His Bo-tree the Udambara (_Ficus
glomerata_).
24. Kassyapa, born at Baranasi-nagara, Benares.
His Bo-tree the Nigrodha (_Ficus
Indica_).
Gautama, born 623 B.C., at Kapilawasta.
His Bo-tree Pipphala (Ficus
religiosa).[752]
APPENDIX C.
THE TWENTY-FOUR TIRTHANKARAS OF THE JAINS.
---+----------------------+-------------------+-------------+-------------------
| NAME. | DISTINCTIVE SIGN. | BORN. | DIED.
---+----------------------+-------------------+-------------+-------------------
1 | Adinatha or Vrishabha| Bull | Ayodhya | Gujerat
| Ajitanatha | Elephant | “ | Mt. Sikhar, Chodri
3 | Sambhunatha | Horse | Sawanta | “ Parisnath
4 | Abhainandanatha | Monkey | Ayodhya | “
5 | Sumatinatha | Chakwa (Red Goose)| “ | “
6 | Supadmanatha | Lotus | Kausambhi | “
7 | Suparswanatha | Swastika | Benares | “
8 | Chandraprabha | Crescent Moon | Chandripur | “
9 | Pushpadanta | Crocodile | Kakendrapur | “
10 | Sitalanatha | Tree or Flower | Bhadalpur | “
11 | Sri Ansanatha | Rhinoceros | Sindh | “
12 | Vasupadya | Buffalo | Champapuri | Champapuri
13 | Vimalanatha | Boar | Kumpatapuri | Mt. Sikhar
14 | Anantanatha | Porcupine | Ayodhya | “
15 | Dharmmanatha | Thunderbolt | Ratanpuri | “
16 | Santanetha | Antelope | Hastinapura | “
17 | Kunthanatha | Goat | “ | “
18 | Aranatha | Fish | “ | “
19 | Mallinatha | Pinnacle | Mithila | “
20 | Munisuvrata | Tortoise | Rajgriha | “
21 | Naminatha | Lotus, with stalk | Mithila | “
22 | Neminatha | Shell | Dwarika | Mt. Girnara
23 | Parswanatha | Snake | Benares | Mt. Sikhar
24 | Vardhamana or | | |
| Mahavira | Lion | Chitrakot | Pawapuri
---+----------------------+-------------------+-------------+-------------------
INDEX.
Abhayagiri dagoba, 192.
Abu, Mount, ancient Jaina temples on, 234.
Temple of Vimala Sah, 235-237.
Adinah mosque, Gaur, 547.
Afghanistan, topes at, 72.
Caves, 107.
Agra, 572.
The Taje Mehal, 596-599.
Akbar’s mosque, 602.
Ahmedabad, temple of Shet Huttising at, 257.
Style and character of the architecture, 527.
Aiwulli, old temple at, 218.
Plan, 219.
View, 220.
Ajmir, temple at, 263.
Mosque at, 510.
Plan, 512.
Great arch, 512.
Ajunta, rock-cut Tee at, 64.
Chaitya cave, 122.
View of interior, 123.
Cross-section, 123.
Plan, 124.
View of façade, 125.
Rock-cut dagoba, 126.
Caves at, 145, 146.
Viharas, 153-159.
Akbar, architectural glories of, 574-586.
Alexander the Great, pillars ascribed to, 56.
Allahabad, lât or pillar at, 53.
Palace at, 583.
Altumsh, tomb of, 509.
Amara Deva, temple erected by, 69.
Ambêr, palace at, 480.
Amoy, pailoo at, 702.
Amravati, tope at, 71, 72.
Rail at, 93, 99-101.
Dagoba, 102.
Amritsur, golden temple at, 468.
Amwah, Jaina temple at, 250.
View of porch, 251.
Ananda, temple at, Pagan, 615.
Andher, topes at, 65.
Andra dynasty, the, 20.
Anuradhapura, ancient capital of Ceylon, 188.
The sacred Bo-tree, 189.
Foundation and present state of the city, 188, 189.
Topes, dagobas, &c., 189-195.
Great Brazen Monastery, 195.
Pillars, 196.
The Maha vihara, 657.
Arch, objection of the Hindus to the, 210.
Indian examples, 211.
_See_ Gateways.
Architecture, Buddhist, 44.
Stambhas, or lâts, 52-56.
Stupas, 57-60.
Topes, 60-83.
Rails, 84-104.
Chaitya halls, caves, 105-144.
Vihara caves, 144-168.
Gandhara monasteries, 169-184.
Ceylon, 185-206.
Architecture, Chalukyan, 386.
Temples 388-405.
Architecture, Civil: Dravidian, 380.
Northern, or Indo-Aryan, 470-475.
Architecture, domestic, in China, 702-710.
Architecture, Dravidian, 319.
Rock-cut temples, 326-339.
Raths, 328-330.
Kylas, 334.
Temples, 340.
Palaces, 381-385.
Architecture in the Himalayas, 279.
Kashmiri temples, 283-318.
Architecture, Indian Saracenic: Ghazni, 494-500.
Pathan, 498.
Delhi, 500, 510-514.
Later Pathan, 514-519.
Jaunpore, 520-525.
Gujerat, 526-539.
Malwa, 540-544.
Bengal, 545-551.
Kalburgah, 553-556.
Bijapur, 557-567.
Scinde, 567, 568.
Mogul, 569.
Wooden, 608-610.
Architecture, Further Indian: Burmah, 611-620.
Siam, 631-636.
Java, 637-662.
Cambodia, 663-684.
Architecture, Indo-Aryan, or Northern, 406.
Temples, 411-436.
Brahmanical rock-cut temples, 437-447.
Temples, 448-464.
Architecture, Jaina, 207.
Arches, 210-212.
Domes and roofing, 212-218.
Plans, 218-221.
Sikras, 221-225.
Northern: temples, 226-251.
Towers, 252-254.
Modern: Temples, 255-260.
Caves, 261, 262.
Converted mosques, 263.
Southern Indian: colossal statues, 267, 268.
Aryans, their migration into India, and position among the Brahmans, 9-11.
The dominant people before the rise of Buddhism, 48.
Asoka, Buddhist king, his connexion with Indian architecture, 47, 52.
His missionaries into Ceylon, 199.
His edicts at Girnar, 229.
His missionaries into Burmah, 612, _see_ 61, 65.
Atala Musjid, the, 524.
Audience hall at Bijapur, 566.
Aurungabad, mosque at, 602.
Aurungzebe, 602.
His copy of the Taje Mehal, 602.
His burial-place, 603.
Ava, modern temple at, 659, _note_.
Avantipore, temples at, 291.
Fragment of pillar at, 292.
Ayodhya, 631.
Ayuthia, ancient capital of Siam, ruins of pagoda at, 632, 633.
Babylonia, architectural synonyms in Burmah, 618.
Ethnographical connexion, 630.
Badami, in Dharwar, Jaina cave, 261.
Dravidian and Indo-Aryan temples at, 411.
Contrast of style, 411.
Caves at, 439-441.
Plan and section, 444.
Bagh, cave at, 146.
Great vihara, 159.
Plan, 160.
Baillûr, in Mysore, great temple at, 393.
Plan, 395.
View of porch, 396.
View of pavilion, 397.
Baion, Cambodia, temples at, 679-681.
Bakeng, Mount, ruined temple at, 682.
Bancorah, Hindu temple at, 14.
Bangkok, Great Tower, 634.
Hall of audience, 635.
Barabar, Behar caves at, 108.
Baroach, mosque at, 537.
Barrolli, temple at, 449.
View and plan, 450.
Ornamented pillar, 451.
Bastian, Dr. Adolphe, Cambodian explorations of, 663.
Bayley, E. C., sculpture brought from Jamalgiri by, 169.
Bedsa, Chaitya cave, 112.
Plan and capital of pillar, 113.
View on verandah, 114.
Behar caves, 108.
Bengal, 138-144.
Benares, view and diagram of temples at, 412, 460.
View of balcony at the observatory, 481.
Bengal, caves, 138.
Its architecture and local individuality of its style, 491, 545.
Type of the modern roof, 546.
Bettu temples, 267.
Bhaja, Chaitya cave, plan, 110.
Façade, 111.
Bhaniyar, near Naoshera, temple at, 292.
View of court, 293.
Bharhut, rail at, 85-91.
Square and oblong cells, from a bas-relief at, 135.
Round temple and part of palace, 168.
Bhatgaon, Devi Bhowani temple at, 304.
Doorway of Durbar, 307.
Bhilsa Topes, 60-65.
Bhojpur, Topes at, 65.
Bhuvaneswar, great temple at, 420;
plan, 421;
view of, 422.
Great Tower, 423.
Raj Rani temple at, 424;
doorway in, 425.
Bijanagur, gateway, 211.
Bijapur, 557;
its architecture, 558.
Jumma Musjid at, 559.
Sections, 560.
Tomb of Ibrahim, 561.
Of Mahmûd, 562.
Ancient Hall, 566.
Bimeran, Tope at, 78.
Bindrabun, 462.
Plan of temple at, 463.
View, 464.
Balcony in temple, 465.
Bintonne, relic of Buddha at, 58.
Bombay, number of caves at, 107.
Boondi, palace at, 476.
Boro Buddor, Java, 643.
Plan, elevation, and section, 645.
Sections of domes, 646.
View of central entrance and stairs, 649.
Bo-tree, the sacred, 189.
Branch of it in Ceylon, 199.
At Buddh Gaya, 656.
Buddha La Monastery, Thibet, 312.
Bowlees or Reservoirs, use and architectural features of, 486.
Brahma, numerous images of, in Cambodia, 680.
Brahmanism, 323.
Brambanam, Java, group of temples at, 651.
Brazen Monastery, Anuradhapura, 195.
Buchropully, 388.
View of temple, 389.
Buddh Gaya, stupa, 69, 70.
Temple, 70.
Rail, 85.
Bas-relief from, 111.
The Sacred Tree, 199.
Buddha, period of his birth, 14.
Apportionment of his remains, 57-59.
Relic of, at Bintenne, 58.
Colossal statue of, 200, _note_.
His tooth, its sanctity, shrines, migrations, 58, 59, 161.
Relics of, at Rangûn, 622.
Buddhism, its founder, 15.
Secret of his success, 16.
Buddhist architecture, earliest traceable date, 48-50.
Religion dominated by it, 49.
Classification, 50.
Temple in China, 691.
Monastery at Pekin, 693.
_See_ Architecture.
Bunds, or Dams, 486, 487.
Buribun, sculptures at, 682, _note_.
Burmah, architecture in, 611.
Thatún, 612.
Prome, 613.
Pagan, 614.
Circular dagobas, 619-626.
Monasteries, 626-630.
Non-use of mortar, 660.
Butwa, tomb at, 536.
Cabul, topes near, 72.
Cambay, Jumma Musjid at, 537.
Cambodia, M. Mouhot’s researches in, 663.
Labours of Dr. Bastian, 663;
of Mr. Thomson, 664;
of Captains Doudart de la Grée and Delaporte, 664.
Traditions, original immigrants, history, 665, 666.
Temple of Nakhon Wat, 666.
Temple of Baion, 679;
of Ongcor Thom, 680;
other temples, 681.
Civil architecture, 682.
Remarkable evidences of mechanical skill and civilization, 684.
Canara, stambhas at, 263.
Canouge, Jaina temple at, 263.
Mosque at, 525.
Canton, pailoo near, 700.
Canton river, “Second Bar Pagoda” on the, 696.
Capitals and columns, Tirhoot and Sankissa, 54.
Jamalgiri, 173, 176.
Caves, 106.
Geographical distribution of, 107.
Ajunta, 122, 127, 153.
Badami, 439.
Bagh, 146, 159.
Barabar, 108.
Bedsa, 112.
Behar, 108.
Bengal, 138-144.
Bhaja, 110.
Dhumnar, 131.
Ellora, 127.
Junir, 166.
Karli, 116.
Kenheri, 129.
Kholvi, 132.
Salsette, 161.
Satapanni, 108.
Mode of ornamentation, 133.
Cenotaphs, 470-475.
Ceylon: Buddhist relics in, 58.
Its ancient architecture, 185-206.
_See_ Anuradhapura.
Chaitya Halls: Buddhist temples, 105.
Examples, 109-132.
_See_ Caves.
Chalukyans, the, 386.
Early identity of the Jains with the, 387.
Peculiarity of their style, 387.
_See_ Architecture.
Chandragupta, the Sandrocottus of the Greeks, 17.
Chandravati, pillars at, 238.
Temple or porch, 448.
Plan, 449.
Cheras, territory occupied by the, 322.
Chillambaram, temple at, 350.
Plan, 351.
Porch of hall, 353.
Section of porch, 353.
View of ruined temple, or pagoda, 354.
China, deficiency of information, 685.
Point of divergence between its people and the Egyptians, 686.
Causes of the absence of certain classes of buildings, 686-688.
Pagodas: Temple of the Great Dragon, 689.
Buddhist temples, 691.
Taas, or towers, 695.
Tombs, 698.
Pailoos, 700.
Domestic architecture, 702-710.
Chittore, diagram of Meera Baie’s temple at, 458.
Temple of Vriji, 459.
Palace of Bhîm and Pudmandi, 476.
Chola, region forming the kingdom of, 322.
Choultrie, Tirumulla Nayak’s, 361.
Chuttries, or Cenotaphs, 470.
Civil Architecture, 470.
Cambodia, 682.
China, 702.
Cole, Lieut., explorations in Kashmir, 280.
Colombo, Hindu temple at, 332.
Combaconum, 367.
Gopura or gate pyramid at, 368.
Confucius, temples of, 689.
Conjeveram, temples and hall, 369.
Court, M., Topes opened by, 79.
Cowie, Rev. A., Kashmirian explorations of, 280.
Crystal Palace, Sydenham, Gill’s copies of Indian frescoes, 158, _note_.
Sculptures, 169.
Cunningham, Gen., Eastern Archæological explorations of, 54, _et seqq._
Cuttack, caves at, 140, 143.
Nine-storeyed palace, 433.
Hindu bridge at, 434.
Dagobas: Amravati, 102.
Rock-cut, at Ajunta, 126.
Anuradhapura, 190-196.
Circular, of Burmah, 619.
Kong Madú, 619.
Shoëmadu, 621.
Rangûn, 623.
Mengûn, 624-626.
Dams, or bunds, 486-487.
Darunta, Jelalabad, topes at, 77.
Das Avatar, Buddhist vihara, Ellora, 165.
Dasyus, the slave people, 12.
Their architecture, 13.
Deeg, garden palace of, 481.
Hall, 482.
View from the Central Pavilion, 483.
Deepdans, or lamp pillars in the East, 336, 337.
Dehrwarra vihara, Ellora, plan of, 163.
Delai Lama, worship paid to him, 312.
Delaporte, Captain, explorations in Cambodia, 664.
Delhi, Lât at, 52.
Jaina Temple, 259.
Palace, 591.
Plan, 592.
Jumma Musjid, 601.
Delhi, Old, section, arches, and minar of the Kutub, 503-509.
Iron pillar, 507.
Interior of tomb, 509.
View of tomb, 516.
Pendentive from mosque, 519.
Deriah Doulut, the pavilion of, at Seringapatam, 604.
Dhar, mosque at, 540.
Dharwar, deepdans in, 337.
Brahmanical rock-cut temples, 437.
Dhumnar, caves at, 131, 162.
Dhumnar Lena, Ellora, Rock-cut temple at, 445.
Plan, 446.
Diggu Hublum, unfinished Mantapa at, 378.
Dimapur, monoliths at, 309.
Djeing Plateau, Java, group of small temples at, 659.
Do Tal, or Dookya Ghur, Ellora, a Buddhist vihara, 165.
Dolka, mosque at, 537.
Domes: Hindu, 212.
Indian Saracenic, 560.
Constructive diagram, 565;
Boro Buddor, 616.
Domestic architecture, Chinese, 702.
Doorways: Nepal, 305.
Hammoncondah, 390.
Bhuvaneswar, 425.
Doudart de la Grée, Captain, explorations in Cambodia, 664.
Dravidian style, 319.
Its extent, 319.
Historical notice, 320.
Religious, 323.
_See_ Architecture.
Dravidians, the, 11.
Durbar, Bhatgaon, doorway of, 307.
Duttiah, palace at, 477.
Elaala, so-called tomb of, 189.
Ellora, caves at, 127.
Viharas, 163.
Indra Subha Cave, 262.
Kylas at, 334-337.
Dhumnar Lena Cave, 445.
Erun, lâts at, 55.
Pillar, 317.
Façades: Behar, 109, 111.
Burmah, 627.
Feroze Shah, lât rebuilt by, 52.
Futtehpore Sikri, 578.
Carved pillars in, 579.
Mosque at, 580.
Southern gateway, 581.
Gal Vihara sculptures, 200.
Ganesa Cave, Cuttack, 140.
Pillar in, 140.
Gandhara Topes, 72-76.
Monasteries, 169-184.
Ganges, the, and its ghâts, 484.
Gate-pyramid at Combaconum, 368.
Gateways or Torans, 95.
Sanchi, 96.
Bijanagur, 211.
Jaunpore, 522.
Gaur, 550.
Futtehpore Sikri, 581.
Pekin, 693.
Gaudapalen, temple at, Pagan, 617.
Gaur, peculiar form of roof in, 545, 546.
Mosques, 547;
their defects, 549.
Ancient Minar, 550.
Gateways, 550.
Gautamiputra Cave, Nassick, rail at, 94.
Pillar in, 150.
Ghâts, or landing-places, 484.
Ghoosla, Benares, 485.
Ghazni, buildings of Mahmúd and his nobles, 494.
Minar at, 495.
Ornaments from the tomb of Mahmúd at, 496.
Ghoosla Ghât, the, Benares, 485.
Gill, Major, Oriental drawings by, 158, _note_.
Girnar, the Hill of, shrine of the Jains, 228.
Temple of Neminatha, 230.
Gopal Gunge, temple at, 467.
Gopura at Combaconum, 368.
Gualior, temple at, 244.
Teli ka Mandir temple, 452.
View, 453.
Temple of Scindiah’s mother, 461.
View, 462.
Palace, 479.
Tomb of Mahommad Ghaus, 576.
View, 577.
Gujerat, 526.
Historical account, 526, 527.
Gurusankerry, pavilion at, 274.
Stambha, 276.
Gyraspore, temple at, 249.
Hammoncondah, Metropolitan temple of, 389.
View of great doorway, 390.
Himalayas, the, architecture in, 279.
Hindu temple at Bancorah, 14
Hiouen Thsang at Amravati, 103;
at Assam, 310.
Honan, China, Buddhist temple at, 691.
Hullabîd, in Mysore, temple at, 397.
The Kait Iswara, 398.
Plan, 399.
Restored view of the temple, 400.
Its varied design, 401.
View of central pavilion, 402.
Succession of animal friezes, 403.
Humayun Shah, tomb of, at Old Delhi, 575.
Ibrahim Shah, Mosque of, at Bijapur, 559.
Imambara, the, at Lucknow, 605.
Immigrations, 25.
India, Northern, inducements to the study of its architecture, 4.
Its history, 6-29.
India, Southern, unsatisfactory records, 29.
Sculptures, 32.
Mythology, 35.
Statistics, 42.
India, Western, its architecture, 437-447.
India, Central and Northern, 448.
India, Further, 611-684.
Indian Saracenic style, 489.
Divisions of styles and their boundaries, 491-493.
_See_ Architecture.
Indo-Aryan or Northern style, 406.
Reasons for the term, 406.
_See_ Architecture.
Iron pillar at Kutub, 507.
Jaina Architecture, 207.
Identical with Buddhist, 207.
Region dominated by its style, 208.
_See_ Architecture.
Jajepur on the Byturni, pillar at, 432.
Jamalgiri, plan of monastery at, 171.
Corinthian capitals from, 173.
Jarasandha Ka Baithak tope, 68.
Jaunpore, style adopted at, 520.
Plan and view of the Jumma Musjid, 522.
The Lall Durwaza Mosque, 523.
The Atala Musjid, 524.
Tombs and shrines, 525.
Java, 637.
Its history, 640.
Boro Buddor, 643-650.
Mendoet, 650.
Brambanam, 651.
Tree and Serpent temples, 653-659.
Djeing plateau, 659.
Suku, 660.
Jehangir, desecration of his tomb, 587.
Jelalabad topes, 77, 79.
Jinjûwarra, gateway, 211.
Juganât, temple of, 430.
Tower, 431.
Jumma Musjid, Jaunpore, 521.
Section and view, 522.
Ahmedabad, 527.
Plan and elevation, 528.
Malwa, 541.
Plan, 542.
Courtyard, 543.
Junaghur, tomb of the late Nawab of, 606.
Junir, caves at, 167.
Plan and section of circular, 167.
Kait Iswara, temple at Hullabîd, 397.
View, 398.
Kakusanda, one of the Buddhas, discovery of a relic of, 622.
Kalburgah, 552.
Mosque, 553.
Plan, 554.
Half elevation and view, 555.
Kallian, in Bombay harbour, Ambernath temple, 457.
Kanaruc, Orissa, Black Pagoda at, 221.
Restored elevation, 222.
Diagram, plan and section, 223.
History, 426.
Kangra, 314.
_See_ Kote.
Kantonuggur, 465.
View, 467.
Kanwa dynasty, 19.
Kârkala, colossal statue at, 268.
Karli, cave at, 55, 116.
Section and plan, 117.
View of exterior, 118.
View of interior, 120.
Lion-pillar, 121.
Karna Chopar Cave, 108.
Kasachiel, temple of Bouddhama at, 302.
Kashmir, its architecture, 279.
Writers thereon, 280.
Peculiar form of temples and pillars, 283.
Starting-point of its architectural history, 285.
Temple of Marttand, 285-291.
Other examples, 292-297.
The ‘Raja Tarangini,’ or native history, 297.
Kasyapa, one of the Buddhas, discovery of a relic of, 622.
Kenheri Cave, the Great, near Bombay, 129.
View of rail in front, 130.
Keseriah, Tirhoot, capital of, lât at, 71.
Khajurâho, temples at, 245-248, 452.
Kandarya Mahadeo, temple at, 454.
View, 455.
Plan, 456.
Kholvi, caves at, 132, 162.
Kioums, Burmese, 628.
Kiragrama, 314.
_See_ Kote Kangra.
Kirti Stambha at Worangul, 392.
Konagamma, one of the Buddhas, relic of, 622.
Kondooty, near Bombay, chaitya cave, 108, _note_.
Kong Madú Dagoba, details of the, 619.
View, 620.
Kosthakar, or Nepalese temple, 303.
Kote Kangra, temples, 313.
View of temple at Kiragrama, near, 314.
Kûmûlûlû, rock-cut temple at, 339.
Kutub, the, Old Delhi, 503.
Section of colonnade at, 503.
Central range of arches, 504.
Minar, 505, 506.
Iron pillar at, 507.
Kylas at Ellora, 334-337.
Pillar in, 443.
Lahore, Jehangir’s buildings at, 587.
Lall Durwaza Mosque, Jaunpore, 523.
Lassa, monastery of Bouddha La at, 312.
Lâts, or Buddhist inscription-pillars, 52.
Examples, 53, 54.
Lomas Rishi, Behar cave, 108.
Façade and plan, 109.
Lucknow, the Imambara at, 605.
Macao, temple at, 694.
Mackenzie, Col., Indian researches and drawings by, 638.
Madras, temple on the hill of Tripetty at, 378, _note_.
Prevailing style in the presidency of, 385.
Mádura, Perumal pagoda at, 331.
Plan of Tirumulla Nayak’s choultrie, 361.
Pillar in, 361.
View of the hall, 363.
Great temple, 364.
The Jumbúkeswara temple, 365.
Maha vihara, the, Anuradhapura, 657.
Mahavellipore, raths of, 134, 175, 326, 330.
Pavilion at, 274.
Tiger cave at Saluvan Kuppan, 333.
Mahawanso, or Buddhist history of Ceylon, accounts of Oriental
structures in the, 58, 185, 189, 195, 196, 612.
Maheswar, ghât at, 485.
Mahmúd Begurra, tomb of, near Kaira, 538.
Mahmúd of Ghazni, temple of Somnath destroyed by, 494.
Mahomedanism, migration into, and dealings with the architecture
of India, 380, 526, 527.
Malwa, 540.
_See_ Mandú.
Mandalé, monastery at, 629.
Mandú, capital of Malwa, 540.
The Jumma Musjid, 541.
Palace, 543.
Manikyala topes, 79-83.
Relic casket, 80.
Marttand, temple of, 285.
Plan, 286.
View, 287.
Central cell of court, 288.
Date, 289.
Niche with Naga figure, 290.
Soffit of arch, 291.
Masson, Mr., exploration of the Jelalabad topes by, 77-79.
Matjanpontih, serpent-temple at, 659.
Maurya dynasty, 17.
Mechanical skill of the Cambodians, 684.
Mehturi Mehal, “the Gate of the Sweeper,” 567.
Mendoet, Java, temple at, 650.
Mengûn, circular pagoda at, 624.
View, 625.
Michie, Mr. A., information derived from, 689, _note_.
Milkmaid’s Cave, Behar, 109.
Minars and minarets: Surkh and Chakri, Cabul, 56.
Ghazni, 495.
Kutub, 505.
Gaur, 550.
Mirzapore, Queen’s mosque at, 529.
Moggalana, relic casket of, 62.
Mogul architecture, 569.
Originality of the buildings, 569.
Works of Shere Shah, 572.
Akbar, 574-586.
Jehangir, 587-589.
Shah Jehan, 589.
Aurungzebe, 602-604.
Oude and Mysore, 604-607.
Mohammad Ghaus, tomb of, at Gualior, 576.
View, 577.
Monasteries, or viharas, 133.
Gandhara, 169.
Burmese, 626-630.
Thibetan, 312.
Pekin, 693.
Monoliths at Dimapur, 309.
Moodbidri, Jaina temple at, 271, 272.
Pillar, 273.
Tomb of priests, 275.
Mooháfiz Khan, mosque of, 532.
Mortar, non-users of, 660.
Mosques: Adinah, 549.
Agra, 596.
Ahmedabad, 527.
Ajmir, 511.
Baroach, 537.
Bijapur, 559.
Cambay, 537.
Canouge, 525.
Delhi, 601.
Dhar, 540.
Dolka, 537.
Futtehpore, 581.
Gaur, 547.
Kala Musjid, 518.
Kalburgah, 553.
Kashmir, 609.
Kutub Minar (Old Delhi), 501.
Jaunpore, 521.
Mandu, 543.
Mirzapore, 529.
Mooháfiz Khan, 532.
Sirkej, 531.
Mosques, converted, 263, 264.
Mouhot, M., researches in Cambodia, 663.
Muktagiri, Jaina temples at, 240.
Mukteswara, Orissa, temple of, 419.
Mûlot in the Salt Range, temple at, 296.
Mûti Musjid, the, or pearl mosque, 599.
View in courtyard, 600.
Muttra, rail at, 91.
Mysore, 392, 604.
Mythology of the Hindus, 35-42.
Nagas, or Snake worshippers, 10.
Head-quarters, 297.
_See_ Kashmir, Cambodia, Nakhon Wat, Ongcor Thom.
Nahapana vihara, Nassick, 149.
Pillar in, 150.
Nakhon Thom (the Great City), Cambodia, 666.
Nakhon Wat (Cambodian temple), its grand dimensions, 667.
Plan, 668.
Uncemented masonry, 669.
Elevation, 670.
Corridors, 671, 672.
General view, 675.
Pillars, 676, 677.
Multiplicity of snake-sculptures, 677.
Nankau Pass, archway in, near the Great Wall, China, 709.
Nankin, porcelain tower at, 695.
Nassick, chaitya cave at, 115.
Nat-mandir, or dancing-hall at Bhuvaneswar, 423.
Neminatha, Girnar, temple of, 230.
Nepal, 298.
Its architecture, 299.
History, 300-302.
Stupas or chaityas, 302.
Kosthakar, 303.
Temples, 304-318.
Nigope Behar cave, 108.
Ongcor Thom, temple of, 679.
Tower and sculptured masks, and tradition relating thereto, 680.
Palaces and public buildings, 682.
Orissa, fragment of a column from a temple in, 317.
History, 415.
Architecture, 417.
Earliest authentic building, 417.
Temples, 418-420.
Ornament, honeysuckle, at Allahabad, 53.
From the tomb of Mahmúd at Ghazni, 496.
Oudeypore, cenotaph of Singram Sing, 471.
In Maha Sâti at, 473.
Ourtcha, Bundelcund, palace at, 478.
Pagan, ruins of, 614.
Ananda temple, 615.
Thapinya, plan, 615.
Section, 616.
Temple of Gaudapalen and Sem Byo Koo, 617.
Pagodas, Hindu, 221, 344.
Burmese, 619-626.
Siamese, 632.
Chinese, 697.
Pailoos, or “Triumphal Gateways” of the Chinese, 700.
Near Canton, 701.
At Amoy, 702.
Palaces, 475.
Allahabad, 583.
Ambêr, 480.
Chittore, 476.
Deeg, 481.
Delhi, 591.
Duttiah, 477.
Gualior, 479.
Ourtcha, 478.
Pekin, 705.
Palitana, the Sacred Hill of Sutrunjya, near, 227.
Panataram, three-storeyed temple at, 654.
View, 655.
Serpent temple, 658.
Pandrethan, temple at, 294.
Pandyas, the, 321.
Parasurameswara, Orissa, temple of, 418.
Parisnath, 239.
Patan, temple of Mahadeo and Krishna, 306.
Paten ta Prohm, Cambodia, character of the buildings of, 667.
Temple, 681.
Pathan style, 498-513.
Later Pathan, 514-519.
Pathans, the, 498.
Historical summary, 498.
Their architectural glories and career, 499.
Examples, 503-519.
_See_ Delhi.
Pavilions: Ceylon, 167.
Gurusankerry, 274.
Baillûr, 397.
Vijayanagar, 385.
Hullabîd, 403.
Sirkej, 532.
Pekin, 705.
Payech, Kashmiri temple at, 294.
View, 295.
Pegu, Shoëmadu pagoda at, 620.
Pekin, temple of Confucius, 689.
Temple of the Great Dragon, 689.
Gateway of monastery, 698.
Tombs, 700.
Summer palace, 705.
Winter palace, 707.
Pemiongchi, Nepal, porch of temple at, 313.
View, 314.
Pendants to domes, 216.
At Vimala Sah, 237.
Pendentive from mosque at Old Delhi, 519.
Bijapur, 564.
Peroor, near Coimbatore, date of porch, 370.
Compound pillar at, 372.
Perumal pagoda, Mádura, 331.
Pillars: Ajunta, 156.
Amravati, 101.
Avantipore, 293.
Barrolli, 451.
Ceylon, 196.
Chandravati, 238.
Cuttack, 140.
Delhi, 507.
Ellora, 443.
Erun, 317.
Futtehpore Sikri, 579.
Gautamiputra, 150.
Jajepur, 432.
Kashmir, 283.
Mádura, 361.
Moodbidri, 273.
Nahapana, 150.
Peroor, 372.
Srinagar, 284.
Vellore, 372.
Yadnya Sri, 152.
Pittadkul, plan of temple at, 221.
Temple of Papanatha at, 437.
View, 438.
Pollonarua, Ceylon, 199.
Extent and epoch of its temples, 200.
Examples, 201-203.
Poonah, Saiva temple near, 447.
Porches: Anwah, 251.
Chillambaram, 351.
Delhi, 259.
Jaina, 216.
Prome, early capital of Burmah, 613.
Provincial building, Gujerat, 537-539.
Puri, 428.
Plan of Juganât, temple at, 430.
View of tower, 431.
Purudkul, or Pittadkul, great temple of, 338.
Queen’s mosque, Mirzapore, 529.
Raffles, Sir Stamford, 638.
Rails: Amravati, 93.
Bharhut, 86.
Buddh Gaya, 85.
Dhumnar, 131.
Gautamiputra, 94.
Kenheri, 130.
Kholvi, 132.
Muttra, 91.
Sanchi, 92.
‘Raja Tarangini,’ the, or native History of Kashmir, 289, 297.
Rajputana, bund of, 486.
Rajsamundra, bund of Lake, 487.
Ramisseram, great temple at, 355.
Plan, 356.
Its dimensions, 357.
Corridors, 358.
View of central corridor, 358.
Rangûn, the Shoëdagong pagoda at, 622.
View, 623.
Rani Gumpha cave, the, 140.
Rath at Mahavellipore, 134, 175, 326, 328.
Relic worship, Buddhist, origin of, 57.
Distribution and depositaries of the relics, 58, 59, 66, 189, 195.
Discoveries of, 622.
Reservoirs, or bowlees, scope for architectural display in, 486.
Roads and bridges of the Cambodians, 683.
Rock-cut temples, 437-447.
Roofing, diagrams, 213-215.
Modern curved style, 546.
Chinese, 703.
Ruanwelli dagoba, Anuradhapura, 190, 191.
Sadri, Khumbo Rana’s temple at, 240.
View, 241.
External view, beauty of details, &c., 242.
Saftar Jung, tomb of, near the Kutub, 604.
Sakya Muni, founder of Buddhism, 15.
His early life and subsequent self-mortification, 15.
Result of his appeal to his countrymen, 16.
Salsette, Durbar cave at, 147.
Kenheri caves, 161.
Saluvan Kuppan Tiger Cave, 333.
Sanchi, great tope, 61, 63.
View, plan, section, and details, 63.
Rails at, 92, 93.
Gateways, 95-97.
Small tope, 98.
Torans, 99.
Chaitya hall, 105.
Sankissa, capital of a lât at, 54.
Sariputra, relic-casket of, 62.
Sarnath, tope at, 65-68.
Vihara, 173.
Satapanni cave, 108.
Satdhara topes, 64.
Sat Ghurba cave, 108.
Scinde, tombs in, 567.
Sculptures, 32-35.
In the Gandhara monasteries, 176, 177.
Secundra, Akbar’s tomb at, 583.
Plan, 584.
Diagram section, 585.
View, 586.
Seringham, pillared hall at, 347.
View of temple, 349.
Serpent temples, 653.
Serpent-worship, 266.
Shah Dehri, plan of Ionic monastery at, 176.
Ionic pillar, 176.
Shah Hamadan, mosque of, Srinugger, 608.
Shah Jehan, 589.
Palace at Delhi, 591.
Taje Mehal, 595.
The Mûti Musjid, 599.
Shepree, near Gualior, Pathan tomb at, 515.
Shere Shah, works of, 572.
Tomb, 573.
Shoëdagong Pagoda at Rangûn, 622.
Shoëmadu, Pegu, the Great Pagoda at, 620.
View and plan, 621.
Siam, early and present capitals, 631.
Ayuthia, 632.
Bangkok, 634.
Sikras, or Vimanas, 221-225.
Sirkej, tombs and mosque at, 531.
Pavilion, 532.
Sisunaga dynasty, 14.
Siva, serpent of, 41, _note_.
Snake sculptures, 676, 677.
Somnath, Girnar, temple, 232.
Somnathpûr in Mysore, temple at, 393.
View, 394.
Sonaghur, Bundelcund, Jaina temple at, 256.
Sonari topes, 64.
Soubramanya, temple at Tanjore, 345.
Sravana Belgula, colossal statue at, 267.
Bastis, 269.
View, 270.
Sri Allat, tower of, at Chittore, 251.
View, 252.
Srinagar, Kashmir, pillar at, 284.
Srinugger, Jumma Musjid at, 608.
Shah Hamadan Mosque, 608.
View, 609.
Stambhas, 52.
At Gurusankerry, 276.
They illustrate the rise and progress of Indian architecture, 277.
_See_ Lâts.
Statues: Seperawa, 200.
Sravana Belgula, 267.
Kârkala, 268.
Yannûr, 268.
St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, resemblance to Hindu plans, 218.
Stupas, or Topes, 57.
_See_ Topes.
Stupas, or Chaityas, Nepal, 302.
Sudama, or Nigope Cave, 108.
Suku, Java, group of temples, 660.
Their likeness to contemporary edifices in Yucatan and Mexico, 661.
Sultangunge, near Monghyr, vihara at, 137.
Sultanpore, tope at, 78.
Small model found in the tope, 126.
Sunga dynasty, 19.
Surkh Minar, Cabul, 56.
Swayambunath, Nepal, temple, 302.
Taas of the Chinese, 695.
Taje Mehal, the, 595.
View, 596.
Plan and section, 597.
Details, inlayings of precious stones, &c., 598.
Takht-i-Bahi, plan of monastery at, 171.
Takt-i-Suleiman, Kashmir, Hindu temple at, 282.
Tanjore, diagram plan of pagoda at, 343.
View of Great Pagoda, 344.
Temple of Soubramanya, 345.
Tarputry, temples at, 375.
Views of gopura, 376, 377.
Tassiding, doorway of Nepalese temple at, 313.
Tatta, tomb of Nawab Amir Khan near, 568.
Teen Tal, a Buddhist vihara, at Ellora, 165.
Tees in rock-cut temples, 64.
At Ajunta, 64.
Tejpala and Vastupala, triple temple at, Girnar, 232.
Temples: Abu, 234.
Ahmedabad, 257.
Aiwulli, 218.
Ajmir, 263.
Amritsur, 468.
Amwah, 250.
Avantipore, 292.
Badami, 411.
Baillûr, 393.
Bakeng (Mount), 682.
Bancorah, 14.
Barrolli, 449.
Benares, 412, 459.
Bhanghur, 250.
Bhaniyar, 292.
Bharput, 168.
Bhatgaon, 304.
Bhuvaneswar, 418.
Bindrabun, 464.
Boro Buddor, 643.
Brambanam, 651.
Buchropully, 389.
Cambodia, 666.
Canouge, 263.
Chandravati, 448.
Chillambaram, 350.
Chinese, 689, 694.
Chittore, 459.
Colombo, 332.
Combaconum, 367.
Delhi, 259.
Djeing Plateau, 659.
Gaudapalen, 617.
Girnar, 230.
Gualior, 244, 453, 462.
Gyraspore, 249.
Hammoncondah, 390.
Hullabîd, 397.
Java, 650.
Kanaruc, 426.
Kantonuggur, 467.
Khajurâho, 245, 455.
Kiragrama, 316.
Mádura, 359.
Marttand, 285.
Mendoet, 650.
Moodbidri, 271.
Mûlot, 297.
Nepal, 302.
Pagan, 615.
Pandrethan, 294.
Patan, 306.
Payech, 295.
Pemiongchi, 314.
Pittadkul, 221, 438.
Poonah, 446.
Puri (Juganât), 431.
Ramisseram, 355.
Sadri, 240.
Seringham, 347.
Sonaghur, 256.
Somnathpûr, 394.
Sravana Belgula, 270.
Suku, 660.
Tanjore, 344.
Tassiding, 313.
Tinnevelly, 366.
Tiruvalur, 346.
Udaipur, 457.
Vellore, 371.
Vijayanagar, 375.
Tennent, Sir Emerson, works on Ceylon by, 185, 200.
Thapinya, temple of, at Pagan, 615.
Section, 616.
Thatún, pagoda at, 613.
Thibet, exclusion of travellers, number and character of its monasteries, 311.
The Delai Lama, and the worship paid to him, 312.
_See_ Nepal.
Thomson, Mr. J., his photographs of the Great Temple of
Nakhon Wat, 671, 672, 675-677.
Thuparamaya Tope, Buddhist relic-shrine, 192.
Tiger-cave at Cuttack, 143.
At Saluvan Kuppan, 333.
Tinnevelly, temple at, 366.
Dimensions, details, &c., 367.
Tirhoot, lâts, or inscribed pillars at, 53.
Capital, 54.
Tirthankars, Jaina Saints, 208, 331.
Tirumulla Nayak’s choultrie, 361.
Dimensions, cost, and ornamentation, 362.
View, 363.
Tombs: Bijapur, 561.
Butwa, 536.
Chinese, 698.
Delhi (Old), 509, 516.
Gualior, 577.
Gujerat, 534.
Lucknow, 606.
Moodbidri, 275.
Secundra, 584.
Shepree, near Gualior, 515.
Sirkej, 531.
Tatta, 568.
Tooth of Buddha, its sanctity, shrines, migrations, &c., 58, 59, 161.
Topes or stupas of the Buddhists, their form and purpose, 58.
Bhilsa group, 61.
Example at Sanchi, 63.
Invariable accompaniments to these structures, 64.
Sarnath and Behar, 66-68.
The Jarasandha Ka Baithak, 68, 69.
Buddh Gaya, 69, 70.
Amravati, 71, 72.
Gandhara, 72-76.
Jelalabad group, 77.
Bimeran, 78.
Sultanpore, 78.
Manikyala, 79-83.
Torans, 95.
_See_ Gateways.
Towers: Bangkok, 653.
Chittore, 253.
Nankin, 695.
Ongcor Thom, 680.
Tree and Serpent temples, 653.
Tree-worship, 266.
Trisul emblem at Amravati, 104.
Tung Chow pagoda, 697.
Udaipur, temple at, 456.
View, 457.
Udayagiri, Cuttack, caves at, 138.
Ujjain dynasty, 22.
Ulwar, tomb of Rajah Baktawar at, 474.
Umbrella ornaments on topes, 64, 80, 125, 126.
Vellore, near Coimbatore, 370.
View of portico of temple, 371.
Compound pillar, 372.
Ventura, General, topes opened by, 79, 81.
Victory, Tower of, at Chittore, 253.
Vigne’s travels in Kashmir, 280.
Viharas, or monasteries, 133.
Diagram, 134.
Nalanda, 136.
Sultangunge, 137.
Sarnath, 137.
Viharas, 144-147.
Nassick, 147-151.
Ajunta, 153-159.
Bagh, 159, 160.
Ellora, 163.
Vijayanagar, 373.
Destroyed by the Mahomedans, 374.
View of temple of Vitoba at, 375.
Garden pavilion, 384.
Palace, 385.
Vimala Sah, temple of, 235.
Vimanas, or Sikras, 221-225.
Vishveshwar temple, Benares, 459.
View, 460.
Viswakarma Cave, Ellora, 128.
Vitoba, temple of, at Vijayanagar, 375.
Wall, Great, in China, 708.
Waniyat, Kashmir, group of temples at, 293.
Well-holes in temples, 654, 656.
Window at Ahmedabad, 533.
Wooden architecture, Kashmir, 608.
Mosques at Srinugger, 608.
Wooden temples, similarity to the wooden architecture
of Sweden and Norway, 308.
Worangul, Kirti Stambhas in, 391.
View, 392.
Yadnya Sri cave, Nassick, 151.
Pillar in, 152.
Yannûr, colossal statue at, 268.
Zein-ul-ab-ud-dín, tomb of, 281.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] ‘History of Architecture in all Countries.’ 2nd ed. Murray, 1867.
[2] ‘History of Architecture,’ vol. ii. pp. 445-756, Woodcuts 966-1163.
[3] A distinguished German professor, Herr Kinkel of Zürich, in his
‘Mosaik zur Kunstgeschichte, Berlin, 1876,’ has lately adopted my views
with regard to the age of Stonehenge without any reservation, though
arriving at that conclusion by a very different chain of reasoning from
that I was led to adopt.
[4] The following brief résumé of the principal events in the ancient
history of India has no pretensions to being a complete or exhaustive
view of the subject. It is intended only as such a popular sketch
as shall enable the general reader to grasp the main features of
the story to such an extent as may enable him to understand what
follows. In order to make it readable, all references and all proofs
of disputed facts have been postponed. They will be found in the body
of the work, where they are more appropriate, and the data on which
the principal disputed dates are fixed will be found in an Appendix
especially devoted to their discussion. Unfortunately no book exists
to which the reader could with advantage be referred; and without some
such introductory notice of the political history and ethnography the
artistic history would be nearly, if not wholly, unintelligible.
[5] ‘Asiatic Researches,’ vol. xv. p. i.
[6] Almost the only person who has of late done anything in this
direction is Sir Walter Elliot. His papers in the ‘Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society’ and the ‘Madras Journal’ throw immense light on the
subject, but to complete the task we want many workers instead of only
one.
[7] All this has been so fully gone into by me in my work on ‘Tree and
Serpent Worship,’ pp. 63, _et seqq._, that it will not be necessary to
repeat it here.
[8] Dr. Caldwell, the author of the ‘Dravidian Grammar,’ is the
greatest and most trustworthy advocate of this view.
[9] ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ pp. 244-247.
[10] In Arrian there is a curious passage which seems certainly to
refer to this people. “During the space,” he says, “of 6042 years in
which the 153 monarchs reigned, the Indians had the liberty of being
governed by their own laws only twice, once for about 200 years, and
after that for about 120 years.”--‘Indica,’ ch. ix. The Puranas, as may
be supposed, do not help us to identify these two periods.
[11] I cannot help fancying that they occupied some part of southern
India, and even Ceylon, before the arrival of the Dravidians. It seems
difficult otherwise to account for the connection between Behar and
Ceylon in early ages, and the spread of Buddhism in that island leaping
over the countries which had been Dravidianised.
[12] I cannot help suspecting that the Gonds also belong to this
northern race. It is true they speak a language closely allied to the
Tamil; but language, though invaluable as a guide, is nearly useless
as a test of affinity. The Romans imposed their language on all the
diverse nationalities of Italy, France, and Spain. We have imposed ours
on the Cornish, and are fast teaching the Irish, Welsh, and Highlanders
of Scotland to abandon their tongue for ours, and the process is
rapidly going on elsewhere. The manners and customs of the Gonds are
all similar to those of the Coles or Khonds, though, it is true, they
speak a Dravidian tongue.
[13] The most pleasing of the histories of Buddha, written wholly from
a European point of view, is that of Barthélemy St. Hilaire, Paris. Of
those partially native, partly European, are those of Bishop Bigandet,
from the Burmese legends, and the ‘Romantic History of Buddha,’
translated from the Chinese by the Rev. S. Beal. The ‘Lalita Vistara,’
translated by Foucaud, is more modern than these, and consequently more
fabulous and absurd.
[14] There may possibly be an error of forty to sixty years in this
date; but, on the whole, that here given is supported by the greatest
amount of concurrent testimony, and may, after all, prove to be
minutely correct.
[15] ‘Foé Koué Ki,’ xxv. ch. 11; ‘Mahawanso,’ v. p. 20; ‘Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vi. 527.
[16]
[Illustration]
One coin at least of the period is well known. It belongs to a king
called Kunanda or Krananda, generally assumed to be one of the nine
Nandas with whom this dynasty closed. In the centre, on one side, is
a Dagoba with the usual Buddhist Trisul emblem over it, and a serpent
below it; on the right the Sacred Tree, on the left a Swastica with
an altar? on the other side a lady with a lotus (Sri?) with an animal
usually called a deer, but from its tail more probably a horse, with
two serpents standing on their tails over its head, which have been
mistaken for horns. Over the animal is an altar, with an umbrella over
it. In fact, a complete epitome of emblems known on the monuments of
the period, but savouring much more of Tree and Serpent worship than of
Buddhism, as it is now known. ‘Journal of the Koyal Asiatic Society,’
vol. i. (N.S.) p. 447, _et seqq._
[17] All these particulars, it need hardly be said, are taken from
the 12th and 15th chapters of the ‘Mahawanso,’ confirmed by the
inscriptions themselves and the relics found at Sanchi, to all which
reference will be made hereafter.
[18] Wilson’s ‘Hindu Drama,’ vol. xii. p. 151, _et seqq._, edition 1871.
[19] Lassen, it is true, brings these dates down by ten years below
where I have placed it. But he overlooks the fact that according to his
hypothesis Asoka, in the sixteenth year of his reign, would claim Magas
as his ally ten or twelve years after his death, which is improbable.
[20] For complete details of these two monuments and the dates,
the reader is referred to my ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ which is
practically devoted to a description of these two monuments.
[21] ‘Vie et Voyages de Hiouen Thsang,’ i. p. 215. It need hardly
be said that all these particulars are taken from the three volumes
relating his Indian experiences, translated by Stanislas Julien.
[22] This does not apply to Orissa, which, from its remote situation,
and having at that time no resident Buddhist population, seems to have
escaped being drawn into the vortex of these troubles.
[23] The best and most accepted account of these events is found in
Vivien de St. Martin’s ‘Les Huns blancs,’ Paris, 1849.
[24] Cunningham’s ‘Numismatic Chron.,’ viii. 175; ‘Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vii. 704; Lassen’s ‘Indische Alterth.,’ ii.
p. 24.
[25] I wrote a paper stating the evidence in favour of this last view,
which I intended should appear in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society.’
The evidence being, however, incomplete, it has only been printed for
private circulation.
[26] ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. viii.
p. 28.
[27] Ibid., vol. v. p. 42.
[28] The argument on which these assertions are founded is stated at
length in the privately printed pamphlet alluded to on preceding page.
It is too long to insert here, but, if not published before this work
is complete, an abstract will be inserted in the Appendix.
[29] ‘Journal of the Koyal Asiatic Society,’ vol. iii. p. 202.
[30] For an exhaustive description of this subject see Priaulx, ‘India
and Rome,’ London, 1873. My own impressions are, I confess, entirely in
favour of the northern origin of the embassy. We are now in a position
to prove an intimate connection between the north of India and Rome at
that time. With the south it seems to have been only trade, but of this
hereafter.
[31] ‘Dravidian Grammar,’ second edition, London, 1875, p. 129, _et
seqq._
[32] Sir Walter Elliot and others frequently speak of Buddhist
monuments in the south. I have never, however, been able to see
a photograph or drawing of any one except at Amravati and its
neighbourhood.
[33] In his ‘Elements of South Indian Palæography,’ Mr. Burnell, the
last and best authority on the subject, divides the South Indian
alphabet into Chera, Chalukya, and Vengi. The first, he states, appears
in Mysore in the second half of the 5th century. The oldest specimen of
the second he dates from the first half of that century. The third is
more modern.
[34] I am, of course, aware of the existence of a so-called Buddhist
pagoda at Negapatam. It was, however, utilised by the British--for
railway purposes, I believe--before it was photographed, so its history
may for ever remain a mystery. On the spot it was apparently known as
the Jaina (hence China) pagoda, which it may have been. To me it looks
like the gopura of a small Hindu temple, but I have no real knowledge
on the subject. See Yule’s ‘Marco Polo,’ vol. ii. p. 320, second
edition.
[35] ‘Storia della Scultura, dal suo risorgimento in Italia sino al
secolo di Napoleone,’ Venezia, 1813.
[36] “The ritual of the Veda is chiefly, if not wholly, addressed
to the elements, particularly to fire.”--H. H. Wilson, ‘Asiatic
Researches,’ xvii. p. 194; ibid., p. 614.
[37] A list of the twenty-four Buddhas, with these particulars,
is given in the introduction to Tumour’s ‘Mahawanso,’ p. 32.
Representations of six or seven of these Bodhi-trees, with the names
attached, have been found at Bharhut, showing at least that more than
four were recognised in the time of Asoka. If the rail there were
entire, it is probable representations of the whole might be found.
[38] Stobæus, ‘Physica,’ Gaisford’s edition, p. 54. See also Priaulx,
‘India and Rome,’ p. 153.
[39] Wilson’s ‘Ariana Antiqua,’ plates 10, 11.
[40] A book has recently been published by the late Mr. Breeks, of the
Madras Civil Service, on the primitive tribes of the Nilagiris, which
gives a fuller account of these ‘rude stone monuments’ than any other
yet given to the public. It can hardly, however, be accepted as a
solution of the problem, which requires a wider survey than he was able
to make.
[41] The serpent of Siva is always a cobra, or poisonous snake, and
used by him as an awe-inspiring weapon, a very different animal from
the many-headed tutelary Naga, the guardian angel of mankind, and
regarded only with feelings of love and veneration by his votaries. It
may also be remarked that no tree is appropriated to Siva, and no trace
of tree worship mingled with the various forms of adoration paid to
this divinity--a circumstance in itself quite sufficient to distinguish
this form of faith from that of the Dasyu group which pervaded the
valley of the Ganges.
[42] Page 41. Dr. Cornish, in the introduction to the ‘Madras
Statistical Tables,’ p. 67, states this at only 30,000,000--a very
considerable difference; but on the whole I am inclined to place faith
in Dr. Caldwell’s figures.
[43] ‘Madras Report,’ p. 90.
[44] These remarks must not be taken as applying to sculpture also.
It is quite true that no stone sculptures have yet been found in
India of an earlier date than the age of Asoka; but, as will be
seen in the sequel, the perfection the Indian artists had attained
in stone sculpture when they executed the bas-reliefs at
Bharhut (B.C. 200), shows a familiarity with the material that
could only be attained by long practice.
[45] No mention of temples, or, indeed, of buildings is, I believe,
found in the Vedas, and though both are frequently alluded to, and
described in the Epic Poems and the Puranas, this hardly helps us;
first because, like all verbal descriptions of buildings, they are
too vague to be intelligible, and secondly, because there is no proof
that the passages containing these descriptions may not have been
interpolated after--probably long after--the Christian Era.
[46] I believe I was the first to ascertain these facts from a personal
inspection of the monuments themselves. They were communicated to the
Royal Asiatic Society in a paper I read on the ‘Rock-cut Temples of
India,’ in 1842. Every subsequent research, and every increase of our
knowledge, has tended to confirm those views to such an extent that
they are not now disputed by any one acquainted with the literature of
the subject, though some writers do still indulge in rhapsodies about
the primæval antiquity of the caves, and their connection with those
of Egypt, &c. Till all this is put on one side, no clear idea can be
obtained of the true position of the art in India.
[47] From two Sanscrit words, Dhatu, a relic, and Garbha (Pali,
Gabbhan), the womb, receptacle, shrine of a relic. (Turnour,
‘Mahawanso,’ p. 5.) The word Pagoda is probably a corruption of Dagoba.
[48] In Nepal, according to Hodgson, and, I believe, in Thibet, the
monuments which are called Stupas in India are there called Chaityas.
Etymologically, this is no doubt the correct designation, as Chaitya,
like Stupa, means primarily a heap or tumulus, but it also means a
place of sacrifice or religious worship--an altar from Chíta, a heap,
an assemblage, a multitude, &c. (Monier Williams’ ‘Sanscrit Dictionary’
_sub voce_). Properly speaking, therefore, these caves ought perhaps to
be called “halls containing a chaitya,” or “chaitya halls,” and this
latter term will consequently be used wherever any ambiguity is likely
to arise from the use of the simple term Chaitya.
[49] These inscriptions have been published in various forms and
at various times by the Asiatic Societies of Calcutta and London
(‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vi. p. 566, _et
seqq._; ‘Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. xii. p. 153, _et
seqq._) and in various other publications, but always mixed up with
extraneous matters. It is, however, very much to be regretted that
a carefully-edited translation is not issued in some separate form
easily accessible to the general public. An absolutely authentic and
unaltered body of Buddhist doctrine, as it stood 250 years before
the birth of Christ, would be one of the most valuable contributions
possible to the religious history of the modern world, and so much has
been already done that the task does not seem difficult. Among other
things, they explain to us negatively why we have so little history
in India in these days. Asoka is only busied about doctrines. He does
not even mention his father’s name; and makes no allusion to any
historical event, not even those connected with the life of the founder
of the religion. Among a people so careless of genealogy, history is
impossible.
[50] ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vi. p. 794.
[51] Ibid., plate 40.
[52] Ibid., p. 969, _et seqq._
[53] These dimensions are taken from Capt. Burt’s drawings published in
the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. iii. plate 3.
[54] ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ plates 9, 10, 10a, _et passim_.
[55] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 274, plate 46.
[56] ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ plates 1 and 5, and plates 89 and 90.
[57] Ibid., plate 42.
[58] In the description accompanying Daniell’s view of this cave he
says: “On the pillars to the right, above the capital, is a group of
lions, from the centre of which a few years since arose the chacra, or
war disk of Vichnou, though not the least appearance of it at present
remains.” On the left he remarked a figure of Buddha, which he mistook
for Mahadeva, and in another part a row of bulls, and he adds: “The
Chacra of Vichnou, the Mahadeva, and the bulls, seem not to favour the
opinion of its being a temple of the Bhoods.” He was not aware how
inextricably these religions were mixed up at the time when this cave
was excavated, about A.D. 400.
[59] Turnour in ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vii.,
p. 1013.
The fame of this distribution seems to have reached Europe at least as
early as the 1st century of the Christian Era, inasmuch as Plutarch
(‘Moralia,’ p. 1002, Dübner edition, Paris, 1841) describes a similar
partition of the remains of Menander, among eight cities who are said
to have desired to possess his remains; but as he does not hint that it
was for purposes of worship, the significance of the fact does not seem
to have been appreciated.
[60] ‘Mahawanso,’ p. 26, ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. ii. p. 417.
[61] Account of the great bell at Rangoon, Hough, ‘Asiatic Researches,’
vol. xiv. p. 270.
[62] Abstracted from Turnour’s ‘Mahawanso,’ p. 4.
[63] There may be an error in this date to the extent of its being from
fifteen to twenty years too early.
[64] The principal particulars of this story are contained in a
Cingalese work called the ‘Daladavamsa,’ recently translated by Sir
Mutu Comara Swamy. I have collected the further evidence on this
subject in a paper I read to the Asiatic Society, and published in
their ‘Journal’ (N.S.), vol. iii p. 132, _et. seqq._, and again in
‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ p. 174, _et. seqq._
[65] The date being given as 245, Samvat has generally been assumed to
be dated from the era of Vicramaditya. I am not aware, however, of any
inscription of so early an age being dated from that era, nor of any
Buddhist inscription in which it is used either then or thereafter.
[66] The same fate had overtaken another tooth relic at Nagrak in
northern India. Fa Hian, B.C. 400, describes it as perfect in his 13th
chapter. ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. ii. p. 97, describes the stupa as ruined,
and the tooth having disappeared.
[67] For a translation, &c., see ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. v. p. 33. See also Bird, ‘Historical
Researches,’ Bombay, 1847.
[68] ‘Foé Koué Ki,’ ch. xii. p. 77.
[69] ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. i. p. 83.
[70] ‘Foé Koué Ki,’ p. 353. A detailed account of its transference from
the true Gandhara--Peshawur--to the new Gandhara in Kandahar will be
found in a paper by Sir Henry Rawlinson, ‘Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society,’ vol. xi. p. 127.
[71] Among the bas-reliefs of the Bharhut tope is one representing just
such a domical roof as this (Woodcut No. 90). It is not, however, quite
easy to make out its plan, nor to feel sure whether the object on the
altar is a relic, or whether it may not be some other kind of offering.
[72] ‘Bhilsa Topes, or Buddhist Monuments in Central India,’ Smith,
Elder, and Co., 1854. One half of my work on ‘Tree and Serpent
Worship,’ and forty-five of its plates, besides woodcuts, are devoted
to the illustration of the great Tope; and numerous papers have
appeared on the same subject in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society’
and elsewhere. A cast of the eastern gateway is in the South Kensington
Museum.
[73] ‘Mahawanso,’ p. 76. See also ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ p. 99,
_et seqq._, where all this is more fully set out than is necessary here.
[74] Cunningham, ‘Bhilsa Topes,’ p. 299, _et seqq._
[75] The Chandragupta inscription on the rail near the eastern
gateway (‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. ii. p.
454) is evidently a subsequent addition, and belongs to the year
A.D. 400.
[76] These views, plans, &c., are taken from a Memoir by Capt. J. D.
Cunningham, ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ August, 1847.
[77] As all the particulars regarding all these topes, except the great
one and No. 3 of Sanchi, are taken from Gen. Cunningham’s work entitled
‘Bhilsa Topes,’ published by Smith and Elder, in one volume 8vo., in
1854, it has not been thought necessary to repeat the reference at
every statement.
[78] These dimensions and details are taken from Gen. Cunningham’s
‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 107, _et seqq._
[79] ‘Asiatic Researches,’ vol. ix. p. 203.
[80] See also paper by Vesy Westmacott, ‘Calcutta Review,’ 1874, vol.
lix. p. 68.
[81] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 17.
[82] Ibid., p. 19.
[83] ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. iii. p. 60.
[84] Buchanan Hamilton was told by the priests on the spot, in
1811, that it was planted there 2225 years ago, or B.C. 414,
and that the temple was built 126 years afterwards, or in 289. Not a
bad guess for Asoka’s age in a locality where Buddhism has been so long
forgotten. Montgomery Martin’s ‘Eastern India,’ vol. i. p. 76.
[85] ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. ii. pp. 464-468.
[86] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 5.
[87] ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ 1834, vol. iv. p. 214.
See also Cunningham, ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 5, _et seqq._
[88] ‘Hiouen Thsang, Festival of the three Religions at Allahabad in
643,’ vol. i. p. 254.
[89] A view of it is given, ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’
vol. iv. p. 122.
[90] Beal’s ‘Fa Hian,’ p. 35.
[91] ‘Vie et Voyages de Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. i. p. 83.
[92] De Guigne’s ‘Histoire des Huns,’ vol. ii. p. 40, _et seqq._
[93] ‘Mahawanso,’ p. 71.
[94] ‘Ariana Antiqua,’ p. 43.
[95] ‘Ariana Antiqua,’ plate 10.
[96] Vassilief, ‘Le Bouddhisme, ses Dogmes,’ &c., Paris, 1865, p. 31,
_et passim_. He spells the words Makhaiana and Khinaiana.
[97] Beal’s translation, p. 26.
[98] Honigberger, ‘Reise.’
[99] Mr. Masson’s account was communicated to Professor Wilson, and
by him published in his ‘Ariana Antiqua,’ with lithographs from Mr.
Masson’s sketches which, though not so detailed as we could wish, are
still sufficient to render their form and appearance intelligible.
[100] The length of time over which these coins range--more than 200
years--is sufficient to warn us what caution is requisite in fixing the
date of buildings from their deposits. A tope cannot be earlier than
the coins deposited in it, but, as in this case, it may be one or two
hundred years more modern.
[101] ‘Ariana Antiqua,’ p. 109.
[102] Thomas in ‘Prinsep,’ vol. i. p. 144.
[103] ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. iii. p. 559.
[104] Thomas in ‘Prinsep,’ p. 148.
[105] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. ii. p. 167, plate 65.
[106] Thomas’s ‘Prinsep,’ vol. i. p. 94.
[107] In the text it is certainly printed “three” with a reference to
19 in the plate 21 of vol. iii. The latter is undoubtedly a misprint,
and I cannot help believing the former is so also, as only one fragment
is figured; and Prinsep complains more than once of the state of the
French MS. from which he was compiling his account. I observe that
General Cunningham, in his volume just received, adopts the same views.
At p. 78, vol. v., he says: “I have a strong suspicion that General
Ventura’s record of three Sassanian coins having been found below
deposit B may be erroneous.”
[108] ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. iii. plate 21,
fig. 18.
[109] ‘Foé Koué Ki,’ chap. xiii.
[110] ‘Fa Hian,’ Beal’s translation, p. 32. ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. i. p.
89.
[111] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. ii. p. 172.
[112] ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ Preface to the First Edition.
[113] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 10.
[114] ‘Memorandum,’ dated 13th April, 1874, printed by the Bengal
Government, but not published.
[115] ‘Voyages dans les Contrées Occidentales,’ vol. i. p. 465.
[116] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. plates 8 to 11.
[117] For this last determination, see ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ p.
99, _et seqq._
[118] It is to be hoped that when Gen. Cunningham publishes the volume
he is preparing on the Bharhut Tope, he will add photographs of the
pillars of this rail. It would add immensely to the value of his work
if it afforded the means of comparing the two. Some illustrations of
the sculpture from Major Kittoe’s drawings will be found in ‘Tree and
Serpent Worship,’ woodcuts 7, 20, 24. Two of them are reproduced here,
the first representing a man on his knees before an altar worshipping
a tree, while a flying figure brings a garland to adorn it. The other
represents a relic casket, over which a seven-headed Naga spreads
his hood, and over him an umbrella of state. There are, besides, two
trees in a sacred enclosure, and another casket with three umbrellas
(Woodcuts Nos. 25, 26). They are from drawings by Major Kittoe.
[119] ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ p. 99, _et seqq._
[120] When I wrote my work on ‘Tree and Serpent Worship’ nothing was
practically known as to the age of the jatakas, or the early form in
which they were represented; much, therefore, that was then advanced
was, or at least appeared to others to be, mere guess work, or daring
speculation. It is, consequently, no small satisfaction to me to find
that this subsequent discovery of a monument 200 years earlier does
not force me to unsay a single word I then said. On the contrary,
everything I then advanced is confirmed, and these inscriptions render
certain what before their discovery was necessarily sometimes deficient
in proof.
[121] The following outline (Woodcut No. 28, on the next page) of
one of the bas-reliefs on a pillar at Bharhut may serve to convey an
idea of the style of art and of the quaint way in which the stories
are there told. On the left, a king with a five-headed snake-hood is
represented, kneeling before an altar strewn with flowers, behind
which is a tree (_Sirisa Accasia_?) hung with garlands. Behind him is
an inscription to this effect, “Erapatra the Naga Raja worships the
Divinity (Bhagavat).” Above him is the great five-headed Naga himself,
rising from a lake. To its right a man in the robes of a priest
standing up to his middle in the water, and above the Naga a female
genius, apparently floating in the air. Below is another Naga Raja,
with his quintuple snake-hood, and behind him two females with a single
snake at the back of their heads--an arrangement which is universal
in all Naga sculpture. They are standing up to their waists in water.
If we may depend on the inscription below him, this is Erapatra twice
over, and the females his two wives. I should, however, rather be
inclined to fancy there were two Naga Rajas represented with their two
wives.
This bas-relief is further interesting as being an epitome of my work
on ‘Tree and Serpent Worship.’ As expressing in the shortest possible
compass nearly all that is said there at length, it will also serve
to explain much that is advanced in the following pages. As it is 200
years older than anything that was known when that book was written, it
is a confirmation of its theories, as satisfactory as it is complete.
[122] ‘Mahawanso,’ Introduction, p. 32.
[123] Outlines of these sculptures are given in General Cunningham’s
third volume of his ‘Reports,’ plate 6. I have photographs of the
whole, which represent what is omitted in the lithographs.
[124] General Cunningham collected and translated 196 inscriptions from
this tope, which will be found in his work on the Bhilsa Topes, p. 235,
_et seqq._, plates 16-19.
[125] The details from which these determinations are arrived at
will be found in ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ p. 98, _et seqq._ It is
consequently not necessary to repeat them here.
[126] It is very much to be regretted that when Lieut. Cole had the
opportunity he did not take a cast of this one instead of the eastern.
It is far more complete, and its sculptures more interesting.
[127] For details of these sculptures and references, I must refer the
reader to my work on ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ where they are all
represented and described in great detail. Sculptures do not, strictly
speaking, belong to this work, and, except for historical purposes, are
not generally alluded to.
[128] They must certainly have been very common in India, for, though
only one representation of them has been detected among the sculptures
at Sanchi (‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ plate 27, fig. 2), at least ten
representations of them are found at Amravati, plates 59 (fig. 2), 60
(fig. 1), 63 (fig. 3), 64 (fig. 1), 69, 83 (fig. 2), 85 (figs. 1 and
2), 96 (fig. 3), 98 (fig. 2), and no doubt many more may yet be found.
[129] ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ Appendix I. p. 270.
[130] In Burmah at the present day a roll precisely similar to this,
formed of coloured muslin, distended by light bamboo hoops, is borne
on men’s shoulders in the same manner as shown here, on each side of
the procession that accompanies a high priest or other ecclesiastical
dignitary to the grave.
[131] For the reasons of the following determination and other
particulars, the reader is referred to my work on ‘Tree and Serpent
Worship,’ where the whole are set out at length. A short account of the
tope will also be found in the ‘Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,’
vol. iii. (N. S.) p. 132, _et seqq._
[132] ‘Histoire de Hiouen Thsang,’ traduite par Julien, vol. i. p. 188.
[133] It is probable that a tolerably correct idea of the general
exterior appearance of the buildings from which these caves were copied
may be obtained from the _Raths_ (as they are called) of Mahavellipore
(described further on, p. 328). These are monuments of a later
date, and belonging to a different religion, but they correspond so
nearly in all their parts with the temples and monasteries now under
consideration, that we cannot doubt their being, in most respects,
close copies of them. Curiously enough, the best illustrations of some
of them are to be found among the unpublished sculptures of the Bharhut
Tope.
[134] The only buildings in India I know of that gave the least hint of
the external forms or construction of these halls are the huts of the
Todas on the Nilgiri Hills. In a work recently published by the late
Mr. Breeks, of the Madras Civil Service, he gives two photographs of
these dwellings, plates 8 and 9. Their roofs have precisely the same
elliptical forms as the chaitya with the ridge, giving the ogee form
externally, and altogether, whether by accident or design, they are
miniature chaitya halls. Externally they are covered with short thatch,
neatly laid on. Such forms may have existed in India two thousand years
ago, and may have given rise to the peculiarities of the chaitya halls,
but it is, of course, impossible to prove it.
[135] ‘Illustrations of the Rock-cut Temples of India,’ 1 vol., text
8vo., with folio plates. Weale, London, 1845.
[136] ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. iii.
pt. ii. p. 36, _et seqq._, and vol. iv. p. 340, _et seqq._
[137] Cunningham, ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 45.
[138] At Kondooty, near Bombay, there is a chaitya cave of much more
modern date, which possesses a circular chamber like this. In the older
examples it is probable a relic or some sacred symbol occupied the
cell; in the later it may have been an image of Buddha. No plans or
details of the Kondooty temple have, so far as I know, been published.
I speak from information derived from MS. drawings.
[139] General Cunningham (‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 45) and
others are in the habit of calling this an Egyptian form. This it
certainly is not, as no Egyptian doorway had sloping jambs. Nor can it
properly be called Pelasgic. The Pelasgi did use that form, but derived
it from stone constructions. The Indians only obtained it from wood.
[140] A very detailed account of all these caves will be found in Gen.
Cunningham’s ‘Archæological Report’ for 1861-62.
[141] From a photograph and an unpublished paper by Professor
Bhandarkur, read before the Oriental Congress.
[142] From Bhandarkur’s paper, _ubi supra_.
[143] ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. v. p.
55.
[144] ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. v. pp.
152-3.
[145] A few years ago it was reported that this screen was in danger
of falling outwards, and I wrote repeatedly to India begging that
something might be done to preserve it; but I have never been able
to learn if this has been attended to. Only a small portion of the
original ribbing of the Bhaja cave now remains. That of the Bedsa cave
has been destroyed within the last ten or twelve years (‘Journal Bombay
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. ix. p. 223); and it would be
a thousand pities if this, which is the only original screen in India,
were allowed to perish when a very small outlay would save it. Like the
Iron pillar at Delhi which never rusts, teak wood that does not decay
though exposed to the atmosphere for 2000 years, is a phenomenon worth
the attention not only of antiquaries, but of natural philosophers.
[146] For further particulars regarding the Ajunta caves, the reader
is referred to a paper I wrote in the ‘Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society,’ 1842, and republished afterwards with a folio volume of
plates to illustrate it.
[147] These inscriptions are translated in Bhau Dajis’ paper on the
Ajunta inscriptions, ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society,’ vol. viii. p. 63, as if found in cave 2. On the accompanying
plate they are described as one on cave 10, the other on cave 12.
[148] Kittoe in ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ March,
1847, plate 6.
[149] Sir Charles Mallet, in the second volume of the ‘Bombay Literary
Transactions,’ quotes a tradition that the Ellora caves were excavated
by a Raja Eelu, 1000 years before his day. This might be true if
applied to the Brahmanical Kailas, but hardly to any Buddhist cave in
the series.
[150] ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. v. p.
14.
[151] Loc. cit. p. 25.
[152] Introduction to ‘Mahawanso,’ p. 30.
[153] See Appendix.
[154] A tolerably correct representation of these sculptures is
engraved in Langle’s ‘Hindostan,’ vol. ii. p. 81, after Niebuhr. The
curious part of the thing is, that the Buddhist figures of the Karli
façade are not copied here also, from which I would infer, as well as
from their own intrinsic evidence, that they were more modern than even
this cave.
[155] For further particulars regarding this cave, the reader is
referred to my work on the ‘Rock-cut Temples of India,’ p. 36, plates
11 and 12.
[156] The plates in Gen. Cunningham’s ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. ii.
pl. 70 and 74, are on too small a scale to be of much use. I have not
myself visited these caves.
[157] The particulars of the architecture of these caves are taken from
Gen. Cunningham’s report above alluded to. I entirely agree with him as
to their age, and am surprised Dr. Impey could be so mistaken regarding
them. ‘Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. v. p.
336, _et seqq._
[158] Throughout this work the term “Vihara” is applied only to
monasteries, the abodes of monks or hermits. It was not, however, used
in that restricted sense only, in former times, though it has been so
by all modern writers. Hiouen Thsang, for instance, calls the Great
Tower at Buddh Gaya a vihara, and describes similar towers at Nalanda,
200 and 300 feet high, as viharas. The ‘Mahawanso’ also applies the
term indiscriminately to temples of a certain class, and to residences.
My impression is that all buildings designed in storeys were called
viharas, whether used for the abode of priests or to enshrine relics or
images. The name was used to distinguish them from stupas or towers,
which were always relic shrines, or erected as memorials of places or
events, and never were residences or simulated to be such, or contained
images, till the last gasp of the style, as at Kholvi. At present this
is only a theory; it may, before long, become a certainty. Strictly
speaking, the residences ought probably to be called Sangharamas,
but, to avoid multiplication of terms, vihara is used in this work as
the synonym of monastery, which is the sense in which it is usually
understood by modern authors.
[159] Vol. iv., Woodcuts Nos. 89, 90.
[160] Beal’s ‘Fa Hian,’ p. 139, ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. iii. p. 102.
[161] ‘Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ vol. vi. (N.S.) p. 257,
_et seqq._
[162] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 28, plate 16.
[163] ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ vol. i. p. 151.
[164] ‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. pp. 28-36, plate 16.
[165] Now in private hands in Birmingham.
[166] ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. xxxiii. p. 360,
_et seqq._
[167] Ibid., vol. xxiii. p. 469, _et seqq._
[168] For this and the other Sarnath remains see Cunningham’s
‘Archæological Reports,’ vol. i. p. 114, _et seqq._, plates 32-34.
[169] These dimensions are from plate 42, ‘Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal,’ for 1847, by the late Capt. Kittoe.
[170] This inscription first attracted the attention of Stirling, and
a plate representing it very imperfectly is given in the 15th volume
of the ‘Asiatic Researches.’ It was afterwards copied by Kittoe, and a
translation, as far as its imperfection admitted, made by Prinsep, with
the assistance of his pundits, and published. ‘Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal,’ vol. vi. p. 1080, _et seqq._
[171] ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vi. p. 1073,
plate 54.