation.
When no Stipulation is made at the time of the hiring, or in the
agreement, that a servant shall be liable for breakages, injuries from
negligence, &c., the employer can only recover from the servant by due
process of law.
1451. Prudent Stipulation.
It is a Prudent Stipulation that, if a servant quit his employ before
the specified time, or without due notice, a certain amount of wages
shall be forfeited; otherwise the employer can only recover by action
for damages.
1452. Livery Servants.
In the case of Livery Servants, it should be agreed that, upon
quitting service, they deliver up the liveries; otherwise disputes may
arise that can only be determined by recourse to law.
1453. Change of Trade.
When a Master to whom an Apprentice is bound for a particular trade,
changes that trade for another, the indenture binding the apprentice
becomes null and void.
1454. Act of God.
If a Servant, retained for a year, happen within the period of his
service to fall sick, or to be hurt or lamed, or otherwise to become
of infirm body by the act of God, while doing his master's business,
the master cannot put such servant away, nor abate any part of his
wages for such time.
1455. Terms of Discharge.
But this does not interfere with the Right of an Employer to determine
a contract for services in those cases where terms of discharge are
specified in the contract of hiring. In such cases, inability to
serve, through sickness or other infirmity, puts an end to right to
wages, which are in consideration of such services.
1456. Forfeit.
When the Hiring of a Superior Servant is for a year, if the servant,
prior to the expiration of the year, commits any act by which he may
be lawfully discharged, he cannot claim wages for the part of the year
which he may have served.
1457. Claim.
But a Menial Servant may claim up to the date of his dismissal, unless
his discharge be for embezzlement or other felonious acts.
1458. Death.
Upon the Death of a Servant, his personal representative may claim
arrears of wages due, unless the contract of employment specified and
required the completion of any particular period.
1459. Bankrupt Master.
When a Master becomes Bankrupt, the wages or salary of any clerk or
servant in his employ, not exceeding four months' wages or salary, and
not more than £50, is payable in full before the general creditors
receive anything. So also the wages of any labourer or workman not
exceeding two months' wages. For any further sums due to him, the
clerk, servant, or workman must prove against the bankrupt's estate
the same as other creditors.
1460. Receipts.
Receipts should be taken for Wages paid. Where servants have been
under age, it has been held that moneys advanced for fineries and
extravagances unbecoming to a servant did not constitute payment of
wages, and the employer has been compelled to pay again.
1461. Moneys paid to a Married Woman.
The receipt of a married woman is a good discharge for any wages or
earnings, acquired or gained by her in any employment or occupation in
which she is engaged separately from her husband.
1462. Medical Attendance.
A Master may bacome liable for Medical Attendance upon his sick
servant if he calls in his own medical man, and orders him to attend
to the servant.
1463. End of Claim.
When a Servant is Discharged for any just cause, he cannot claim wages
beyond the last pay-day under the contract of hiring.
1464. General Hiring.
A General Hiring of a Clerk or warehouseman is for a year, even though
the wages be paid by the month, unless a month's warning or wages be
specified in the contract of employment.
1465. Special Privileges.
Where a Servant Reserves to Himself Special Privileges, such as
particular portions of his time, the hiring becomes special, and
cannot be governed by the terms of general engagements. So, also,
where a servant stipulates to be exempted from particular duties that
usually belong to his situation.
1466. Refusal of Duty.
Should a Servant Refuse to perform any duty required from him, his
right so to refuse will generally be determined by the usages
prevailing among servants of a similar class.
1467. Seduction from Employment.
A Servant being Seduced from the Employment of a master, the latter
has a right of action against the seducer for losses sustained.
1468. Masters Responsible.
It is an Established Maxim in Law, that whoever does an act by the hands
of another shall be deemed to have done it himself. And hence, in many
matters, masters are responsible for the acts of their servants. But if
a servant does an unlawful act, not arising out of the discharge of his
duties to his master, then the employer is not responsible.
1469. Purchase of Goods by Servants for Employer.
A servant cannot by buying goods for his employer's use pledge his
master's credit, unless his master authorized him to do so, or unless
the master has previously paid for goods bought by the servant in like
manner on a former occasion. If a master contracts with a servant to
provide certain things and pays him for so doing, a tradesman
supplying the things can only sue the servant and not the master for
his money.
1470. Privileged Communications.
An action will not lie against an employer for giving an unfavourable
character of a servant, even though it be in writing. Communications
of this nature, in answer to inquiries, are considered privileged. But
if it can be proved that an employer has given a _false_ character
from motives of _malice_, then an action for libel will lie against
him; but the representations must be proved to be false as well as
malicious.
1471. Laws of Landlord and Tenant.
1472. Leases.
A lease is a conveyance of premises or lands for a specified term of
years, at a yearly rent, with definite conditions as to alterations,
repairs, payment of rent, forfeiture, &c. Being an instrument of much
importance, it should always be drawn by a respectable attorney, who
will see that all the conditions, in the interest of the lessee, are
fulfilled.
[SAVING AFFORDS THE MEANS OF GIVING.]
1473. Precaution.
In taking a lease, the tenant's solicitor should carefully examine the
covenants, or if he take an underlease, he should ascertain the
covenants of the original lease, otherwise, when too late, he may find
himself so restricted in his occupation that the premises may be
wholly useless for his purpose, or he may be involved in perpetual
difficulties and annoyances; for instance, he may find himself
restricted from making alterations convenient or necessary for his
trade; he may find himself compelled to rebuild or pay rent in case of
fire; he may find himself subject to forfeiture of his lease, or other
penalty, if he should underlet or assign his interest, carry on some
particular trade, &c.
1474. Covenants.
The covenants on the landlord's part are usually for the quiet
enjoyment of the premises by the lessee. On the tenant's part, they
are usually to pay the rent and taxes; to keep the premises in
suitable repair; and to deliver up possession when the term has
expired.
1475. Rent and Taxes.
The lessee covenants to pay the rent and all taxes, except the land
and property taxes, which may be deducted from the rent.
1476. Assignments.
Unless there be a covenant against assignment, a lease may be
assigned, that is, the whole interest of the lessee may be conveyed to
another, or it may be underlet; if, therefore, it is intended that it
should not, it is proper to insert a covenant to restrain the lessee
from assigning or underletting. Tenants for terms of years may assign
or underlet, but tenants at will cannot.
1477. Repairs.
A tenant who covenants to keep a house in repair is not answerable for
its natural decay, but is bound to keep it wind and water tight, so
that it does not decay for want of cover. A lessee who covenants to
pay rent and keep the premises in repair, is liable to pay the rent
although the premises may be burned down, unless a stipulation to the
contrary be inserted in the lease.
1478. Neglect of Repairs by Landlord.
If a landlord covenant to repair, and neglect to do so, the tenant may
do it, and withhold so much of the rent. But it is advisable that
notice thereof should be given by the tenant to the landlord, in the
presence of a witness, prior to commencing the repairs.
1479. Right of Landlord to Enter Premises.
A landlord may enter upon the premises (having given previous notice,
although not expressed in the lease), for the purpose of viewing the
state of the property.
1480. Termination of Leases.
A tenant must deliver up possession at the expiration of the term (the
lease being sufficient notice), or he will continue liable to the rent
as tenant by sufferance without any new contract; but if the landlord
recognises such tenancy by accepting a payment of rent after the lease
has expired, such acceptance will constitute a tenancy; but previous
to accepting rent, the landlord may bring his ejectment without
notice; for, the lease having expired, the tenant is a trespasser. A
lease covenanted to be void if the rent be not paid upon the day
appointed, is good, unless the landlord make an entry.
1481. Rights of Married Women.
Married Women, with the concurrence of their husbands, may grant
leases by deed for any term. Husbands, seised in right of their wives,
may grant leases for twenty-one years. If a wife is executrix, the
husband and wife have the power of leasing, as in the ordinary case of
husband and wife. A married woman living separate from her husband may
by taking a lease bind her separate estate for payment of the rent and
performance of the covenants.
1482. Copyholders.
Copyholders may not grant a lease for longer than one year, unless by
custom, or permission of the lord: and the lease of a steward of a
manor is not good, unless he is duly invested with a power for that
purpose.
1483. Notices.
All notices, of whatever description, relating to tenancies, should be
in writing, and the person serving the said notice should write on the
back thereof a memorandum of the date on which it was served, and
should keep a copy of the said notice, with a similar memorandum
attached.
1484. Yearly Tenancies.
Houses are considered as _let_ for the year, and the tenants are
subject to the laws affecting annual tenancies, unless there be an
agreement in writing to the contrary.
1485. _Agreement for taking a House on an Annual Tenancy_.
Memorandum of Agreement, entered into this----day of-------18--,
between R.A., of----, and L.O., of of----, as follows:
The said R.A. doth hereby let unto the said L.O. a dwelling-house,
situate in----, in the parish of-----, for the term of one year
certain, and so on from year to year, until half a year's notice to
quit be given by or to either party, at the yearly rent of----
pounds, payable quarterly; the tenancy to commence at----day next.
And the said R.A. doth undertake to pay the land-tax, the
property-tax, and the sewer-rate, and to keep the said house in all
necessary repairs, so long as the said L.O. shall continue therein.
And the said L.O. doth undertake to take the said house of R.A. for
the before-mentioned term and rent, and pay all rates and taxes,
except as aforesaid. The said R.A. to be at liberty to re-enter if
any rent shall be in arrear for 21 days, whether such rent has been
demanded or not.
Witness our hands, the day and year aforesaid.
Witness, G.C.
R.A.
L.O.
1486. Payment of Taxes by Landlord.
If the landlord agree to pay all the rates and taxes, then a different
wording of the agreement should take place, as thus:
And the said R.A. doth undertake to pay all rates and taxes, of
whatever nature or kind, chargeable on the said house and premises,
and to keep the said house in all necessary repairs, so long as the
said L.O. shall continue therein.
1487. Indemnity from Arrears.
If the landlord agree to secure the incoming tenant from all arrears
(and the tenant should see to this) due on account of rent, rates, and
taxes, the indemnification should be written on a separate paper, and
in something like the following terms:
1488. _Indemnification against Rents, Rates and Taxes in Arrear_.
I, R.A., landlord of a certain house and premises now about to be
taken and occupied by L.O., do hereby agree to indemnify the said
L.O. from the payment of any rent, taxes, or rates in arrear, prior
to the date of the day at which his said tenancy commences. As
witness my hand this----day of----18
R.A., Landlord of the above premises.
Witness, G.C.
1489. _Agreement for taking a House for Three Years_.
Memorandum of an agreement made the----day of----, 18 , between
R.A., of----, and L.O. of----, as follows:
The said R.A. doth let unto the said L.O. a house (and garden, if
any) with appurtenances, situate in----, in the parish of----, for
three years certain. The rent to commence from----day next, at and
under the yearly rent of----, payable quarterly, the first payment
to be at----day next.
The said L.O. doth agree to take the said house (and garden) of the
said R.A. for the term and rent payable in manner aforesaid; and
that he will, at the expiration of the term, leave the house in as
good repair as he found it [reasonable wear and tear excepted]. The
said R.A. to be at liberty to re-enter, if any rent shall be in
arrear for 21 days, whether such rent has been demanded or not.
Witness our hands.
R.A.
L.O.
Witness, G.C.
1490. Payment of Rent.
Rent is usually payable at the regular quarter-days, namely, Lady-day,
or March 25th; Midsummer-day, or June 24th; Michaelmas-day, September
29th; and Christmas-day, December 25th. It is due at mid-day; but no
proceedings for non-payment, where the tenant remains upon the
premises, can be taken till the next day.
1491. Payment of Rent Imperative.
No consideration will waive the payment of the rent, should the
landlord insist on demanding it. Even should the house be burnt,
blown, or fall down, the tenant is still liable for rent; and the
tenancy can only be voidable by the proper notice to quit, the same as
if the house remained in the most perfect condition.
1492. Demanding Rent.
The landlord himself is the person most proper to demand rent; he may
employ another person, but if he does, he must authorize him by
letter, or by power of attorney; or the demand may be objected to.
1493. Receipt for Rent.
When an agent has been duly authorized, a receipt from him for any
subsequent rent is a legal acquittance to the tenant, notwithstanding
the landlord may have revoked the authority under which the agent
acted, unless the landlord should have given the tenant due and proper
notice thereof.
1494. Legal Tender.
A tender of rent should be in the current coin of the kingdom. But a
tender of Bank of England notes is good, even in cases of distress.
1495. _Form of a Receipt for Rent._
Received of Mr. L.O. the sum of ten pounds ten shillings, for a
quarter's rent due at Lady-day last, for the house, No. ,-------
street.
£10 10s. [Stamp] R. A.
--------
1496. Receipt Given by an Agent.
If the receipt be given by an agent, it should be signed:
G. C.,
Agent for R.A., landlord of the above premises.
1497. Care of Receipts for Rent.
Be careful of your last quarter's receipt for rent, for the production
of that document bars all prior claim. Even when arrears have been due
on former quarters, the receipt, if given for the last quarter,
precludes the landlord from recovery thereof.
1498. Notice to Quit.
When either the landlord or tenant intends to terminate a tenancy, the
way to proceed is by a notice to quit, which is drawn up in the two
following ways:
1499. _Form of a Notice to Quit from a Tenant to his Landlord._
Sir,--I hereby give you notice, that on or before the------day of
------next, I shall quit and deliver up possession of the house and
premises I now hold of you, situate at------, in the parish of
------, in the county of------.
Dated the------day of------, 18
Witness, G.C.
L.O.
To Mr. R. A.
1500. _Notice from Landlord to his Tenant._
--Sir,--I hereby give you notice to quit and deliver up possession
to me of the house and appurtenances, situate No------, which you
now hold of me, on or before------next.
Dated------, 18 .
(Signed) R.A. (landlord).
To Mr. L. O.
1501. Notice to Quit.
An opinion is very generally entertained, however, that a quarter's
warning to quit, where the house is of small rental, is sufficient
notice; but where the rent is payable quarterly, or at longer
intervals, this is a mistake, for unless a special agreement is made
defining the time to be given as a warning, six months' notice to quit
must be given, to expire on the same day of the year upon which the
tenancy commenced. Where the rent is payable weekly or monthly, the
notice to quit will be good if given for the week or month, provided
care be taken that it expires upon the day of the week or month of the
beginning of the tenancy.
1502. _Form of Notice from a Landlord to his Tenant to Quit or Pay an
increased Rent._
To Mr. R. A.--Sir,--I hereby give you notice to deliver up
possession, and quit on or before------, the [_here state the house
or apartment_] and appurtenances which you now hold of me in
[_insert the name of street, &c._], and in default of your
compliance therewith, I do and will insist on your paying me for the
same, the [_annual or monthly_] rent of----, being an additional
rental of----pounds per annum [_over and above the present annual
rental_] rent, for such time as you shall detain the key and keep
possession over the said notice.
Witness my hand, this----day of----, 18.
Witness, G.C.
L.O.
[A HUNGRY MAN SEES FAR.]
1503. Refusal to Give up Possession.
If a tenant holds over, after receiving a sufficient notice to quit,
_in writing,_ he becomes liable to pay double the yearly value; if he
holds over after having himself given even parole notice to quit, he
is liable to pay double rent.
1504. Lodgings and Lodgers.
1505. The Goods of a Lodger.
The goods of a lodger are not liable to distress for rent due to the
superior landlord.
1506. Distraint on Furniture, etc., of Lodger.
If any furniture, goods, or chattels of a lodger are distrained for
rent due to the superior landlord, the lodger should immediately serve
the superior landlord or his bailiff with a declaration in writing,
setting forth that the immediate tenant of the house has no interest
in the things distrained which belong to the lodger, and also setting
forth whether any and what rent is due, and for what period, from the
lodger to his immediate landlord; and the lodger should pay to the
superior landlord, or his bailiff, the rent so due from him, so much
as shall be sufficient to discharge the claim of the superior
landlord. The lodger should make out and sign an inventory of the
things claimed by him, and annex it to this declaration.
1507. Application to Magistrate, etc., if Landlord proceed with
Distress.
If, after taking these steps, the superior landlord, or his bailiff,
should proceed with a distress upon the lodger's goods, the lodger
should apply to a stipendiary magistrate or to two justices of the
peace, who will order his goods to be restored to him.
1508. Broker Entering Apartments.
A broker having obtained possession through the outer door, may break
open any of the private doors of the lodgers, if necessary, for the
purpose of distraining the goods of the tenant.
1509. Renting for a specific Term.
If lodgings are taken for a certain and specified time, no notice to
quit is necessary. If the lodger, however, continues after the
expiration of the term, he becomes a regular lodger, unless there is
an agreement to the contrary. If he owes rent, the housekeeper can
detain his goods whilst on the premises, or distrain, as a landlord
may distrain the goods of a tenant.
1510. Lodgers and Householders bound by the same Law.
No distinction exists between lodgers and other tenants as to the
payment of their rent, or the turning them out of possession; they are
also similarly circumstanced with regard to distress for rent, as
householders, except that (as above mentioned) the goods of lodgers
cannot be distrained for rent due to the superior landlord.
1511. Weekly Tenants.