PAINTING MOUNTED FISHES.--A fish must be perfectly dry before it is touched

with a brush. Time spent in painting a half-dry specimen is so much thrown

away. The repairs with papier-maché must be complete and dry, and the

specimen perfectly clean. Nearly every fish possesses in its coloring

pigment a quality which imparts to it a silvery, metallic lustre;

therefore, to secure the finest result attainable in painting a fish,

either an actual specimen or a plaster cast, all those that are silvery

must first be coated over the entire scaly surface with nickel leaf, laid

on sizing, similar to the treatment of gold leaf in gilding.

With dark-colored fishes satisfactory work may be done without the use of

nickel leaf, except on the under parts, which are nearly always silvery

white. It is absolutely impossible to reproduce the brilliant lustre so

characteristic of white scales by the use of white paint alone, or even

silver bronze, or silver paint. Without the nickel underneath the paint

looks dead and artificial. If you are called upon to make a large

collection with as little outlay as possible, it will be sufficient to omit

the nickel leaf, for your paint will still faithfully record the colors.

But if you wish to have your fish look as brilliantly beautiful as when

taken struggling from the water, put on the leaf first, and paint on it,

_thinly_, so that the silver will show through your colors and impart to

them the desired lustre. If you paint too thickly, the leaf will be covered

up, and its lustre obscured.

Do not attempt to use silver bronze, silver paint, or even silver leaf, for

nickel leaf is the only substance which has sufficient lustre _and will not

oxidize_, and turn yellow.

If the whole body of a fish is dark, and without silvery tints, it is, of

course, unnecessary to use leaf, for the lustre can be obtained by

varnishing over the paint.

In many fishes, such as the scaled carp, for example, Marsching's gold

paint or Japanese gold can be used directly on the scales (_after_ the

entire fish has had a thin coat of Hendley's enamel varnish), and the

silver paint can be used to good effect in edging the scales. On the belly,

however, which is silvery white, nickel leaf must be used. The heads of

most fishes are so dark as to render the use of leaf unnecessary upon them,

and of course it need not be used on the fins.

PAINTING PLASTER CASTS OF FISHES, REPTILES, ETC.--When a cast is first

taken from the mould, it will nearly always be found that its surface is

pitted here and there with little round holes caused by air-bubbles. The

process of wetting the inside of these holes, and carefully filling each

one with mixed plaster Paris is called "pointing up" a cast. After this has

been carefully done, and the form and surface of the white cast is perfect,

if the cast is thoroughly dry we are ready to begin to paint it, and

proceed as described in the preceding section.

In case you find it impossible to use nickel leaf on your fishes, you can

do very good work without it, except that the silvery parts will not be

really silvery, and the white paint put on will gradually turn yellow with

age. After you have given the specimen a good coat of colors (using zinc

white for the silvery parts, because it is more permanent than other

whites), varnish the specimen all over with a kind of heavy white varnish

called Siccatif de Harlem, or, lacking that, enamel varnish. This will dry

in about twenty minutes, after which paint the object over again, this time

with extreme care in the final touches. In painting fishes and reptiles,

there is a vast amount of detail to be wrought out, and constant blending

of colors. On many fishes each scale must be marked off and painted

separately. In blending the edges of two adjoining colors, it must be done

with a clean brush--a small one, of course--with either a quick, nervous

motion along the line of contact, or else a steady sweep, according to

circumstances. When the brush gets full of paint, wash it out in benzine

(_not_ turpentine), because it quickly becomes clean, and dries perfectly

in a moment.

The eyes of fishes and reptiles are so peculiar, and vary so exceedingly,

that it is a practical impossibility to provide glass eyes that will be

exactly right for each species. For fishes, as good a way as any is to let

the eye be cast _in situ_, and when you paint the fish, paint the eye also

as it should be, and when dry, varnish it over with a thick coat of soluble

glass or enamel varnish.

PART III.--MAKING CASTS.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL APPLICATION IN MAKING MOULDS AND CASTS.

The processes employed in making plaster Paris moulds and casts are very

simple, and easily learned, even by one who has had no previous knowledge

of the subject. To be sure, a certain degree of intelligence and skill is

necessary in the operator; but we are not writing for the edification of

duffers who do not know how to use their hands, or follow plain directions.

The first thing to understand is the difference between a mould that will

"draw," and one that will not. A mould may be made on one side of a

base-ball, and it will draw off the object at once, because there is no

point on the ball behind which, or under which, the plaster can catch, and

hang fast until something breaks. A mould of one full side of an apple will

not draw, because the apple has a hollow at each end, and when these are

set full of plaster the mould and the apple are held firmly together.

A hollow or a protuberance on an object which would prevent a mould from

drawing away makes what is called an "undercut," and necessitates the

making of a separate piece in the mould. To cast several copies of a human

head and neck necessitates the making of a mould in several pieces, all

fitting very nicely together, with countersink joints, to accommodate the

undercuts behind the ears, under the chin, the hollows of the eyes, etc.

A mould made in more than two pieces is called a "piece mould." It may have

any number of pieces, of course, according to the nature of the object.

Perhaps the most remarkable piece mould in existence is that used by

Professor H.A. Ward in making casts of the tail of the great fossil

armadillo called the glyptodon. The tail is a mass of big conical

tubercles, and the mould contains, as nearly as I can remember, about one

hundred and twenty-five pieces, all fitting into a big "jacket" of plaster

which holds them all in place while a cast is being made. In the case of a

piece mould the cast is not taken out of the mould, but the latter is

dissected and taken off the cast, piece by piece.

The principles involved in making moulds and casts are best explained by

brief descriptions of the processes, and if they are learned by carefully

following the directions here given, the operator will be able to apply

them, indefinitely, to all classes of objects, large or small.

HOW TO MAKE A PIECE MOULD.--Let us take a good-sized apple as our subject,

and follow out the process, step by step.

1. In making a mould of any kind of fruit, first soak the fruit in water an

hour or two, to "plump it up," so that it will not swell in the mould and

cause trouble.

2. Wipe it dry, and with a small paint-brush give it a thin coat of lard

oil, so that the plaster will not stick to it. Some objects should be

coated with clay water, or very thin clay, instead of oil.

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Beginning to Make a Piece Mould.]

3. Bed one end of the apple in damp sand, precisely as shown in the

illustration (Fig. 59). If you have no sand, use fine sawdust, or wet corn

meal. Some objects require clay. Do not have the sand wet and water soaked,

for it will not yield so readily to the palette knife.

4. Dot a line on the sand all round, to show how far out to run the

plaster, and avoid making the mould too thick.

5. Take two-thirds of a teacup of water, and put in plaster Paris until it

becomes about as thick as New Orleans molasses. Stir thoroughly with a

spoon, and let it stand two or three minutes.

6. Dip the plaster out with a teaspoon, and cover the exposed part of the

apple. It will run down all over the horizontal surface of the sand, but

never mind that. Make it cover the apple everywhere to a depth of a quarter

of an inch. In some places it will be thicker. After about three or four

minutes the plaster will be as stiff as modeling clay. While it is in this

state take your palette knife and neatly smooth and shape the outer

surface. Finish smoothing with the finger, and let the plaster harden. This

will take about seven minutes longer, or until the plaster has warmed and

cooled again. The time varies according to the humidity of the atmosphere.

7. Take the apple from the sand, with the half mould on it, wash off the

sand, and neatly trim the edge of the mould with a knife.

8. With a blunt-pointed knife make three countersunk holes in the edge of

the mould.

9. With a brush, anoint the edge of the mould with thin clay, clay-water,

or soft soap, or lard oil, or even lard.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Second Step in Making a Piece Mould.]

10. Turn the mould up on edge, and bed half of the exposed portion of the

apple in the sand, as seen in Fig. 60. Fill in this space with plaster,

precisely the same as when the first piece was made, which produces the

second piece of the mould.

11. Make the countersunk holes in the edge of the second piece as before;

fill in with plaster all the remaining space between pieces 1 and 2, and we

have the third piece, which completes the mould. As soon as this hardens,

tap the mould lightly all over with a small mallet, to loosen it from the

object, then take out piece No. 3, and the mould is easily separated and

the apple taken out. Take one part of gum sandarac (dissolved in

ninety-five per cent alcohol) and three parts of white shellac, also

dissolved, and mix them. They will form a solution a little thicker than

water. Have the mould perfectly dry, and apply this solution to the entire

inner surface of it with a small paint-brush. The solution will be

absorbed at first, and you must continue to apply it until the inner

surface has an egg-shell gloss, which is sufficient. Then oil the inside

with lard oil.

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Last Step in Making a Piece Mould.]

[Illustration: FIG. 62.--The Finished Mould.]

12. Put together pieces 1 and 2 of the mould, cut a groove around them to

hold a stout string, and tie it tightly to hold them together. Then mix

some plaster, and fill each piece (1 and 2) about half full, walling it up

the sides with the finger, a quarter of an inch thick, or as the plaster

will make it. Then wipe off the exposed edges of the mould so they will fit

snugly together with No. 3. Now mix up a little more plaster, about

one-fourth the quantity first used, pour into the hollow, then put on the

third piece; tie all tightly together, and turn the mould round and round

slowly. This fills the third piece, and holds it in its place. Keep turning

the mould slowly, and tapping it with the left hand. Leave a little of the

plaster on the outside, on a piece of glass or paper, so that you can tell

when it gets hard and flinty in the mould. Do not take off the mould until

the cast is perfectly hard.

HOW TO MAKE A WASTE MOULD.--When a soft or fleshy object is to be cast, one

which will yield, and draw out of the mould regardless of undercuts, a very

quick and satisfactory process (provided a second copy of the cast will

never be wanted) is to make what is called a waste mould. This, with a

fleshy subject, is a short cut to a perfect cast, and often saves hours of

valuable time. In obtaining casts of mammal heads, legs, or other parts, or

casts of fishes and reptiles, it is the method _par excellence_. Let us

learn the principles of it by making a waste mould and cast of a human

hand.

1. Bed the hand in damp sand (_i.e._, one-half of it), as shown in the

accompanying figure, No. 63.

[Illustration: FIG. 63.--The Beginning of a Waste Mould.]

2. Give the exposed portion of the hand a good coat of lard oil.

3. Take two-thirds of a gill of water in a teacup, put into it half a

teaspoonful of dry Indian red (to be bought for five cents at any paint

store), and mix it up. This is to color some plaster with which to make a

thin, colored lining for our mould, the purpose of which will be

appreciated later on.

4. Mix with this red water one and one-half gills of plaster Paris, stir it

up thoroughly to get it well mixed and free from air-bubbles, then with a

teaspoon distribute it all over the hand until it is completely covered

with a coat of the pink plaster about one-eighth of an inch thick.

5. After this thin coat has hardened, anoint the surface of it with lard

oil or clay water, so that the plaster which is to be put upon it will not

stick to it, but separate readily when the outer case of the mould is

chiseled off.

6. Take one and one-half gills of water, and three-quarters of a pint of

plaster, mix for outer case of mould, and apply on top of the pink lining

to a thickness of about half an inch. Let this get perfectly hard. (Fig.

64.)

[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Second Step in Making a Waste Mould.]

7. Take the subject out of the sand. Turn it over, anoint the edge of the

mould with clay water or lard oil, and treat the other side in precisely

the same manner. This is the course when the whole object is to be cast. If

half the object is sufficient, as is the case in taking a record cast of

one side of an animal's head and body, then take the subject from the

mould, and

8. Wash the inside of the mould thoroughly to get out the clay and sand.

9. Anoint the inside of the mould with clay water, thin clay, or lard oil,

and lay it in position to receive the plaster.

10. Mix a proper quantity of plaster, pour it into the mould and let it

harden.

Lay the mould (with the cast inside) on a cushion, or on your lap; take a

half-inch chisel and a light mallet, and, beginning at the end nearest your

left hand, chisel away the case of the mould, bit by bit, until you come

down to the pink lining coat, which shows that you are close to the cast.

Great care is necessary to avoid breaking the cast, which of course is very

easily cut or broken. In cutting off the pink lining be exceedingly careful

not to go too deep (Fig. 65). The purpose of this lining is to show you

when you are close to the cast. If the case of the mould is quite thick,

hold the chisel on a slant of about fifty degrees from a perpendicular, and

pare off the upper surface gradually.

[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Chiseling off the Waste Mould.]

MAKING GELATINE MOULDS.--There are many objects which can not be copied in

plaster by either of the above methods without great difficulty. These are

hard substances, the surfaces of which are extremely irregular and full of

little hollows, such as meteorites, statuettes, sculptured rocks, or models

such as those of the Aztec calendar stone and sacrificial stone. When a

number of copies are required, the making of a waste mould for each copy is

out of the question, and the manufacture of a piece mould that will draw

off is also a long task, to say nothing of making the casts themselves and

cleaning them up. The solution of all such difficulties is the gelatine or

"glue" mould, which is elastic, pliant, and yet keeps its shape perfectly.

This is how to make it:

Let us suppose we are to make a gelatine mould of a flattened meteorite,

eight inches in diameter and about three inches thick. Take some potter's

clay, or modeling clay, which has been nicely worked up in a square lump,

and is not wet enough to be too sticky. With a small wire, cut it into

slabs about three-quarters of an inch thick, and with these cover the

entire object to the depth mentioned. Put the clay on everywhere the same

thickness, making it conform to the irregularities of the surface. This

clay will presently be exactly replaced with gelatine.

Having coated the object as described, make a plaster Paris mould of the

whole of it, in two parts, which separate horizontally around the outermost

edge. When you make a plaster mould of the upper half, erect a high cone of

clay over the centre of the meteorite as it lies flat upon the table, so

that it will make a funnel-shaped hole in the upper half of the mould,

through which you can pour in the gelatine. Of course the two pieces of

this plaster mould must fit nicely together, with countersunk holes. This

plaster mould of the clay-covered object is called the "jacket," and its

use will soon be apparent. Now for the gelatine.

_Recipe for Gelatine Moulds._--The gelatine compound is made by taking glue

and glycerine in the following proportions, varying the quantity to suit

the size of the object: Of best Irish glue, 3 pounds; glycerine, 1-1/4

pounds; and about 1-1/2 ounces of white-wax. Dip the glue in water, and

then roll it up overnight in several thicknesses of wet cloth, so as to

soften it without soaking it in water, which is an element to be kept out.

In the morning the glue will be soft. Procure a large-sized gluepot, or

improvise one by putting a small tin pail in a larger one, with water

between, and in this put the glue and glycerine and cook it up. Melt the

wax separately, and pour it in after the other is well mixed and hot. A

gelatine mould can be made of any degree of hardness by adding dry white

zinc which has been carefully ground in a mortar, but ordinarily none is

necessary.

To make the gelatine mould the clay must all be taken off the object, and

the latter washed clean. Lay the lower half of the "jacket" upon the table,

inside uppermost, and drive four small wire nails into it at different

points, allowing each one to project just three-fourths of an inch, for the

meteorite to rest upon, and give space for the gelatine to flow underneath

and form that part of the mould. Now put the meteorite carefully in place,

resting on these nail-heads, and then put on the upper half of the

"jacket." Cord the jacket tightly together without disturbing the position

of the object inside. If there are any cracks at the edges, fill them up

with clay. Now pour in the hot gelatine at the funnel-shaped hole in the

upper half of the jacket, until the mould is quite full. Let the mould

stand two hours to cool and harden; then remove the upper half of the

"jacket." To get the object out, take a sharp knife and slit the coating of

gelatine fully half-way round, so that the two halves can be opened like an

oyster, and the object lifted out. The inside of the gelatine mould must

now have a coating to make it impervious to the water in the plaster Paris.

Mix up the following:

1 teacupful of spirits of turpentine.

About 4 level teaspoonfuls of white lead.

About 1 teaspoonful of lightning dryer.

Mix this well, paint the inside of the mould with it, two coats, which

makes the gelatine waterproof.

To make a cast, oil the inside of the mould with lard oil, put the plaster

jacket around it, so that it fits perfectly, and tie the two pieces of the

jacket firmly together to prevent a disaster when the plaster begins to

heat in the mould.

Mix your plaster with ice-water for the same reason, and you will have no

trouble. For irregular objects, the working of a gelatine mould is

perfection itself. It yields gracefully in coming out of the undercuts and

around corners, takes every detail perfectly, and in the jacket its shape

is always the same. A careful operator can make from twenty to fifty copies

of a cast in a single mould before its loss of sharpness necessitates its

abandonment.

CHAPTER XXXV.

CASTS OF MAMMALS, FISHES, AND REPTILES.

CASTING PARTS OF MAMMALS IN THE FLESH.--Although it is usually impossible

to carry more than ten or fifteen pounds of plaster into the field when you

go off on a collecting trip, a quantity sufficient for a special purpose is

often worth its weight in silver dollars. But many a fine subject comes

entire to the laboratory, where the taxidermist can work his will upon it.

If I have never done any other good thing in my life, I believe I have at

least taught some of our best American taxidermists the usefulness and

value of plaster casts taken from the flesh. It is only a few hours' work

to make a mould and cast of the entire side of an animal as large as a

large dog, or even a lion, and still less to take half the head, or the

nose, a fore leg, or hind leg. Once we had an opportunity to cast the

entire head of an immense bull moose, and right greedily did we seize it.

The resultant cast has been of priceless value to us as an exact record of

the form of a wonderful head. If you wish to do a fine piece of work, and

have the animal in the flesh, by all means make a cast of one whole side of

it. It will repay its cost ten times over. No record of form is equal to a

cast, even though it be a poor one. I once made a mould of one entire side

of the head of a large leopard in twenty minutes. It is about an hour's

work to make a good mould of the entire head of a monkey, or two legs of a

tiger.

The principles of this work have already been stated, and there is little

more to be said. If the specimen is a large one, lay it upon the floor,

build up around it with sand, or even wet sawdust, and arrange to take one

side of the animal's head, or entire form, as the case may be. To take the

two legs it will be necessary to first fill plaster under each one to make

a separate piece. In order to keep the plaster from sticking to the hair,

fill the hair full of thick clay-water, or thin clay, and plaster it down

with the pasty mass so that the plaster Paris will not run into it. Coat

the whiskers and eyelids with warm wax, or fill them full of clay. Do this

thoroughly, to save the hair and save trouble. A little hair will stick in

the mould anyway, but when you take the mould off, work the animal slowly

and carefully from the mould, perhaps pouring in a little water to

facilitate matters.

Always make a waste mould in these cases, to save time. If your cast breaks

in two while you are chiseling the mould off, go ahead more carefully, and

when you are done, chip the broken edges at the back, wet them with water,

and stick them together with plaster. Small casts can be stuck together

with shellac. If your mould breaks in pieces while you are taking it off,

don't be discouraged, but simply put the pieces together, back them up with

more plaster, and come up smiling for the next round.

It is often necessary to cast skulls or teeth, to put in skins that are

being mounted, though it is better to carve a skull out of soft wood.

CASTING FISHES.--Fishes are easy and interesting subjects to cast.

Usually only one side is taken, and the cast is then mounted on a flat

slab, or perhaps on two brass standards. The full method of procedure is as

follows:

Wash off the mucus with alum-water. Put some dry alum on the side to be

cast, to harden the soft edges of the fins, and make every scale stand out

distinctly. Clean the fish carefully, close the mouth, adjust the eye and

the gills. Lay the fish on its side, with the side to be cast uppermost.

Take some modeling clay, beat it out, and roll it into a smooth, square

cake with parallel sides. With a small wire cut a section of this cake, and

place it under each fin, so that the fin will be held in position as in

life.

To make a piece mould, make it in three pieces, thus: Put up a wall of clay

around the head from the base of the dorsal fin to the base of the anal

fin, keeping the clay wall a little distance away from the head and body.

With plaster Paris fill in the space thus left, up to the median line of

the fish, but no higher.

With a knife work the plaster under the edge of the fish, and let it

harden; then put two countersinks in each side. For the main piece, mix

some dry color in enough plaster to coat the fish one-eighth of an inch

thick, make it thin, and pour over with a spoon. When covered thinly, blow

hard upon it, all over, to make it take the scales sharply; then put on

enough more to make the colored coat an eighth of an inch thick. Let this

harden, then put on the thick coat of white plaster, which is to be

chiseled off, as this is supposed to be a waste mould. In making the cast,

if it be possible make it before the mould gets dry, so that the latter

will chisel off easily. Pour the mould nearly full of plaster, then set a

piece of wood in at the back to afford a means of screwing the cast to a

panel, or inserting standards. After the cast is made it must, of course,

be carefully painted, which is another matter, and is treated elsewhere.

CASTING REPTILES.--After all the detailed directions that have been already

given on this subject it is not necessary to speak further of methods. Mr.

Joseph Palmer, of the National Museum, has produced such pleasing and

artistic representations of reptiles of all sorts, especially serpents and

tortoises, it would seem that perfection in this line has been reached. His

serpents are all on imitation rocks, trees, or earth, and in about all the

attitudes they would assume in life. They are represented as crawling,

sleeping, fighting, striking, and threatening. By the introduction of wires

in the moulds while making the casts, they are made to act quite naturally.

Of course they have been carefully and artistically painted, and half the

credit for their beauty is therefore due to the colorist. Lizards of many

species, large and small, and also tortoises and turtles of every American

species, are thus represented with great success. This interesting

collection is well worthy of study; but to the taxidermist who is not also

a first-rate artist in oil colors, this method is beyond his powers.

PART IV.--OSTEOLOGY.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

COLLECTING SKELETONS.

It is really strange that so few American collectors are taught the

scientific value of skeletons, and the need to collect them, especially

when in the haunts of rare animals. While hundreds of collectors gather

bird skins by the cord, perhaps not one out of the whole lot saves a rough

skeleton. Any one who is wholly unaccustomed to the preparation of

skeletons is apt to stand appalled at the thought of preparing one from the

beginning; and, indeed, the _final_ work of cleaning and mounting is no

child's play. But let me assure you that, so far as the field work is

concerned, you can easily become a successful collector of skeletons of all

kinds, even though you may never learn to clean and mount one. All you have

to do in the field is to "rough out" skeletons from the flesh, and dry them

in compact bundles for shipment.

A ROUGH SKELETON of a mammal, bird, reptile, or fish, is simply the

complete bony framework of the body, from which the most of the flesh has

been cut away with a common knife, after which the skeleton and remaining

flesh has been dried preparatory to its being, at some indefinite time in

the future, taken in hand by a professional osteologist. The work of

preparation on such specimens is very simple, and when once learned is

easily performed.

SELECTION OF SPECIMENS.--When a choice is possible, select large and

perfect adult male specimens as subjects to be skeletonized. The skeletons

of young animals are always imperfect in development, do not properly

represent a species, and are seldom valuable except for comparison with

other specimens of the same species. Very often a fine adult specimen has

its skin so badly torn by shot or bullets, or the skin covering is in such

a bad state of shedding, moulting, and the like, that the skin is totally

unfit for preservation. In such a case the preservation of a fine perfect

skeleton becomes a clear gain of one specimen to the collector and to

science.

A perfect skeleton is one in which not a bone is missing, and in which no

substitutions have been made. But it is by no means always possible to

secure a wild animal without breaking some portion of its osteological

anatomy. When a bone is broken, the best thing to do is to supply it with a

corresponding bone from an animal of similar size and age. Sometimes the

closet naturalist, who generally thinks that rare wild animals are gathered

like berries, will grumble because a broken bone has thus been replaced,

and find fault with the size of the substitute, but that need not trouble

the collector's conscience in the least. I once shot a fine prong-horn

antelope buck, skeletonized it carefully, cut up the skeleton, and carried

the whole of it for three days attached to my saddle, while I rode a very

restive and dangerous horse, and also carried two blankets and a Maynard

rifle. That skeleton, thus earned, had some broken bones supplied from

another specimen. It finally went to Europe, and fell into the hands of a

closet naturalist, who blithely found fault with the collector because of

the supplied bones. Again, when I once risked drowning in order to enter a

cave on a dangerous sea-coast to collect guacharo birds, and got a goodly

number, a German closet naturalist complained bitterly because a skin that

was sent to him had two missing tail-feathers supplied by two other

feathers that were a trifle smaller than the missing ones.

But I did once perform a feat in South America which filled the souls of my

friends at Ward's with wonder, and even admiration. In collecting about

half a dozen skeletons of capybara, each of which I took care should be

absolutely perfect, by some brilliant manoeuvre I contrived to send home

to the establishment one skeleton which was the happy possessor of two left

forelegs and two left hind legs, but never a right one; and in the language

of the Old Testament, "his bones are there to this day!"

SKELETONS OF MAMMALS: SMALL OBJECTS.--The smallest quadrupeds--such as

bats, small rodents, shrews, and the like--should be eviscerated, and

preserved in alcohol, without being skinned; but each specimen should be

fully labeled. As a general thing it is best, for various reasons, not to

dry such small carcasses.

For all mammals below the size of the Virginia deer, proceed as follows:

1. Remove the skin as expeditiously as possible, in order to have a fair

show at the skeleton.

2. If the skeleton is _smaller_ than a fox, leave the legs attached to the

body, for convenience, until you have cut the flesh away from them with

your scalpel or pocket-knife, without any disjointing. When all the legs

have been thus roughly denuded of flesh, cut them loose from the body and

lay aside for the moment.

3. If the specimen is larger than a fox, cut off the legs from the body,

lay each one flat upon the ground, inside uppermost, divide the flesh all

the way along it directly over the bones, and literally dissect the bones

out of the mass of flesh, instead of cutting the flesh away piece by piece.

This is the quickest and neatest way. The scapula must come off with the

fore leg, and be left attached to the humerus. Be sure you cut off all the

masses of flesh, _but don't cut off the knee-pan_, as you may easily do if

you are not watchful.

4. Now for the carcass. Hold it on its back, begin at the breastbone, flake

off the flesh from the sides of the body close down to the ribs, until the

backbone is reached. Cut off as much flesh as you can (hurriedly) from

along the backbone.

5. Next attack the abdomen. Beginning at the lower point of the breastbone,

detach the walls of the abdomen from the ends of the short ribs, down to

the lumbar vertebræ, and so on around the iliac margin of the pelvis. Cut

through the diaphragm close up to where it is attached to the ribs, and

remove at one effort the entrails and vital organs.

6. Cut away the flesh from the pelvis, both inside and out, and the flesh

of the tenderloin from underneath the lumbar vertebræ.

7. Cut the flesh from the thick portion of the tail.

8. Cut off the head at the first cervical vertebra, and clean the skull as

previously described elsewhere, but leave _the hyoid bone in its place_.

9. Cut the flesh away from the neck vertebræ as well as you can. Be careful

not to cut the sternum (or breastbone), which is soft cartilage, and easily

cut; nor the ends of any vertebral processes, nor any soft bones.

10. If the skeleton is a small one, it is apt to get quite bloody during

the operation. Wash it clean, and if necessary soak it in clear water for

an hour or two. It will come all the whiter for it in the end. Skeletons

of ruminant animals are generally clean enough without that.

11. Do not poison a rough skeleton with arsenical soap, nor put salt upon

it; so says Mr. Lucas, the osteologist of the National Museum. The former

has a tendency to prevent skeletons from properly macerating and coming

white. Sprinkle dry arsenic upon a skeleton, if anything is necessary to

protect it from _Dermestes_ and other insects. Never put alum on a

skeleton.

[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Rough Skeleton of a Small Animal. (After F.A.

Lucas.)]

12. The last thing is to make up the skeleton into a small, compact bundle,

that will pack nicely and economically when dry, and withstand some

pressure without breakage. Put the skull in the chest cavity. Fold up the

upper joints of the legs, put the foot of each in the pelvis, and the other

end in the cavity of the chest. Now tie all the legs tightly to the spinal

column. (See Fig. 66.) Bend the tail under the pelvis and tie it fast also.

Finally, hang the specimen up in the shade and wind, so that it will dry

quickly.

It will be observed that the above process leaves the body of the skeleton

entire, and all the bones of each leg and foot united by their natural

ligaments. A skeleton prepared thus may ultimately be mounted as a

"ligamentary skeleton," or it may be disjointed throughout, macerated, and

mounted as a "disarticulate skeleton." Except for skeletons of bison, elk,

and other animals which are entirely too large to admit of transporting

their bodies whole, it is much the best to prepare all others in the field

as described above, and disarticulate some of them afterward; for this

reduces to a minimum the chance of losing some of the parts.

SKELETONS OF LARGE MAMMALS.--The process of roughing out the skeletons of

large mammals, no matter how large they may be, is precisely the same as

described above for small ones; but to make it possible to transport and

box them, they must be cut to pieces, or, I had better say, _disjointed_,

for fear some zealous partisan might interpret my words too literally, and

go at a valuable skeleton with an axe. And right here let me publish a law

which is as fixed and unalterable as the laws of the Medes and Persians,

and admits of no exception:

_In disarticulating a large skeleton, no matter how large, an axe or

hatchet must never be used for any purpose whatever._ Use nothing but the

knife, and in a few cases a small saw to separate the sternum from the ends

of the ribs.

To come down to the details of cutting up a large skeleton in, the field,

and making it up into a number of separate bundles, let us suppose that the

skeleton lies before us, completely roughed out, in accordance with

previous advice. The bones of each leg must be dislocated (at the "knees"

in ruminant animals) either once or twice, so that the parts can be easily

handled. In a full-grown elephant the leg bones are so large it is

necessary to cut the ligaments at each joint, so that the scapula, humerus,

radius and ulna, and foot may each be handled separately.

Of course, the head is to be cut off at the first cervical vertebra. Then,

by careful work, and much coaxing with the sharp point of the knife,

dislocate the spinal column just where the neck joins the body. At first

this will bother you, but have patience and you will soon learn how to do

it easily and quickly. In dislocating the spinal column, take hold of the

neck, move it backward and forward, and strain it a bit to see just where

the articulating surfaces of the vertebral process are, so that you can cut

them. When your intelligence has made some headway on the joint, then you

may put forth a little main strength and tear the vertebræ apart, but do

not attempt this too soon.

The next thing is to cut off the ribs, and the first step toward this is to

cut out the sternum, or breastbone. (See Plate XX.) This so-called bone is

really cartilage, soft enough in a fresh skeleton to cut on the outside,

and in thin places, like cheese rind. It must be cut out in one piece, the

same as may be seen in the figure of the mounted skeleton, and the dotted

line _A B_ shows where the cartilaginous ribs of the sternum join the bony

ribs that form the main arch of the thorax. At the points marked by the

dotted line, cut the two apart. I have never found it necessary to use a

saw for this work in a perfectly fresh skeleton, but in dry ones a saw is

necessary. When you come to the short, or "floating ribs," as they are

called, it will be found that their cartilages are only attached weakly to

the cartilages of the previous ribs, or else are altogether free. These

must be cut from the ribs and preserved with great care.

After the ribs have been cut free from the sternum, separate them from the

backbone, one by one, make them up into bundles, and tie them up. The

pelvis is to be separated from the spinal column at the last lumbar

vertebra; and if necessary the spinal column may be again dislocated about

the middle.

Formerly it was my practice to poison all rough skeletons with a thin wash

of arsenical soap, to make them dry without smelling badly, and to keep off

the myriads of insects that the shreds of flesh would naturally attract.

Now, however, in obedience to the mandates of Mr. Lucas, I have eschewed

the use of arsenical soap for this purpose, and recommend the use of dry

arsenic instead, which does not retard the cleaning of the bones.

ROUGH SKELETONS OF BIRDS.--As in the case of a small mammal, first remove

the skin from the body; but if the identity of the bird is in doubt, leave

the large tail feathers and the primaries in place, for future reference.

In fact, it is a good plan to always leave the primaries and spurious

quills on the wing, for then there will be no danger that some of the small

bones of the last joint will get lost or cut away by mistake. Moreover,

when you come to tie up the skeleton, the primaries will afford valuable

protection to the ribs.

[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Rough Skeleton of a Bird. (After F.A. Lucas.)]

With a bird, the entire skeleton should be roughed out before any

disjointing is done, and even then none is necessary, save to cut off the

legs of large birds, especially those with long legs. Study carefully the

accompanying figure of a bird skeleton (Fig. 67), and then it will be

hardly necessary to say more than to roughly, but carefully, cut off the

flesh with a cartilage knife or scalpel, and remove all the viscera. Look

out for those delicate little points on the neck vertebræ, and also be very

careful not to cut off those curious little appendages (called uncinate

processes) that project backward from the middle of each rib. Leave the

hyoid bone in its place, and also the bony ring surrounding the eyeball of

the great blue heron, the owl, and other birds of prey. If any portion of

the windpipe reveals any bony structure, the entire windpipe should be

saved. Whenever any tendons are found to be partly ossified, as they will

certainly prove to be in the "drumstick" of your Thanksgiving turkey, leave

them in place for the osteologist to do with as he pleases.

_When in doubt about any special part, give the osteologist the benefit of

the doubt by saving the special part for him._

If the bird is a large one, cut off the head, and after cleaning it pack it

away in the chest cavity. If the bird is small, you can leave it attached

to the neck, and remove the brain by bending the head down and cutting it

half off from above, thus exposing the occipital opening at the back of the

skull, through which the brain may be drawn out.

After the skeleton has been roughed out, it should always be cleaned by

washing it in a basin of water and brushing it meanwhile with a soft

tooth-brush. If blood is left on the skeleton, the bones will absorb it,

and become permanently discolored thereby. The cleansing done, make the

skeleton up into a compact bundle by folding the wings naturally against

the body, bending the neck down in some way so that it can be tied upon the

body, and either cutting off the legs and putting them into the thorax and

pelvis, or leaving them on and folding them up as compactly as possible.

Then tie the bundle up thoroughly by passing a light string many times

around it, so that it can never lose its compactness. Sprinkle it with dry

arsenic, or wash over with _thin_ arsenical soap, and hang it up in the

shade to dry.

SKELETONS OF REPTILES.--After all the foregoing directions, it surely is

unnecessary to describe, in detail, the skeletonizing of reptiles. The

principles are precisely the same as already set forth for birds and

mammals. Wherever special bones or cartilages are found, as in the

abdominal-cartilaginous ribs of crocodilians and certain lizards, they must

be carefully saved whole and _in situ_. With large skeletons, take whatever

means are necessary to get them, while fresh, into compact shape for drying

and packing. With large crocodiles and alligators, the neck, legs, head,

and tail all go nicely inside the body, as I have proved scores of times.

The skeleton of a large serpent is easily done up in a close coil, by which

it not only takes compact shape, but the ribs are well protected. With

serpents, do not attempt to cut the flesh from between the ribs, for it is

desirable that it should remain.

On each rib of a crocodilian there is a strange, flat piece of cartilage

attached to the posterior edge at the middle of the rib, and projecting

backward, quite overlapping the next rib, as sure as the world the

reptilian development of what in the full-fledged bird becomes a bony

uncinate process. You will soon discover this in skeletonizing your first

crocodilian, and be sure to respect its anatomy.

It surely is superfluous to say that every skeleton must be carefully and

fully labeled, and in a substantial way.

FISHES.--This subject has been treated in Chapter IX. (Collecting Fishes).

_Skeletonizing Cetaceans._--The rough skeleton of a cetacean--porpoise,

blackfish, whale, and the like--is the bloodiest, greasiest, nastiest

specimen the collector ever has to prepare. Nevertheless, they are

necessary evils, and fortunately their structure is so simple that their

roughing out is not a difficult matter. The vertebral column terminates in

a point, there being no bones in the flukes of the tail, or the dorsal fin.

The best way to operate is to split the body open along the middle of the

back all the way from head to tail, and carve the flesh away until you

reach the vertebral column, and after that the ribs.

The vertebral column must be cut in two in two or more places, according to

its size. Midway between the last pair of ribs and the tail, and underneath

the vertebral column, lie two very useless and absurd little ossifications

known as the pelvic bones. They are called pelvic bones because that

happens to be a handy name. They bear about as much resemblance to a

genuine pelvis as a cigarette does to a locomotive. They are so small that

it takes an expert with a search-warrant to find them, and, for my part, I

always consider their loss a real gain to the cause of science. Of course

the scapula and flipper, the ribs and the sternum, must each in turn be cut

away, cleaned as well as possible, and bundled up to go with the head and

the three sections of the vertebral column.

PACKING SKELETONS.--All rough skeletons, skulls, etc. (as well as all

skins) must be thoroughly dry when packed, or they will sweat, soften up,

smell offensively, and spoil any dry skins, or other perishable objects

that may be packed with them. Skeletons should always be packed in tight

boxes, so that rats and mice cannot get into them and gnaw the small bones.

Tie some soft material over the teeth of separate skulls to save them from

getting broken. Put the largest skeletons and skulls at the bottom, and use

hay, straw, or excelsior for filling. Of course the small and fragile

specimens will be put in the protected corners and crevices between the

larger objects, and, as before remarked, dry skeletons that have been made

up into compact bundles will stand a very considerable amount of pressure

without breaking.

COLLECTING FOSSIL SKELETONS.--The vertebrate zoologist glories in the

skeleton of almost any living species of vertebrate, but a fossil skeleton

he fairly worships. The more of previous theories it upsets, the dearer it

is. If it is a reptile with feathers on its tail, a bird with teeth, or a

scientific what-is-it, as was the gigantic megatherium, it is simply

canonized. Beware, then, red-handed hunter of living species, how you

recklessly pass by a bit of bone protruding from a "cut bank" beside some

stream, for you know not the day and the hour when you may touch elbows

with His Mysterious Highness, the Missing Link.

The tertiary deposits of the United States contain the fossil remains of

many magnificent vertebrates, impossible even to mention here. Very often

huge bones and tusks of the mastodon are unearthed in well or ditch

digging, and before they receive proper attention are exposed to the air

and allowed to crumble into dust in a few hours. If a fossil bone is very

soft when dug up, it will crumble in a short time unless properly cared

for. If this is likely to be its fate, cover it up again without delay, to

keep the air from it until you are ready to preserve it. To accomplish

this, prepare a kettle of glue water (simply hot water with a little glue

dissolved in it) and wrap the bone tightly from end to end with an

abundance of twine. Then with a ladle or large spoon pour the glue water

over the bone or tusk, gradually, but continuously, so that it will soak

in, and when dry, it will bind together the weak material and form a hard

shell of some thickness and protect the form of the bone intact. This will

often save a fossil which would otherwise fall into countless tiny

fragments in a few hours.

If a skeleton or portion thereof is embedded in a matrix of hard rock, do

not attempt to work it out fully in the field. That is work for the

laboratory--and a very good one at that, sometimes requiring costly tools,

much skill, and plenty of time to chip away the surrounding rock.

Oftentimes the fossil remains of a fish, small reptile, or mammal are

uncovered bodily by the removal of the slab of rock which has covered it

for ages, like a blanket. In such cases do not attempt to pick the bones,

one by one, out of their resting-place, but procure the necessary tools,

cut out the entire slab of rock which contains the skeleton, and keep it in

one piece forever. Such specimens have a good market value in cash, which

will well repay the care and labor bestowed upon them; but at the same time

a novice should not make the very common mistake of supposing that a fossil

which is new _to him_ must necessarily be worth its weight in gold. If you

wish to sell any good fossils, you will get a fair valuation by offering

them to Professor Henry A. Ward, Rochester, N.Y.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

CLEANING LARGE SKELETONS BY MACERATING.

There are two ways to clean the skeletons of large mammals: (1) by boiling

the bones, and (2) by maceration. The first is short, cleanly, and

agreeable; but the skeleton produced by it is sure to be full of grease,

and is anything but white and pleasing to look upon when mounted. The

boiling process is also detrimental to the texture of the bone. The

professional osteologist, to whom a greasy bone in a mounted skeleton is an

unpardonable offence, never thinks of boiling a skeleton to get the flesh

off, for the reason that the grease is boiled _into_ the bone instead of

out of it. Cleaning by boiling is permissible only under exceptional

circumstances. If you wish a particular skeleton for a special purpose

within a very short time, or if you are so situated that macerating a

skeleton is impossible then boiling is excusable, but _steaming_ is far

preferable.

PREPARING A SKELETON FOR MACERATION.--It is, of course, to be understood

that it is only the skeletons that are too large to be scraped and mounted

as "ligamentous skeletons" that are to be macerated, bleached, and

afterward articulated with wire. The first thing to do is to cut out the

sternum in one piece, as already shown in Plate XXI., poison it in arsenic

water, and hang it away to dry and be scraped afterward. A sternum must

never be macerated, for it is so soft the cartilaginous framework would be

entirely destroyed. The skeleton must now be cut completely to pieces,

excepting that it is not necessary to separate all the vertebræ of the

spinal column. The ribs must be cut off, and the joints of the legs cut

asunder. The large bones of the legs contain marrow, and of these bones

each one must have a large hole drilled in each end on the face of the

articulating surface, so that when mounted the holes will not show. These

holes are to afford the water access to the interior of the bone.

MACERATING AND CLEANING.--The maceration of a skeleton is a question of

time as compared with eternity. Procure a wooden barrel or keg large enough

to contain the entire skeleton, knock the head out and see that there are

no nails, nor any other metal anywhere on the inside to stain and discolor

the bones. Pack the skeleton closely in the empty barrel, fill it up with

water and let it stand. In a few days its offence, like Othello's, "is

rank, and smells to heaven." But that is no matter, provided your barrel

has no neighbors. Let it stand for four months, six months, a year, or two

years if need be, until every particle of fleshy matter on the bones has

disintegrated and become a pulp. Keep the barrel covered, and when the

water evaporates and the bones on top are about to be exposed, fill up with

water and keep the bones always covered. If a skeleton is very bloody, it

is well to soak it for a week in salt water to dissolve the

blood-corpuscles. Then it may be macerated as directed above. The odor will

be horrible, but if you are going to study bones you must not mind that.

When you find upon examining the bones that the flesh has totally

disappeared from them, leaving them dark-colored or even black, but without

any fleshy matter upon them, they are then to be taken out. Pour off the

water, place the entire contents of the barrel in a large sieve-bottomed

tray, and wash the bones thoroughly. When that has been done, put them in a

large tub of boiling water, and keep them in warm water while you scrape

all the bones, one by one, with your bone-scraper, and scrub them with a

stiff brush, going over the entire surface, and washing them meanwhile in

the warm water. The interior of each of the large leg bones must be washed

out with a strong syringe, and every cavity in the vertebræ must be

carefully scraped out.

BLEACHING.--Having carefully scraped and washed the bones, the entire

skeleton is now to be soaked for a short time, the length of time varying

according to the size and age of the skeleton, in a solution of chloride of

lime and water. To make this of the proper strength, dissolve about two or

three ounces of chloride of lime in a barrel of water. Bones of young or

immature animals must not be left in this solution as long as those of old

specimens. Young bones are soft and porous, and the chloride of lime will

soon destroy them if they remain in it too long.

The following skeletons, adult in every case, require to be left in this

solution a length of time as stated herewith: Dog, 6 hours; sheep, 6 hours;

deer, 8; buffalo, 12; elephant, 12.

After removing the bones from this bath, wash them with clear water, lay

them in slat-bottomed trays, with cheese-cloth above the slats, without

piling one bone upon another, and expose them a number of days in the hot

sun. After they have bleached on the upper side, turn them over. If it does

not rain upon them occasionally, they should be sprinkled with water, late

in the evening or early in the morning, to hasten the process.

Great care is necessary to keep the tiny carpal, tarsal, and phalangeal

bones from getting lost. When the bones are white as chalk, or nearly so,

tie the parts of each skeleton in a stout paper bag by itself, label it,

and put it away until you are ready to mount it.

The sternum is to be soaked in clear water, with a little washing soda to

cut the grease, until it is soft, and then scraped the same as the bones of

a ligamentary skeleton, which process will be described in the next

chapter.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS.

The skeletons of small vertebrates should never be macerated previous to

mounting, for the reason that their complete rearticulation would be a

practical impossibility. The bones must be left united at the joints by

their natural ligaments, which when dry become quite hard, and with the aid

of either one or two small brass standards will hold the entire skeleton

erect and in proper shape. Skeletons mounted thus, with the parts attached

to each other by their own dried ligaments instead of wires, are called

ligamentous, or ligamentary, skeletons. All mammals smaller than a large

fox, all birds smaller than a small ostrich, all turtles, lizards, iguanas,

serpents, crocodilians, and all fishes are mounted in this way. Fortunately

it is possible to clean to perfect whiteness the skeletons of almost all

these subjects without putting them through the maceration process, which

resolves everything into its component parts.

DRYING BEFORE MOUNTING.--In order to have a skeleton so that it will scrape

to the best advantage and become as white as possible, every ligamentary

skeleton must be dried before it is finally cleaned and mounted. In a

perfectly fresh skeleton the epiphyses and ligaments are so soft the

operator would find it hard to keep from destroying them with his

keen-edged steel scrapers, and the smaller bones and cartilaginous members

would also be in great danger of mutilation in the same way. When a

skeleton dries, all these soft portions harden, and when afterward the

skeleton is soaked in clear water for two or three days, or longer as may

be necessary, the flesh quickly softens so that you can scrape it all away

without encroaching on the framework, and the ligaments at the joints are

just soft enough that a portion of it may be scraped or trimmed away, and

yet leave sufficient to hold each joint together.

RELAXING A DRY SKELETON.--As intimated above, this is accomplished simply

by soaking the specimen in clear water until its joints are pliable, and

the flesh upon the bones is soft enough to scrape off. In order that the

specimen should not become offensive and disagreeable to work upon, it must

not soak long enough for decomposition to set in, for that is the first

stage of maceration. Therefore, scraping should begin just as soon as the

flesh is soft enough to be readily removed.

[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Steel Bone-scrapers.]

SCRAPING A LIGAMENTARY SKELETON.--The removal of the flesh and other animal

matter from a small skeleton is accomplished by scraping the bones with

various chisel-edged scrapers specially designed for this work, and by

clipping and trimming on the joints with either curve-pointed or straight

scissors. The principles to be learned in skeleton-scraping are

comparatively few and simple. In the first place, a sufficient quantity of

the connecting ligament at each joint must be left to hold the two bones

together in proper shape when the specimen dries. This must not be left in

a thick, unsightly mass, but requires to be scraped and trimmed down so

that it is reduced to as small a quantity as will serve the purpose. In

scraping the flesh off the main stem of a bone, such as the humerus, for

example, always begin at the end and scrape toward the middle. The

skeletons of turtles, lizards, and the like are an exception to this rule

by reason of their structure, and should be scraped from the middle toward

each end. If you scrape from the middle of a mammalian or avian bone toward

either end, before you are aware of it, you have loosened the attachment of

the ligament, and have nothing left to hold the joint together. By

beginning on the ligament itself, and working away from it, you can scrape

it down so thin at the point of attachment that its identity is quite lost,

and the point where it ends is hardly visible. This principle applies to

the scraping of all ligamentary skeletons, except a few reptiles.

In cleaning bird skeletons beware of injuring the little tack like points

which project downward from each of the cervical vertebræ. Have a care also

for the soft bones of the coccyx, and the uncinate process which projects

backward from the posterior edge of each rib. In fishes the greatest

difficulty lies in leaving the ribs attached to the remainder of the

skeleton, for if the operator is at all as the writer used to be in the

days of his youth, he will be prone to scrape some of the ribs loose, and

be obliged to glue them in place in the dry skeleton, with glue and cotton

batting that has been clipped up finely with a sharp pair of scissors.

While a small skeleton is undergoing the scraping process it must not be

allowed to get dry until it is finally set up in position. When the

skeleton is not being worked upon, it must be kept soaking in clean water;

but remember that this cannot go on very long, or maceration will set in,

the ligaments will give way, and the bones will all come apart. A little

borax in the water serves to arrest decomposition, and will allow a

skeleton to remain soaking for several days longer than could otherwise be

allowed. After a skeleton has been well scraped, in order to get it as

white as possible and free from grease, it must be treated with

JAVELLE WATER.

1/2 pound chloride of lime.

1 pound common washing soda.

1 gallon of boiling water.

Keep this on hand in a glass-stoppered jar, in the dark. In using it, draw

off a small quantity in a broad, shallow, earthen dish. Lay every small

skeleton in it, and with a soft tooth-brush of the right size, brush all

the bones thoroughly for about five minutes. At the end of that process

wash the skeleton thoroughly with clear water, and perhaps it is then ready

to mount.

Often the bones of a small skeleton contain an inordinate amount of grease.

The easiest and simplest way to remove it is to soak the greasy bones for

several days or weeks, as may be necessary, in a jar of pure naphtha.

MOUNTING A SMALL SKELETON.--The skeleton of every bird, mammal, and reptile

requires to have the spinal cord replaced by a stout zinc wire, to give

both strength and rigidity to the structure. Zinc wire is necessary because

iron wire will rust, and brass wire is too expensive to use when something

cheaper and better is obtainable. If you cannot procure zinc wire, use good

galvanized iron wire. For very large specimens you may use iron wire, but

it must be covered with two coats of asphaltum, applied with a brush, like

black paint. After inserting the wire the full length of the cavity of the

spinal cord, leave enough of the end protruding beyond the first vertebra

of the neck to afford a means for the attachment of the skull. The extra

length to be allowed should always be nearly equal to the lateral depth of

the brain cavity.

ATTITUDE.--It is often somewhat difficult to decide upon the attitude the

skeleton is to have when finished. The possibilities in this line are

extensive, and the result depends entirely upon the character of the

subject, and the knowledge and good taste of the operator. In the first

place, the position of the skeleton must be a correct representation of

some characteristic attitude of the species. For example, a sloth skeleton

should hang underneath a branch; a monkey should be climbing, or walking on

a stout bough; a hyena should sneak and crouch; a passerine bird should

always perch, while the penguins and the auks must stand erect on flat

pedestals. If the young osteologist can do so, it will pay him well to

travel several hundred miles, if need be, to see the beautiful, and even

elegant, collection of skeletons and other preparations in Mr. F.A. Lucas's

Department of Comparative Anatomy in the National Museum, all of the

specimens in which have been prepared, mounted and displayed by Mr. Lucas

and his assistant, Mr. Joseph W. Schollick. I know of no other osteological

collection which in the beauty and scientific accuracy of mounting, and

exhibition arrangement of its specimens, can be considered equal to this.

The museum-builder may well consider it a model of its kind. Every

skeleton, from that of a tiny humming-bird to a whale forty-eight feet

long, is as nearly perfect as human skill can make it, and the variety of

the characteristic attitudes represented in the smaller species makes this

collection a particularly attractive one.

[Illustration: PLATE XX. LIGAMENTARY SKELETON (DOMESTIC CAT).--MOUNTED AND

DRYING.]

PROCESS WITH MAMMALS.--We will assume that the skeleton has been carefully

scraped, and is now ready for mounting. The successive steps in this work

from start to finish are about as follows:

1. In case the skeleton has been dried after scraping, as is often done, it

must be soaked in clear water until the ligaments are relaxed.

2. Cut a zinc or galvanized iron wire of the right length and size to

replace the spinal marrow, and long enough that the upper end of it will

project beyond the axis into the brain cavity of the skull. Sharpen one end

of this wire so that you can force it well down into the sacrum, and insert

it in its place in the spinal column.

3. Bend the vertebral column to its permanent shape. In doing this, draw

the sternum well forward so that the ribs will spread out, and show a chest

cavity of the right size for inflated lungs. If you are not careful in this

regard, the chest cavity will be too narrow.

4. Hang the body in a frame made of light strips of wood, as shown in the

accompanying plate. Let the body hang at just the right height from the

pedestal to receive the legs (Plate XX.).

5. Space the ribs carefully by starting a thread from the neck, and taking

a turn around each rib from the first to the last, finally making fast the

remaining end of the thread to one of the lumbar vertebræ.

6. Put on each hind leg by drilling a small hole straight through the head

of the femur and the socket of the pelvis (innominate bone), through which

a small brass wire is to be passed and clinched down closely at each end,

to hold the head of the femur firmly in place.

7. Place each leg in the attitude chosen for it, plant the foot according

to its osteological character, and pin each toe in its proper place, as

shown in the accompanying plate. The leg must be held in place by attaching

threads to it, and making them fast to the various parts of the gallows.

8. In putting on the foreleg, the position of the scapula must be defined

with accuracy, in order to avoid placing it too low or too high, and thus

making an incorrect representation of the height of the animal. Bear in

mind that the scapula never lies prone upon the ribs, but is separated from

them by a cushion of muscle. It is therefore necessary to leave a certain

space between ribs and scapula.

9. Next cut two stiff brass wires of the proper length for the two

standards that must support the skeleton (see _A A_ and _B B_ in Plate

XX.). To make the U-shaped fork at the upper end of each standard, to clasp

the vertebral column, heat one end of the rod red-hot, and plunge it into

cold water, which softens the metal. Now put it in a vise, and with a

hack-saw split the rod down the middle as far from the end as necessary.

Finish neatly by rounding off the ends with a fine file, and bending them

in shape with the pliers. The lower end must have a thread cut on it an

inch or so in length, a neat brass "rosette" screwed upon it (_R_) to do

duty on the top of the pedestal, and a small brass nut made to screw on

underneath the pedestal, to hold the standard firmly upright. These

standards need not be put in place under the skeleton until it is mounted

finally on its handsomely polished, permanent exhibition pedestal.

10. Mr. Lucas has two methods for attaching a small skull to the skeleton.

One is to cut a piece of cork to fit snugly in the occipital hole of the

skull (foramen magnum), then pierce a hole through its centre, and fit it

tightly on the projecting end of the vertebral wire, close up to the first

cervical vertebra (the axis). The cork thus becomes stationary, and the

skull may be put in place and removed at will.

The other method is to place the skull exactly in position on the skeleton,

fitting it closely to the axis. Then drill a small hole through each side

of the axis in such a manner that in its passage from top to bottom the

drill will also pass through the occipital condyle of the skull. By

fitting a wire through each of these holes the skull will be held fast in

position _so long as the skeleton remains in its place_, right side up.

If the skeleton is to be packed for shipment, the skull (unless it be very

small and light) must be taken off, wrapped, and packed separately for

safety in transit.

[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Skeleton of a Bat, as exhibited by Mr. Lucas].

11. If any bones have been broken, they must now be repaired, either by

gluing them together, or by joining with a short wire fitted into the axis

of each piece, and the missing particles of bone may be restored by a

filling of best sinew glue mixed with plaster Paris into a paste, and

applied hot, so that it will adhere. As it cools it can be shaped properly,

and when thoroughly dry and hard, its surface must be dressed down with a

fine file and sand-paper until the form of the bone is once more perfect.

This is work which very often calls for considerable skill in the operator,

but the process itself is a very simple one.

If ligaments are missing and a small bone is completely detached, it should

be put on as follows: Procure some fine cotton batting, cut it up very

finely with the scissors, then apply some hot glue to the joint, lay a bit

of clipped cotton upon it, and work it into the glue so that when dry it

will form a false ligament and hold the bone firmly in its place without

attracting any attention to the fact that the ligament has been made for

the occasion.

12. Finally, transfer each skeleton to its permanent pedestal, which we

will assume has been prepared while the specimen has been drying. Mr. Lucas

puts all his small skeletons on handsome ebonized pedestals, which are the

thing _par excellence_. The limbs for his climbing animals, and the thin,

black boards for his bat skeletons are also ebonized. The illustration on

page 291 (Fig. 69) shows one of his bat skeletons complete, as it stands in

its case, bearing a label of black letters on an olive-gray card, with no

ornamentation. In the final mounting the standards are put in place, and

the upper end of each fitted fast to the backbone. Each toe is fixed firmly

in its place, and held down by the bent-over end of a headless pin, or by

having a pin put through it, and cut off close down to the bone.

[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Skeleton of a Bird Mounted and Drying.]

CAUTIONS AND EXCEPTIONS.--It is only the tiny skeletons, such as mice,

shrews, small squirrels, and the like, that can safely be mounted without

standards. To be sure, a large cat skeleton _can_ be mounted on its own

legs, without any standards, and so can a man drink a pint of bad whiskey;

but in each case the falling from grace will be in about the same degree,

if not the same in kind also. In long-continued moist weather, ligaments

are apt to soften and let large unsupported skeletons come down, without

neatness, but plenty of despatch.

BIRDS.--The foregoing principles, which have been described in detail for

small mammals, apply so fully and with such complete general similarity to

birds, that it is only necessary to add the two accompanying illustrations.

[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Wiring a Skeleton Wing.]

REPTILES.--_Serpents._--The skeletons of serpents should always be scraped

and mounted as ligamentary specimens, and _not macerated_. The skeleton

should be supported on from three to five low brass standards clasping the

vertebral column at proper intervals, the body curved naturally, and the

ribs spread out and spaced evenly as in life, according to the curves of

the body. The skeleton looks best when placed low down on the pedestal. The

ribs must be spaced with threads where the ligaments are soft, but when dry

require no wires. The skeleton may be mounted in any life-like attitude,

either coiled or in motion.

_Lizards._--Small species are to be treated the same as small mammals.

_Crocodiles and Alligators._--It is best that all saurian skeletons, even

the largest, should be scraped and mounted without maceration, on account

of the elaborate cartilaginous sternum and false ribs. The head requires a

special standard, and the tail requires a pair, while the tip of the latter

is to be pinned down with a wire. Of course the feet must rest down on the

pedestal as in life. One thing which would greatly enhance the scientific

value of every crocodile and alligator skeleton would be the preparation

and display, in its proper place, of one side of the skin of the back with

its wonderful shield of bony plates nicely articulated together. This

remarkable covering of the vital organs seems to have been specially

designed to ward off glancing bullets, and it has saved the lives of

thousands of crocodilians. (Of course this shield is not proof against a

bullet fired squarely against it.) So far, all collectors and osteologists

have ignored this remarkable feature of the saurians, but it should have

the attention it deserves.

[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Skeleton of Turtle, as Exhibited.]

_Turtles and Tortoises._--The skeleton of a tortoise, if mounted on its

feet in a life-like attitude, has the best part of its anatomy concealed by

its shell. This difficulty Mr. Lucas meets occasionally by sawing out and

laying back one-half the carapace, to expose the interior. The commonest

method, however, is that shown in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 72),

which is self-explanatory. The plastron is hinged at one side, furnished

with a latch, and opens like a door. The skeleton is mounted on a single

standard, which is split at the upper end like a Y, the arms bent to fit

the curvature of the shell, and riveted to the carapace. Each leg is held

in place by a small wire attached to the shell at its edge.

FISHES.--There is nothing in the mounting of fish skeletons that has not

been fully described in the foregoing pages. Of course fish skeletons are

never macerated, but must be scraped and mounted with their natural

ligaments in place. Each skeleton requires two brass standards, one

clasping the vertebral column close to the tail, the other near the head. A

very long fish, or one with a large skull, requires three standards, one

for the skull and one for the middle of the body. Where only two are used

for a large fish, the head requires to be supported by a wire running from

the centre of the backbone.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

MOUNTING A LARGE DISARTICULATED SKELETON.

It will be well for anyone who intends to mount a large skeleton, if he has

not already a fair knowledge of osteology, to take some book which contains

a description of the skeleton, for example, of the domestic cow, and

familiarize himself with the names of the various bones and the different

anatomical terms used in describing them. In fact it is next to impossible

to describe the process of mounting a skeleton without making use of quite

an array of technical terms.

In order to make our description of this intricate process as clear as

possible, we will choose as our typical subject the skeleton of an American

bison, and go through with it in detail, aided by an abundant supply of

illustrations. We of course assume that the macerating, cleaning, and

bleaching has been done.

In mounting a disarticulated skeleton, begin with the vertebral column as

the key to the situation. It is, in point of fact, the keel upon which the

whole structure is to be built. The vertebræ should be arranged, each in

its place, and, then they should be numbered with pen and ink on the

anterior articulating surface of the body of each one, beginning with the

first vertebra in front of the sacrum. This vertebra (the last lumbar)

should be marked No. 1, the next in front No. 2, and so on to the axis.

The next step consists in boring two holes through the sacrum from its

under surface (Fig. 73, _a, a_) to its anterior articulating surface (_b,

b_), and these holes should be continued on through the body of each of the

succeeding vertebrae to the axis. They should come out underneath that

vertebra (the axis), where the wires which pass through all these holes are

afterward to be twisted together. The holes should be somewhat larger than

the brass wires which are to pass through them.

It is necessary to mark the place for starting the drill into the posterior

surface of each vertebra by fitting two articulating surfaces together, and

passing the drill through the holes already made. The points at which the

drill should come out on the anterior surface of a vertebra should be

marked with a lead pencil. The beginner will find some difficulty in making

the drill come through at precisely the right spot. The greatest difficulty

will be experienced in getting these holes through the cervical vertebrae.

When the axis is reached, bore the holes so that they will come out

underneath, about half way between each extremity of the vertebra, and

about three-fourths of an inch apart.

It is just as well to now bore the holes through which the wires which

fasten the axis and atlas together are to pass, though these need not be

actually united until the remainder of the spinal column has been,

articulated. The wires uniting the atlas and axis are smaller than those

passing through the spinal column. The holes for these wires are made by

boring two of them through each of the two surfaces by which the axis

articulates with the atlas. These holes should come out underneath the

axis. Then, placing the axis and atlas together, mark on the atlas the

places through which the holes are to pass by running the drill through

each of the holes already made.

The next thing to be done is to cut pieces of artificial cartilage, called

"buffle," to fit the posterior articulating surface of the body of each

vertebra, and each piece should be fastened to the vertebra to which it

belongs by a small wire nail through its centre. The holes in each vertebra

should be continued straight on through the false cartilage. Now cut a

brass wire three times the length of the spinal column, double it, pull it

straight, pass the two ends through the sacrum, and so on forward through

all the vertebræ.

When the vertebræ have all been strung on the two wires and tightened up,

it will be seen that the spinal column assumes a curve approximating very

nearly to the natural one. Mark this curve with chalk on a table or a

board.

Unstring the vertebræ from the wire. Then take a square rod of iron, a foot

or so longer than the spinal column, and over which each of the vertebra

will fit easily. Have the blacksmith flatten out one end into a sort of

spear, so that it will fit snugly in the spinal canal of the sacrum (Fig.

73, _c_).

[Illustration: FIG. 73.--The Sacrum and Spinal Rod.]

Drill a hole through the under surface of the sacrum, and on through the

iron rod: Into this a brass pin is to be fitted at _d_. Bend the iron rod

to correspond exactly with the curve previously marked with chalk on the

board. Paint the rod black, and when it has dried place it again in the

sacrum, drive in the brass pin, leaving enough of the end exposed to be

seized with a pair of pliers and pulled out if desired. Now string the

vertebræ over the rod and wires. If all fit properly they can then be

unstrung preparatory to attaching the ribs to them.

[Illustration: FIG. 74.--The Attachment of the Ribs to a Vertebra.]

Each rib should have a hole bored through its lower end at the middle, to

come out on the inner surface (Fig. 74, _b, b_). Through these holes wires

are to pass, as seen in the accompanying figure, and to these wires the

sternum is presently to be attached.

Having arranged the ribs so that you know the place of each, take the first

pair, and the first dorsal vertebra to which this pair attaches. Bore a

hole with the drilling machine through the rib, beginning at the centre of

the articular surface of the tubercle of the rib, directing the drill so

that it will come out on the under side (Fig. 74, _c, c_); then drill a

hole through the head of the rib (_d, d_). Now fit the rib to the vertebra,

and with a small awl, a sharp-pointed wire, or drill, mark, through the

holes already made, the points on the articular surface of the vertebra

through which the holes should be drilled (_a, a_). Bore similar holes

through the rib of the opposite side, then through the vertebra at the

points marked, and the wire will pass through as in the figure.

[Illustration: PLATE XXI. SKELETON OF AN AMERICAN BISON.]

Continue this same process for the remaining ribs. It will be found,

however, that the process of carrying a single wire through the heads of

both ribs and the anterior portion of the body of the vertebra cannot be

continued with all. In the last of the dorsal vertebrae the wires will have

to be put through the head of the rib and the pedicles of the vertebrae

into the neural canal.

Make a loop on the end of each wire, as at _a, a_, Fig. 74, and put the

ribs on each vertebra as they belong, having only one end of the wire--the

one on which is made a double loop--pulled up snugly. The other end of the

wire should be left a few inches in length, but bent slightly close to the

rib, to hold the latter in place.

The innominate bones should be attached to the sacrum either by two brass

bolts, one passing through each side at about the middle of the articular

surfaces between the sacrum and each ilium, or by passing a heavy double

wire through each of these places. Before tightening permanently, apply

"plaster-glue" (the mixture of glue and plaster Paris already described) to

the articular surfaces between the sacrum and ilia, thus when dry making

the pelvis firm.

Now that the ribs are attached to the vertebræ, and the innominate bones to

the sacrum, proceed to string the vertebræ again on the wires and rod. The

atlas can now be attached to the axis by passing wires through the holes

previously made, after which the wires are to be twisted firmly together.

When all the vertebræ with their ribs attached have been put in place, hang

the backbone to a framework similar to that used for suspending the

alligator (Plate XIV.), or, what is much better, to the ceiling, by two

small ropes attached at the neck and pelvis.

With the pliers now twist tightly together the wires under the axis, then

take a screw-driver and work between each pair of vertebrae from

underneath, beginning with the last lumbar, and prying back toward the

sacrum. By the time you have reached the axis a considerable space will

have been gained. Shorten the wires by twisting them, and continue this

process until the vertebrae all fit snugly together, and are tight one

against the other.

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Middle Joint of the Hind Leg.]

The next step is to put on the sternum, which has been soaked in water

containing a little washing soda, and thus made flexible. Of course it has

been previously cleaned by the scraping process. A hole should be bored

through the end of each sternal rib, coming out on the inner surface. The

sternum is suspended temporarily by strings attached to the vertebral

column, and the single wires that have previously been placed through the

end of each rib are now run, one by one, through the end of the sternal rib

it is to support.

Now space the ribs temporarily with a string that will hold each one of

them exactly in its place. Having done this, two brass wires can now be

used to hold the ribs permanently in place, running them on each side from

the inferior process of the last cervical vertebræ to the transverse

process of some one of the lumbar vertebra, or to the pelvis. What is much

better for a large skeleton, because it is both firmer and more elegant, is

a long, narrow strip of polished brass on the inside, bent carefully to fit

the curve of the ribs, and fastened by a brass pin through each rib, the

posterior end of the brass strip being attached to a transverse process of

one of the lumbar vertebræ (see Plate XXI.). After this has been done, each

rib can then be permanently fastened at top and bottom by making the loop

and cutting off the long end of each wire.

The next step is to put on the tail. A hole should have been bored into the

middle of the articular surface of the posterior end of the sacrum, and on

each side a little hole coming out below (see Fig. 73). The large middle

wire (_e, e_) should be of stiff brass, and extend through the entire

length of the tail, the tapering end being filed small so that the small

vertebræ can fit over it. The small side wires of soft brass (_f, f_)

should only extend through a few of the larger tail vertebræ, and are for

making things firm.

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Middle Joint of Hind Leg: Rear View.]

[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Bones of the Foot: Side View.]

To articulate the bones of the hind leg, first arrange them so as to know

the precise place of each. Take first the tarsal and metatarsal bones. In

articulating these it is necessary for one to use his judgment largely, and

put wires through so as to make the joint firm. Bore holes through the

astragalus and os calcis (Fig. 75, _a, a_) so as to put a double wire

through these and hold them together firmly. Next send two strong double

wires through these and through the other tarsal bones, and bring them out

on the posterior surface of the metatarsal or canon bone (_c_ and _d_).

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Bones of the Foot: Rear View.]

Next articulate the bones of the feet. This is very simply done by passing

a single heavy wire through the lower end of each half of the canon bone to

each set of phalanges, making a loop at each end of the wire (see Figs. 77

and 78). In large skeletons it will frequently be found necessary to

further strengthen the articulations of the phalanges by means of brass

pins, as shown in the figure at _a_. The sesamoids are fastened on by two

stiff brass pins through each at _b_.

The femur and tibia can be fastened together by a double brass wire passing

through each condyle of the femur, and through each side of the head of the

tibia, or, what is better, a strip of brass set into the middle of the

joint, and fastened firmly by two stout brass pins driven transversely

through from side to side, as indicated in Fig. 79.

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--The Knee-Joint.]

The patella is fastened on by passing a wire through it and twisting it, or

erecting it on a small strip of brass set into the tubercle of the tibia.

The joint is further strengthened by putting a brass pin through the

patella into the end of the femur.

The tibia is articulated to the lower portion of the leg, or, more

properly, the pes, by putting stiff wire pins into it. The femur is

articulated to the pelvis by a brass bolt. The front foot is articulated on

the same principles as the hind foot.

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Front View of Knee-Joint.]

In articulating the knee-joint, as it is called, send two heavy wires

through, letting them come out on the posterior surface of the radius and

metacarpal bone, and insert two wire pins diagonally through the joint, as

shown in Fig. 81. The scapula is fastened to the humerus by brass pins. The

humerus, radius, and ulna are also fastened by brass pins, three in number.

[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Elbow Joint: Front View.]

The scapula is attached to the body by two brass bolts attached to the

ribs. Sections of spiral spring wire or pieces of brass tube are placed on

the bolts between the scapula and the ribs, to hold the former off the

latter the same distance as when the flesh surrounding the scapula was all

present. As to the position of the legs, the operator must use his own

judgment. It is of course to be understood that the attitude of the legs

has been decided upon before their articulation began, and that the work of

wiring together has been carried out in accordance with this plan. It is

hard to do more with a large skeleton than to place the legs in an easy

walking attitude, of which the buffalo skeleton already figured may fairly

be taken as a model.

The rod extending through the spinal canal is cut off so that the head will

hang on it properly. Two brass pins are passed through the atlas, one into

each occipital condyle. Two iron rods, with lacquered brass shoulders, are

used to support the skeleton, as shown in the figure. These rods should be

painted black.

The lower jaw is fastened to the skull by means of brass spiral spring

wire, which permits it to be moved freely up and down by any one who is

studying the animal's dentition.

The method of mounting any large disarticulated skeleton of a quadruped is

essentially the same as that described for the buffalo, the principle

variation occurring in the feet. In articulating the feet of a wolf, for

example, the method of wiring the tarsal bones, carpal bones, metatarsals,

metacarpals, and the phalanges, is very similar to that described for the

buffalo, but the workman must here also depend largely on his own

ingenuity. A single wire passes through the phalanges of each digit, and

two sesamoids are fastened on by a single wire.

Where the digits are more than two in number, a wire is passed transversely

through the lower ends of the metacarpals and metatarsals, and on this are

placed short pieces of fine coiled brass spring, to hold the digits at

proper distances from one another.

The tools used in mounting large skeletons are by no means so numerous or

costly that any one need be deterred from trying his hand at practical

osteology on the score of facilities or the lack of them. Of course the

complete outfit of a professional osteologist includes an extensive array

of tools, some of which are rather costly. The most important item is a

good drilling machine, chuck and lathe, to work by foot-power. This can be

procured of Goodnow & Wightman, of Boston, and in ordering it will be

necessary to have a 1/4-inch hole drilled through the centre of the axle,

to receive the long, steel drills of various sizes that are to drill the

many holes required in the various bones.

The amateur who can not afford an expensive plant and a first-class

drilling machine, can get along very well with a Millers' Falls hand-drill

and a good assortment of first-class steel drills to fit it. I once saw an

old German anatomist mount a cow skeleton for a Western college with hardly

more tools than I could hold in one hand--but, of course, that skeleton was

not mounted _à la Lucas_, by a considerable difference.

PART V.--THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECTS.

BY W.J. HOLLAND, PH.D.

CHAPTER XL.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

It is estimated that four-fifths of the species comprised within the animal

kingdom belong to the class of the Insecta. Fully one hundred and

seventy-five thousand species of insects have already been named and

described. Nevertheless vast territories teeming with insect life have been

as yet only very imperfectly explored. The life-history and habits of only

a few thousands of species have as yet been accurately investigated. There

remains, therefore, a broad field for discovery and research in this

portion of the animal creation.

Many insects are polygoneutic, that is, the species is represented by two

or more annual broods, or generations, and thousands of individuals may, by

careful treatment, be reared from the eggs of a single female. In the case

of the higher animals the development and multiplication of individuals

takes place but slowly, and it is obvious, therefore, that there is in the

domain of insect life a far more convenient field for the investigation of

the great problems of variation in animal forms, than among the vertebrate

animals. Aberrant forms are not uncommon, especially among butterflies and

moths, and are worthy of careful study. The various broods often present

great and striking differences. The phenomena of seasonal and sexual

dimorphism are nowhere more clearly developed than among the lepidoptera.

Hybridization also often takes place between allied species of insects,

especially in the case of the bombycid moths, and it is possible for the

skilful entomologist to conduct investigations in this interesting

department of inquiry with almost as much freedom and success as have

attended the labors of the botanist in the domain of plant life.

The economic importance of the study of entomology can scarcely be

overestimated. Some of the best friends of the agriculturist, as well as

multitudes of his worst enemies, are found among the insects. The silkworm,

the cochineal insect, and the bee have aided in the accumulation of many

fortunes, and their culture has provided employment for millions of human

beings. On the other hand, property worth millions of dollars is annually

destroyed by insect ravages. It has been asserted by competent authorities

that the depredations of the Codling moth (Carpocapsa Pomonella) have

resulted, in a single year, within the limits of the State of Pennsylvania

alone, in the destruction of fruit worth over a million of dollars, and the

terrible Phylloxera at one time threatened the total overthrow of

viticulture in Southern Europe.

Various schemes have been proposed for the classification of insects, and

there is as yet only partial agreement among students upon this subject.

Insects belong to that great group of animals designated by zoologists as

the ARTHROPODA. As a means of assisting to a better understanding of the

practical hints and suggestions which follow, a sketch of the

classification of the Arthropoda is here given.

ARTHROPODA.

Animals possessing an external skeleton composed of chitinous rings, or

somites, and provided with articulated limbs.

_Ceratophora._

Class I. PERIPATIDEA (Genus Peripatus).

Class II. MYRIAPODA.

Orders:

1. Diplopoda (Galley-worms, etc.).

2. Pauropida (Genus Pauropus, etc.).

3. Chilopoda (Centipedes, etc.).

Class III. HEXAPODA (Insects proper).

{ Orders:

{ 1. Thysanura.

{ Sub-orders:

{ Collembola (Podura, Spring-tails).

{ Symphyla (Scolopendrella).

{ Cinura (Bristle-tails, etc.).

{ 2. Dermatoptera (Ear-wigs).

{ 3. Pseudoneuroptera.

{ Sub-orders:

{ Mallophaga (Bird-lice).

{ Platyptera (Stone-flies, Termites, etc.)

{ Odonata (Dragon-flies, etc.).

{ Ephemerina (May-flies, etc.).

{ 4. Neuroptera (Corydalis, Ant-lion,

{ Caddis-flies, etc.).

Heterometabola. For { 5. Orthoptera (Cockroach, Mantis,

the most part undergoing { Mole-cricket, Grasshopper, Katydid, etc.).

only a partial metamorphosis{ 6. Hemiptera.

in the development { Sub-orders:

from the egg to the { Parasita (Lice).

imago. { Sternorhyncha (Aphids, Mealy-bugs, etc.).

{ Homoptera (Cicada, Tree-hoppers, etc.).

{ Heteroptera (Ranatra, Belostoma, Water

{ spiders, Squash-bugs, Bed-bugs, etc.).

{ 7. Coleoptera.

{ Sub-orders:

{ Cryptotetramera (Lady-birds, etc.).

{ Cryptopentamera (Leaf-beetles,

{ Long-horns, Weevils, etc.).

{ Heteromera (Blister-beetles, Meal-bugs,

{ etc.).

{ Pentamera (Fire-flies, Skip-jacks,

{ June-bugs, Dung-beetles, Stag-beetles,

{ Rove-beetles, Water-beetles,

{ Tiger-beetles, etc.).

{ 8. Aphaniptera (Fleas).

{ 9. Diptera.

{ Sub-orders:

{ Orthorhapha (Hessian-fly, Buffalo Gnats,

{ Mosquitoes, Crane-flies, Horse-flies).

{ Cyclorhapha (Syrphis, Bot-flies, Tsetze,

Metabola. Undergoing { Housefly, etc.).

for the most part a { 10. Lepidoptera.

complete metamorphosis { Sub-orders:

from egg through larva { Rhopalocera (Butterflies).

and pupa to imago. { Heterocera (Moths).

{ 11. Hymenoptera.

{ Sub-orders:

{ Terebrantia (Saw-flies, Gall-wasps,

{ Ichneumon-flies, etc.).

{ Aculeata (Ants, Cuckoo-flies,

{ Digger-wasps, True Wasps, Bees).

_Acerata._

Class I. CRUSTACEA (Barnacles, Crabs, etc.).

Class II. ARACHNIDA.

Orders:

1. Acarina (Mites).

2. Araneina (Spiders).

3. Pedipalpi (Whip-scorpions, etc.).

4. Solpugæ (Whip-scorpions).

5. Pseudoscorpii (False Scorpions).

6. Scorpiodea (True Scorpions).

Class III. PANTOPODA (Pyenogonida, Sea-spiders).

Class IV. TARDIGRADA (Macrobiotus, etc.).

Class V. GIGANTOSTRACA (Horse-shoe Crabs, Trilobites, etc.).

Class VI. LINGUATULINA (Pentastoma, etc.).

CHAPTER XLI.

EGGS AND LARVÆ: BREEDING AND REARING.

THE EGG.--The Arthropoda are developed from eggs. The eggs of these animals

are often exceedingly curious in form and remarkable in color. The eggs of

insects are generally deposited upon those substances upon which the animal

feeds during its larval or rudimentary stage of existence. They are most

frequently found attached to the leaves and twigs of plants and trees.

Some insects are carnivorous as larvæ, and deposit their eggs upon dead

animal matter, or even, as the ichneumon-flies and other parasitic forms,

upon the tissues of living animals. Some lay their eggs upon decaying wood,

or upon the ordure of animals. Some deposit their eggs in water. The female

of some of the myriapoda deposits her eggs in a mass under the bark of

decaying trees, and, coiling up about them, apparently guards them with

maternal instinct until they are hatched. The spawn of many of the

crustacea is carried about by the female, attached in masses to the lower

surface of the body. The eggs of some insects, as the cockroach and the

mantis, are deposited in masses concealed within cases, and so united as to

appear to form composite or multiple eggs. These are conspicuous objects. A

similar arrangement is found in the case of the ova of Hydrophilus and

allied aquatic Coleoptera. The eggs of the mosquito are deposited upon the

surface of the water in small, boat-shaped masses, composed of from fifty

to one hundred ova. The eggs of the Lepidoptera, which are generally

deposited upon the leaves and blossoms of trees and plants, are not

difficult to find, and have been more carefully observed and described than

those of other orders. By confining impregnated females of many species of

butterflies and moths in nets of gauze drawn over the branches of the

food-plant, it is often possible to obtain their eggs in considerable

numbers. The insects thus confined should be supplied with food and drink.

This may be done by sprinkling upon the leaves water sweetened with sugar,

or preferably honey. The females of many of the bombycid moths and

hawk-moths will lay freely, if enclosed in a dark box, without the presence

of the food-plant. When eggs are found and their parentage is unknown, a

few should be preserved as hereafter described, and the remainder should be

retained and kept until they have been hatched and the perfect insect has

been reared therefrom. Insect eggs may often be obtained by dissecting the

gravid female, but it is always preferable to obtain them, if possible,

after oviposition has taken place, since in many cases the color of the egg

in the oviduct is somewhat different from what it is after having been

laid.

The eggs of insects may be deprived of their vitality by immersion in

alcohol or by exposure to heat. The albumen of ova coagulates at 160° F.,

and the temperature of the egg should not be raised above 175°. They are

best killed by being placed in the stove used for drying the skins of

larvæ, which is described on page 315. It is better to kill by means of a

gentle heat than by immersion in alcohol, as by the latter process a change

in color is sometimes produced. After they have been deprived of their

vitality they may be preserved in small phials in dilute glycerine, or, if

this cannot be had, in a solution of common salt. The phials should be kept

tightly corked, and should be numbered by a label, written in lead pencil

and placed within the bottle, to correspond with the note made in the

collector's note-book giving an account of the place of discovery, the

food-plant, the date when found, and the name of the insect which deposited

them, if known. In the latter case it is best to put the name of the insect

in the phial with the number. Unless insect eggs are preserved in a fluid

they are apt in many cases to shrivel with the lapse of time and become

distorted, through the drying up of their contents, which, on account of

their small size, it is impossible to void. The shell of some eggs is often

very neatly voided by the escape of the larva, but there is generally a

large orifice left, the color is frequently materially altered, and great

vigilance in securing the shell must be exercised, as the young larvæ of

many species have the curious habit of whetting their appetites for future

meals by turning about, as soon as they have been hatched, and eating the

shell which they have just left.

The eggs of insects are best mounted in the form of microscopic slides in

glycerine jelly contained in cells of appropriate depth and diameter. It is

well to mount several upon the same slide, exhibiting the lateral as well

as the terminal aspect of the eggs. At the upper end of all insect eggs

there are one or more curious structures, known as micropyles (little

doors), through which the spermatozoa of the male find ingress and they are

fertilized. The peculiar, and often very beautiful, features of this part

of the egg are, in a well-mounted specimen, exposed to view. In some cases

it is advisable to slice off the end of the egg with the micropyle and

mount it microscopically. The best display of this curious structure is

thus often obtained.

The slides should be kept in a cabinet arranged in shallow trays. They

should be accurately named, and have references to a book into which, from

time to time, should be carefully transcribed from the field-book the

observations of the collector, or his assistants and correspondents. Such a

collection of insect ova is not only valuable but intensely interesting.

THE LARVA.--By reference to the table of the classification of the

Arthropoda, given in Chapter XL., it will be observed that the Insecta are

broadly divisible into two groups, the Heterometabola and the Metabola. The

animals classified in the first group do not undergo metamorphosis in the

development from the egg to the perfect insect to the same extent and in

the same manner as the Metabola. In this respect the Peripatidea, the

Myriapoda, and the various classes included under the Acerata agree with

them. The young myriapod and the young spider are found immediately after

they have emerged from the egg to present most of the features of the

mature insect, and so also the immature grasshopper and squash-bug resemble

the perfect insect in nearly everything but size and the absence of fully

developed wings. In preparing a suite of specimens of these insects,

designed to illustrate their life-history, the directions which are given

for the preparation of the imago apply equally well to the larva. It is

simply necessary, for instance, in preparing a series of specimens of the

Rocky Mountain Locust, to make sure that a specimen representing the

creature after each successive moult has been secured, and these are

mounted upon pins, and treated exactly as specimens of the adult insect are

treated. Be careful not to pin, however, too soon after the moult.

In the case of many of the Coleoptera, and of all the Metabola the work of

the collector is rendered far more laborious, for these pass from the egg

into vermiform larvæ, which undergo in some cases many moults, are then

transformed into pupæ, which are either naked or contained in a protecting

envelope known as the cocoon, and then finally, after a longer or shorter

period in the pupal state, are transformed into the perfect insect.

The student and collector, if intending to benefit science by their

efforts, dare not neglect these rudimentary forms.

The larvæ of most insects which undergo a complete metamorphosis are very

small when first emerging from the egg, and before they make the first

moult are, for the most part, best preserved as microscopic objects in

cells filled with glycerine. In the case of the larvæ of the great bombycid

moths, which at the time of hatching are dark in color, it is possible to

make a fairly good specimen by piercing the anal extremity of the

caterpillar, and spitting it upon the extremity of a thick, black bristle,

or a fine copper wire wrapped with black silk. Specimens so mounted will

not shrivel greatly, and may be attached to pins and placed in the cabinet

after the slide containing the egg, as the first in the series of slowly

maturing forms. After each successive moult the larvæ increase rapidly in

size. The method of preparing the larger forms which is now preferred by

good collectors is that of inflation.

In inflating larvæ the first step is to carefully remove the contents of

the larval skin. This is best effected by making an incision with a stout

pin or needle at the anus, and then, between the folds of a soft towel,

gently pressing out the contents of the abdominal cavity. The pressure

should be first applied near the point where the pellicle has been

punctured, and then be carried forward until the region of the head is

reached. Great care must be exercised not to apply such a degree of

pressure as will expel those tissues lying nearest to the epidermis, in

which the pigments are located, and in the case of hairy larvæ not to rob

them of their hair. Practice can alone make perfect in this regard. The

contents of the larva having been removed, the next step is to inflate and

dry the empty skin. Some persons, as preliminary to this step, recommend

that the empty skin be soaked for a period of a few hours in pure alcohol.

By this process undoubtedly a certain portion of the watery matter

contained in the pellicle is removed, and the process of desiccation is

facilitated, but it is objectionable in the case of all larvæ having light

colors, because these are more or less effaced by the action of the

alcohol.

The simplest method of inflating the skins of larvæ after the contents have

been withdrawn is to insert a straw or grass stem of appropriate thickness

into the opening through which the contents have been removed, and then by

the breath to inflate, while holding over the chimney of an Argand lamp,

the flame of which must be regulated so as not to scorch or singe the

specimen. Care must be taken in the act of inflating not to unduly extend

the larval skin, thus producing a distortion, and also to dry it

thoroughly. Unless the latter precaution is observed a subsequent shrinking

and disfigurement will take place. The process of inflating in the manner

just described is somewhat laborious, and while some of the finest

specimens, which the writer has ever seen, were prepared in this primitive

manner, various expedients for lessening the labor involved have been

devised, some of which are to be highly commended.

[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Apparatus for Inflating Larvæ. B, Foot-bellows; K,

rubber tube; C, flask; D, anhydrous sulphuric acid; E, overflow flask; F,

rubber tube from flask; G, standard with cock to regulate flow of air; H,

glass tube with larva upon it; I, copper drying-plate; J, spirit-lamp.]

A comparatively inexpensive arrangement for inflating larvæ is a

modification of that described in the "Entomologische Nachrichten," 1879,

vol. v., p. 7, devised by Mr. Fritz A. Wachtel. It consists of a

foot-bellows such as is used by chemists in the laboratory, or, better

still, of a small cylinder such as is used for holding gas in operating the

oxy-hydrogen lamp of a sciopticon. In the latter case the compressed air

should not have a pressure exceeding fifty pounds to the square inch, and

the cock regulating the flow from the cylinder should be capable of very

fine adjustment. By means of a rubber tube the air is conveyed from the

cylinder to a couple of flasks, one of which contains concentrated

sulphuric acid and the other is intended for the reception of any overflow

of the hydrated sulphuric acid which may occur. The object of passing the

air through sulphuric acid is to rob it, so far as possible, of its

moisture. It is then conveyed into a flask, which is heated upon a

sand-bath, and thence by a piece of flexible tubing to a tip mounted on a

joint allowing vertical and horizontal motion and secured by a standard to

the working-table. The flow of air through the tip is regulated by a cock.

Upon the tip is fastened a small rubber tube, into the free extremity of

which is inserted a fine-pointed glass tube. This is provided with an

armature consisting of two steel springs fastened upon opposite sides, and

their ends bent at right angles in such a way as to hold the larval skin

firmly to the extremity of the tube. The skin having been adjusted upon the

fine point of the tube, the bellows is put into operation and the skin is

inflated. A drying apparatus is provided in several ways. A copper plate

mounted upon four legs, and heated by an alcohol lamp placed below, has

been advocated by some. A better arrangement, used by the writer, consists

of a small oven heated by the flame of an alcohol lamp, or by jets of

natural gas, and provided with circular openings of various sizes, into

which the larval skin is introduced. (See Fig. 83.) A modification of the

oven is given in Fig. 84.

[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Drying Oven. A, Lamp; B, pin to hold door open; C,

door open; D, glass cover.]

[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Oven for Drying Larva-skin, made of tin joined

without solder and with top made of glass. (After Riley.)]

A less commendable method of preserving larvæ is to place them in alcohol.

The larvæ should be tied up in sacks of light gauze netting, and a label of

tough paper with the date and locality of capture, and the name, if known,

written with a lead pencil, should be attached to each such little sack.

Do not use ink on labels to be immersed, but a hard lead pencil. Alcoholic

specimens are liable to become shrivelled and discolored, and are not

nearly as valuable as well-inflated and dried skins.

When the skins have been inflated they may be mounted readily by being

placed upon wires wrapped with green silk, or upon annealed aluminium wire.

The wires are bent and twisted together for a short distance and then made

to diverge as in Fig. 85. The diverging ends are pressed together, a little

shellac is placed upon their tips, and they are then inserted into the

opening at the anal extremity of the larval skin. Upon the release of

pressure they spread apart, and after the shellac has dried the skin is

firmly held by them. They may then be attached to pins by simply twisting

the free end of the wire about the pin, or they may be placed upon

artificial imitations of the leaves and twigs of their appropriate

food-plants. This method of preparation is applicable to the larvæ of

Coleoptera and Diptera as well as to those of the Lepidoptera.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Wire Bent into Shape for Mounting Larva. (After

Riley.)]

An account of the manner of preserving larvæ would not be complete without

an account of the manner of rearing them. In rearing the larvæ of

Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera, the student must be left in a large

degree to his own devices. A few large glass jars capable of being closed

with a gauze top are necessary, though in the case of the Hymenoptera

reliance must be mainly placed upon finding the larvæ in their nests. Bees

and wasps construct various larval edifices, and these must be explored as

found in nature for a knowledge of the immature insect. Breeding them in

captivity is attended by difficulties which are rarely overcome by the most

expert, except in a few isolated cases. This is also true, but to a less

extent of the larvæ of the Coleoptera. The larvæ of many beetles which are

carnivorous may be reared in glass jars, or boxes, covered with fine wire

gauze, at the bottom of which earth or sand has been placed, and in which a

supply of appropriate food can be put, such as the soft larvæ of beetles,

maggots, and bits of meat. It is best to previously scald the earth and

sand placed at the bottom of the breeding cages in order to destroy the

eggs and small larvæ of other species which might be introduced. The cages

should have a sufficient supply of moisture, and, so far as possible, the

circumstances should be made to approximate those under which the larvæ

were found. The larvæ of wood-boring beetles may be bred in portions of the

wood which they frequent. A tight barrel with a cover made of wire gauze

fitting closely over the top is a good device. In the fall of the year it

may be filled with fallen twigs and pieces of branches from the forest, on

which beetles have oviposited, and in the spring there will be generally

found a large number of beautiful specimens of species, some of which are

otherwise very difficult to secure. The barrels should be placed in a

covered spot in the open air, and the twigs and wood occasionally lightly

moistened with water. The larvæ of leaf-eating beetles may be bred as the

larvæ of lepidoptera. The larvæ of neuropterous insects, such as Myrmeleon,

may be easily reared in boxes at the bottom of which sand to the depth of

six inches has been placed. They may be fed with house-flies which have

been deprived of their wings, and soft bodies of coleopterous larvæ, and

the larvæ of ants. The larvæ of the Odonata and aquatic beetles must be

reared in aquaria in which there is a muddy bottom provided, and in which

there are a few pieces of rotting wood, with loose bark upon it, so that

they protrude some inches above the surface of the water, and in which

aquatic plants are kept growing. Many aquatic insects pupate under the bark

of trees growing at the edge of the water.

[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Breeding Cage. (After Riley.) _a_, Bottom board;

_g g_, battens to prevent warping; _f f_, zinc pan four inches deep; _d_,

zinc tube soldered to bottom of pan and intended to hold jar of water for

food-plants; _e_, earth in pan; _b_, box with glass sides and hinged door;

_c_, removable cap of box covered with wire gauze.]

[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Breeding Cage. B, Jar with food-plant; E, box with

soil; G, gauze lid.]

The breeding of the larvæ of lepidopterous insects has received far greater

attention than that of other insects, and many modifications of devices for

this purpose have been suggested. The simplest devices are often the best,

and in the early stages of the smaller forms the best plan is to pot a

specimen of the appropriate food-plant, when it is low and herbaceous and

capable of being thus treated, and then put it under a cover of tarletan or

under a bell glass. When the larva undergoes its transformations in the

ground a bed of earth several inches in depth, upon which some dead leaves

and litter are placed, should be provided. A convenient form of a

breeding-cage is represented in Fig. 86. Mr. W.H. Edwards, who has done

more than any other person to elucidate the life-history of North American

butterflies, often uses a breeding-cage made of a nail keg, the top of

which has been knocked out, and over which gauze netting is tied. The

writer has successfully employed, for breeding moths upon a large scale,

common store boxes, with about eight inches in depth of good soil at the

bottom, covered with a close-fitting frame lid over which mosquito-netting

is tacked. Branches of the food-plant are set into the box in jars of

water, in which they remain fresh for several days (see Fig. 87). If

possible, and if operations are to be prosecuted upon a large scale, it is

well to appropriate to breeding purposes a small room from which all the

furniture and carpets have been removed. The windows should be closed with

gauze netting tacked over them, and the doors should also be made tight so

as to prevent the escape of the insects. When the caterpillars descend from

the food-plants which are placed in the apartment in jars of water, or in

pots, and thus indicate their readiness to undergo transformation, they

should be secured and placed in smaller boxes fitted up as before

described, and, in case the insect pupates in the soil, provided with a

sufficient depth of earth. In case it is desired to go to still greater

expense, a small house, arranged after the manner of a greenhouse, and with

suitable cages and compartments, may be provided. Such an insect-house

exists at Cornell University, and is under the care of that admirable

investigator, Professor Comstock, who no doubt would be glad to furnish

students with a knowledge of the details of its construction. The larvæ of

many lepidopterous insects emerge from the egg in the fall of the year, and

after feeding for a time and undergoing one or two moults, hibernate, and

upon the return of the springtime begin feeding again, and finally pupate.

It is best in the case of such to leave the larvæ in the fall in a cold

place, as an icehouse, and to suffer them to remain there until an abundant

supply of the proper food-plant can be obtained.

In the breeding of larvæ experience must be the great instructor, and

practice can alone make perfect. No department of entomological study is,

however, quite so fascinating as this, even though its prosecution may be

somewhat laborious.

CHAPTER XLII.

COLLECTING IMAGOES.

[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Net Frame. (After Riley.) _a_, Wire ring with ends

bent to insert in ferule _b_; _c_, point where plug and net-handle meet.]

The name _imago_ is applied by naturalists to the perfect form of insects,

which is revealed at the conclusion of the round of metamorphoses. In the

collection and the preservation of these the most necessary implement at

the outset is the _net_. A simple way of making a serviceable and strong

net is to take a piece of brass or galvanized iron wire about three feet

and six inches in length, and about three-sixteenths of an inch in

diameter, and having bent it into the form of a hoop, with the two ends

forming shanks, to insert these into the end of a brass ferule such as is

used on fishing-rods, and fix them there by pouring in melted lead or

solder in such a way that the handle can be inserted into the other end of

the ferule. This can be easily accomplished by plugging the handle end of

the ferule with a piece of soft wood or with clay. The handle should be

light, and not more than four or five feet in length for ordinary use. To

the ring of the net a sack made of green tarletan, or less preferably

mosquito-netting, about two and a half times as deep as the diameter of the

ring, should be sewn. A piece of green muslin should be then stitched on as

a binding over the ring. Green is to be always preferred to any other color

as less likely to alarm the insects. Nets with folding rings and jointed

bamboo handles are to be had of most dealers, and are to be highly

recommended for convenience, if well made. In collecting about electric

lights which hang high, and along the woodland walks of tropical forests,

it is well to be able to add to the length of the handle by inserting more

joints of bamboo. Some butterflies are "highfliers." Nets made of stout

muslin are useful for sweeping the tops of grass and low herbage, and in

this way multitudes of small insects of various orders may be taken. Such

nets should be larger than the ordinary net. Nets made of stout lace cloth

are used for capturing aquatic insects in pools and ditches. For this

purpose a scoop made of wire gauze may also be advantageously employed.

[Illustration: PLATE XXII. FIG. 1.--BEATING THE BUSH. FIG. 2.--A SUCCESSFUL

STROKE.]

In the capture of insects the umbrella plays, in the hands of a skilful

collector, a very important part. It is used as a receptacle for insects

which are beaten from the overhanging branches, under which it is held in

an inverted position while the operation of beating is going on. As the

insects fall they must be caught and placed in the collecting-jars. (See

Plate XXII., Fig. 1.)

[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Net-head for Removable Frame. (After Riley.) The

frame is made of elastic brass ribbon, and may be put inside of the hat

when not in use, and the handle used as a cane.]

[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Folding Net. (After Riley.) _a_, Net-ring open;

_b_, enlarged view of joint and check; _c_, ring folded and detached from

ferule; _d_, nut sunk into end of ferule; _e_, screw to hold ring in place;

_f_, illustrating manner of putting ring and rod together.]

Collecting-jars are of various sizes. For Lepidoptera the one-pound jars

used by Schering for hydrate of chloral, which have nicely ground glass

stoppers, are admirable. In preparing the jars the following directions

should be closely attended to: Place at the bottom of the jar some lumps of

cyanide of potash, over these place a few pieces of paper loosely crumpled

and rammed down so as to hold the lumps of the cyanide in position. Pour in

two or three drops of water. Take a piece of stout and clean writing-paper

and describe upon it a circle of the same size as the inside of the bottle,

and around this another circle three-quarters of an inch greater in

diameter. Cut out a circular disc of paper, following with the scissors the

line of the outer circle. At intervals of a quarter of an inch cut slits

all around the disc of paper extending them inwardly only as far as the

first circle drawn upon the paper. Fold back the outer edge of the disc

upon the side of the paper which is to come uppermost in the bottle. With a

pin, or a small punch, pierce a number of holes through the middle of the

paper. Apply some gum to the edge of the disc which has been folded back,

and fix it securely on the top of the mass of cyanide and paper at the

bottom of the jar, by pressing the gummed edge against the sides of the

bottle. This method is infinitely preferable to the old way of fixing the

cyanide in the bottom of the jar by pouring in a cement of plaster of

Paris. Instead of lumps of cyanide of potash, lumps of carbonate of ammonia

may be used to charge the poisoning-jar, but a jar so charged must never be

used to kill insects which are green in color, as the fumes of the ammonia

often serve to bleach these and make them white or brown.

[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Collecting Jar. Cy., Cyanide of potash wedged into

place with soft paper; P, perforated paper disc.]

[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Perforated Disc of Paper for Holding Cyanide in

Place at Bottom of Jar.]

In the case of large insects, or insects which struggle violently, a few

drops of chloroform may be poured into the collecting-jar, to prevent them

from injuring themselves. Chloroform is not, however, to be commended as a

killing agent, inasmuch as it induces thoracic spasms, which make the

specimen difficult to set after death. In the case of the larger moths and

beetles death may be instantaneously induced by injecting a solution of

cyanide of potash with a hypodermic syringe. The use of oxalic acid in

solution, administered by making an incision into the thorax of the insect

with the point of a crow-quill pen dipped into the solution, is not to be

highly commended, as the acid changes the color of the specimen, and, after

it has been pinned, corrodes the pin. Likewise when specimens have been

kept too long in a jar charged with ammonia, and are pinned immediately

after they have been taken out, the pins are liable to be corroded and

eaten through.

The collector having provided himself with nets and killing-jars, will not

be thoroughly equipped for field work until he have added to his

outfit the necessary conveniences for carrying his captures with him

uninjured. The writer, after long experience as a collector in many lands,

is inclined to think that the best appliance is a tin box lined with cork,

and provided with a compartment in which a cyanide cake[11] may be placed

before going to the field, and in which, after the return, when the cyanide

cake has been withdrawn, a sponge may be put, which should be saturated

with a weak solution of carbolic acid for the double purpose of keeping

the specimens from drying out too rapidly and from moulding. The box should

not be more than 10 × 8 × 3-1/2 inches inside measurement, and should be

divided into two equal parts, hinged at the side which is carried

uppermost, and hung over the shoulder by a strap. A pincushion filled with

pins may be attached to the belt. A belt arranged like a cartridge-belt,

with pockets to carry pillboxes about one and one-half inch square and

three-quarters of an inch deep should also be provided. These boxes should

have glass bottoms. They are to be used in "boxing" the smaller lepidoptera

and other delicate insects which, if killed and pinned on the field, would

be too dry upon return from the chase to make good cabinet specimens. Boxed

specimens may be kept for a day or two, and killed and mounted at leisure.

A bag containing several small boxes may also be carried. These boxes

should have in them a supply of paper envelopes, for papering specimens in

the way hereafter to be described. A loose sack-coat, with an abundance of

capacious pockets inside and out, is indispensable. A small poisoning-jar

for beetles should be carried in the right-hand pocket of the

pantaloons, a similar jar in the left-hand pocket for hymenoptera and

diptera. In the right-hand pocket of the sack-coat should be carried the

large jar for killing lepidoptera, and in the left-hand pocket a smaller

jar for neuroptera and orthoptera. Thus arrayed the collector is completely

furnished for the chase. It will, however, be well for him, if he can, to

secure the attendance of an assistant to carry some of his "traps" and

assist him. We will now go out with him into the field and give him a few

practical instructions as to the best mode of procedure.

First of all, it is proper to observe that it is advisable not to be in a

hurry and not to rush over the ground. The representations in comic

newspapers of the entomologist, wildly tearing about the fields and in mad

haste chasing a butterfly over hills and meadows, are not drawn from a

study of the methods of experts. "All things come to him who waits."

Slyness, coolness, a keen eye, and adroit quickness in the use of the net

are the qualities which yield the largest returns to the collector. In the

use of the net the habits of insects must be noted. Those which alight upon

the ground or low herbage may be caught by clapping the net over them. Most

butterflies and moths have the habit, when caught, of flying upward in the

net. Therefore so soon as the insect, if a lepidopteron, is enclosed in the

net, hold up the closed end of the sack, and, introducing the poison jar,

from which the stopper has been removed, take the insect. A little practice

will soon enable the collector to do this without allowing the fly to beat

and injure its wings, and without touching them in the least with the

fingers. (Plate XXIII., Fig. 1.) A convenient way of securing small insects

in the net is by a rapid motion hither and thither, with the mouth open to

the wind, to drive them back into the bottom of the sack, and then to place

this in the bottle and leave it there a few seconds until the insects are

stunned, when they may be shaken into the jar. When the insect alights

within reach upon the ends of branches or the tops of flowering plants, it

may be swept into the net by a dexterous movement and thus secured. A

similar stroke will often, when well-aimed, secure specimens flying past

the station of the collector. (Plate XXIII., Fig. 2.) Beetles and insects

of other orders than the lepidoptera may be placed in the jars appropriated

to them and left there until the return from the fields. With the

Lepidoptera it is necessary to exercise greater care. The smaller

specimens, such as the Tortricidæ and Phycitidæ and Tineidæ should be

"boxed" in the pillboxes provided for this purpose. The Lycænidæ,

Hesperidæ, and most of the moths, should be caught in the large jar in the

manner just described, and when stunned, pinned and placed in the

cork-lined box, where the process of completely depriving them of life will

be completed. The larger, and even some of the smaller, butterflies may be

killed while in the net by gently pinching them through its folds, between

the first finger and the thumb at the point where the wings are attached to

the thorax (see Fig. 93). The pressure should be applied when the wings are

folded back to back, as the insect sits when in repose. If applied in any

other way the specimen is likely to be seriously damaged, and moths should

never be thus killed. In pinning specimens in the tin box used for

transportation while upon the hunt, the storage power of the box will be

increased by pinning a number of specimens upon one pin, thrusting the pin

through the insect horizontally and not perpendicularly through the upper

surface of the thorax.

[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Method of Pinching a Butterfly.]

The labors of the collector should not be confined to the day. Multitudes

of the rarest and most desirable species are nocturnal in their habits.

Some of them are readily attracted to light, though, strangely enough, the

individuals among the lepidoptera thus attracted are mainly of the male

sex. By placing a lamp at an open window many moths may be secured.

Electric lights are good points for the collector, if they are within

reach. The burnt and ragged refuse which the cleaner finds in the globes in

the morning, half-buried in the dust of the disintegrated carbons, is of

little or no value. Various traps lighted with lanterns have been

suggested, but so far few of them have equalled the simple device of a

friend of mine, who, living in a tropical country, has set apart a small

room for this purpose, and having cleared it of all furniture, and

whitewashed the walls, keeps a powerful lamp burning in it every night

opposite a large window facing the forest. His captures vary from a dozen

to a hundred specimens of lepidoptera every night of the year, and

multitudes of insects of other orders. In the temperate zones a favorite

method of collecting lepidoptera is by "sugaring." For this a mixture of

sugar and stale beer, or molasses and water, flavored with rum, and of

about the consistency of thin maple syrup, should be used. It is best

applied to the trunks of trees upon the edge of clearings, and on moonlight

nights on the side of the wood toward the moon. Apply the mixture to from

forty to eighty trees, stumps, or stakes, with a whitewash brush, and then

go over the "beat" with a dark lantern and capture the moths in the

wide-mouthed cyanide jar. In this way the writer has taken as many as three

or four hundred moths in a single evening. The same trees should be

sugared and visited night after night, and the best results are often only

obtained after a beat has been in operation for some time and the insects

have learned to know it. The best catch is generally to be had in the two

hours immediately following sunset. In tropical countries, aside from the

Erebidæ and allied moths, few species appear to be attracted to sugar, and

in warm climates plenty of rum should be added to the mixture. To keep ants

off from trees which have been sugared, the writer finds it good to tie a

band of dark cloth which has been treated with a saturated solution of

corrosive sublimate about the trunk near the ground. This only is to be

done where a regular route has been selected for nightly visitation, and it

has the disadvantage of keeping away from the baits many beetles which are

attracted to sugar. Trees which have been sugared and visited at night

should be revisited in the daytime, and many day-flying species will be

found feasting upon what has been left by the revellers who attended the

banquet of the night before.

[Illustration: PLATE XXIII. FIG. 1.--BOTTLING A SKIPPER. FIG. 2.--JAPANESE

PORTER WITH COLLECTING BOXES.]

Some insects have quite revolting tastes, and may be captured by pandering

to them. The ordure of wild animals has a charm for many, and by placing

the dung of dogs, or civet-cats, or any of the Felidæ, in the woodland

paths of tropical forests many great rarities may be secured. Carrion and

dead fish in particular are attractive baits.

It has been recently claimed by a writer that painted decoys representing

butterflies, placed upon flowers, or kept in motion at the tip of a switch,

may be effectively used in securing rare and wild species. The writer has

no personal knowledge of the merit of the plan. It might be worth trying,

however, in the case of monstrous rarities.

FOOTNOTE:

[11] The cyanide cake is made by pouring plaster of Paris into a mould of

proper size and imbedding in it before setting a number of lumps of cyanide

of potash.

CHAPTER XLIII.

PREPARATION, CARE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS.

[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Manner of Folding Paper Envelope. A-B, First fold;

B-C, second fold; A-D, third fold; B-F, fourth fold; A-E, fifth fold.]

[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Butterfly in Envelope.]

The next step after the capture of the specimens is to prepare them either

for transportation or for the cabinet. If collecting upon a journey, or

where facilities for the preparation of specimens for the cabinet are

lacking, the insects may be preserved in papers. Common druggists'

envelopes are a very convenient resource for the preservation of

lepidoptera. They may be purchased by the thousand at about sixty-five

cents. If these cannot be had, envelopes may easily be made from pieces of

paper, preferably stiff newspaper or common writing-paper upon which ink

has not been used. The manner of folding these is illustrated by Figures 94

and 95. Care should be taken to write upon the envelope, before the insect

is placed in it, the date and the locality of capture. Beetles, if black

and devoid of hairy vestiture, may be preserved in alcohol, and the same

course may be taken with many insects of other orders. It is preferable,

however, to pack beetles and other hard-bodied insects in layers of cotton

batting. A small box may be made to contain an immense number of insects in

envelopes or in cotton, and they may thus be safely transported anywhere.

In case alcohol is used as a preservative all the specimens of a species

should be sorted out and tied together in a small sack made out of thin

netting, and to this should be attached a label giving the date and place

of capture and a reference to the note-book. In case cotton layers are

employed all the specimens of a species, if numerous, should be placed in

one layer, and a memorandum to the same purport as the label inserted.