MUSCULAR EDUCATION--GYMNASTICS
The generally accepted idea of gymnastics is, I consider, very
inadequate. In the common schools we are accustomed to describe as
gymnastics a species of collective muscular discipline which has as its
aim that children shall learn to follow definite ordered movements given
in the form of commands. The guiding spirit in such gymnastics is
coercion, and I feel that such exercises repress spontaneous movements
and impose others in their place. I do not know what the psychological
authority for the selection of these imposed movements is. Similar
movements are used in medical gymnastics in order to restore a normal
movement to a torpid muscle or to give back a normal movement to a
paralysed muscle. A number of chest movements which are given in the
school are advised, for example, in medicine for those who suffer from
intestinal torpidity, but truly I do not well understand what office
such exercises can fulfil when they are followed by squadrons of normal
children. In addition to these formal gymnastics we have those which are
carried on in a gymnasium, and which are very like the first steps in
the training of an acrobat. However, this is not the place for criticism
of the gymnastics used in our common schools. Certainly in our case we
are not considering such gymnastics. Indeed, many who hear me speak of
gymnastics for infant schools very plainly show disapprobation and they
will disapprove more heartily when they hear me speak of a gymnasium for
little children. Indeed, if the gymnastic exercises and the gymnasium
were those of the common schools, no one would agree more heartily than
I in the disapproval expressed by these critics.
We must understand by _gymnastics_ and in general by muscular education
a series of exercises tending to _aid_ the normal development of
physiological movements (such as walking, breathing, speech), to protect
this development, when the child shows himself backward or abnormal in
any way, and to encourage in the children those movements which are
useful in the achievement of the most ordinary acts of life; such as
dressing, undressing, buttoning their clothes and lacing their shoes,
carrying such objects as balls, cubes, etc. If there exists an age in
which it is necessary to protect a child by means of a series of
gymnastic exercises, between three and six years is undoubtedly the age.
The special gymnastics necessary, or, better still, hygienic, in this
period of life, refer chiefly to walking. A child in the general
morphological growth of his body is characterised by having a torso
greatly developed in comparison with the lower limbs. In the new-born
child the length of the torso, from the top of the head to the curve of
the groin, is equal to 68 per cent of the total length of the body. The
limbs then are barely 32 per cent of the stature. During growth these
relative proportions change in a most noticeable way; thus, for example,
in the adult the torso is fully half of the entire stature and,
according to the individual, corresponds to 51 or 52 per cent of it.
This morphological difference between the new-born child and the adult
is bridged so slowly during growth that in the first years of the
child's life the torso still remains tremendously developed as compared
with the limbs. In one year the height of the torso corresponds to 65
per cent of the total stature, in two years to 63, in three years to 62.
At the age when a child enters the infant school his limbs are still
very short as compared with his torso; that is, the length of his limbs
barely corresponds to 38 per cent of the stature. Between the years of
six and seven the proportion of the torso to the stature is from 57 to
56 per cent In such a period therefore the child not only makes a
noticeable growth in height, (he measures indeed at the age of three
years about 0.85 metre and at six years 1.05 metres) but, changing so
greatly the relative proportions between the torso and the limbs, the
latter make a most decided growth. This growth is related to the layers
of cartilage which still exist at the extremity of the long bones and is
related in general to the still incomplete ossification of the entire
skeleton. The tender bones of the limbs must therefore sustain the
weight of the torso which is then disproportionately large. We cannot,
if we consider all these things, judge the manner of walking in little
children by the standard set for our own equilibrium. If a child is not
strong, the erect posture and walking are really sources of fatigue for
him, and the long bones of the lower limbs, yielding to the weight of
the body, easily become deformed and usually bowed. This is particularly
the case among the badly nourished children of the poor, or among those
in whom the skeleton structure, while not actually showing the presence
of rickets, still seems to be slow in attaining normal ossification.
We are wrong then if we consider little children from this physical
point of view as _little men_. They have, instead, characteristics and
proportions that are entirely special to their age. The tendency of the
child to stretch out on his back and kick his legs in the air is an
expression of physical needs related to the proportions of his body. The
baby loves to walk on all fours just because, like the quadruped
animals, his limbs are short in comparison with his body. Instead of
this, we divert these natural manifestations by foolish habits which we
impose on the child. We hinder him from throwing himself on the earth,
from stretching, etc., and we oblige him to walk with grown people and
to keep up with them; and excuse ourselves by saying that we don't want
him to become capricious and think he can do as he pleases! It is indeed
a fatal error and one which has made bow-legs common among little
children. It is well to enlighten the mothers on these important
particulars of infant hygiene. Now we, with the gymnastics, can, and,
indeed, should, help the child in his development by making our
exercises correspond to the movement which he _needs to make_, and in
this way save his limbs from fatigue.
One very simple means for helping the child in his activity was
suggested to me by my observation of the children themselves. The
teacher was having the children march, leading them about the courtyard
between the walls of the house and the central garden. This garden was
protected by a little fence made of strong wires which were stretched in
parallel lines, and were supported at intervals by wooden palings driven
into the ground. Along the fence, ran a little ledge on which the
children were in the habit of sitting down when they were tired of
marching. In addition to this, I always brought out little chairs, which
I placed against the wall. Every now and then, the little ones of two
and one half and three years would drop out from the marching line,
evidently being tired; but instead of sitting down on the ground or on
the chairs, they would run to the little fence and catching hold of the
upper line of wire they would walk along sideways, resting their feet on
the wire which was nearest the ground. That this gave them a great deal
of pleasure, was evident from the way in which they laughed as, with
bright eyes, they watched their larger companions who were marching
about. The truth was that these little ones had solved one of my
problems in a very practical way. They moved themselves along on the
wires, pulling their bodies sideways. In this way, they moved their
limbs _without throwing upon them the weight of the body_. Such an
apparatus placed in the gymnasium for little children, will enable them
to fulfil the need which they feel of throwing themselves on the floor
and kicking their legs in the air; for the movements they make on the
little fence correspond even more correctly to the same physical needs.
Therefore, I advise the manufacture of this little fence for use in
children's playrooms. It can be constructed of parallel bars supported
by upright poles firmly fixed on to the heavy base. The children, while
playing upon this little fence, will be able to look out and see with,
great pleasure what the other children are doing in the room.
Other pieces of gymnasium apparatus can be constructed upon the same
plan, that is, having as their aim the furnishing of the child with a
proper outlet for his individual activities. One of the things invented
by Seguin to develop the lower limbs, and especially to strengthen the
articulation of the knee in weak children, is the trampolino.
This is a kind of swing, having a very wide seat, so wide, indeed, that
the limbs of the child stretched out in front of him are entirely
supported by this broad seat. This little chair is hung from strong
cords and is left swinging. The wall in front of it is reinforced by a
strong smooth board against which the children press their feet in
pushing themselves back and forth in the swing. The child seated in this
swing exercises his limbs, pressing his feet against the board each time
that he swings toward the wall. The board against which he swings may be
erected at some distance from the wall, and may be so low that the child
can see over the top of it. As he swings in this chair, he strengthens
his limbs through the species of gymnastics limited to the lower limbs,
and this he does without resting the weight of his body upon his legs.
Other pieces of gymnastic apparatus, less important from the hygienic
standpoint, but very amusing to the children, may be described briefly.
"The Pendulum," a game which may be played by one child or by several,
consists of rubber balls hung on a cord. The children seated in their
little armchairs strike the ball, sending it from one to another. It is
an exercise for the arms and for the spinal column, and is at the same
time an exercise in which the eye gauges the distance of bodies in
motion. Another game, called "The Cord," consists of a line, drawn on
the earth with chalk, along which the children walk. This helps to order
and to direct their free movements in a given direction. A game like
this is very pretty, indeed, after a snowfall, when the little path made
by the children shows the regularity of the line they have traced, and
encourages a pleasant war among them in which each one tries to make his
line in the snow the most regular.
The little round stair is another game, in which a little wooden
stairway, built on the plan of the spiral, is used. This little stair is
enclosed on one side by a balustrade on which the children can rest
their hands. The other side is open and circular. This serves to
habituate the children to climbing and descending stairs without holding
on to the balustrade, and teaches them to move up and down with
movements that are poised and self-controlled. The steps must be very
low and very shallow. Going up and down on this little stair, the very
smallest children can learn movements which they cannot follow properly
in climbing ordinary stairways in their homes, in which the proportions
are arranged for adults.
Another piece of gymnasium apparatus, adapted for the broad-jump,
consists of a low wooden platform painted with various lines, by means
of which the distance jumped may be gauged. There is a small flight of
stairs which may be used in connection with this plane, making it
possible to practise and to measure the high-jump.
I also believe that rope-ladders may be so adapted as to be suitable for
use in schools for little children. Used in pairs, these would, it seems
to me, help to perfect a great variety of movements, such as kneeling,
rising, bending forward and backward, etc.; movements which the child,
without the help of the ladder, could not make without losing his
equilibrium. All of these movements are useful in that they help the
child to acquire, first, equilibrium, then that co-ordination of the
muscular movements necessary to him. They are, moreover, helpful in that
they increase the chest expansion. Besides all this, such movements as I
have described, reinforce the _hand_ in its most primitive and essential
action, _prehension_;--the movement which necessarily precedes all the
finer movements of the hand itself. Such apparatus was successfully
used by Seguin to develop the general strength and the movement of
prehension in his idiotic children.
The gymnasium, therefore, offers a field for the most varied exercises,
tending to establish the co-ordination of the movements common in life,
such as walking, throwing objects, going up and down stairs, kneeling,
rising, jumping, etc.
FREE GYMNASTICS
By free gymnastics I mean those which are given without any apparatus.
Such gymnastics are divided into two classes: directed and required
exercises, and free games. In the first class, I recommend the march,
the object of which should be not rhythm, but poise only. When the march
is introduced, it is well to accompany it with the singing of little
songs, because this furnishes a breathing exercise very helpful in
strengthening the lungs. Besides the march, many of the games of Froebel
which are accompanied by songs, very similar to those which the children
constantly play among themselves, may be used. In the free games, we
furnish the children with balls, hoops, bean bags and kites. The trees
readily offer themselves to the game of "Pussy wants a corner," and many
simple games of tag.
[Illustration: DR. MONTESSORI IN THE GARDEN OF THE SCHOOL AT VIA GIUSTI]
[Illustration: (A) CHILDREN THREE AND ONE-HALF AND FOUR YEARS OLD
LEARNING TO BUTTON AND LACE. (B) RIBBON AND BUTTON FRAMES. These
are among the earliest exercises.]
EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS
Under the name of educational gymnastics, we include two series of
exercises which really form a part of other school work, as, for
instance, the cultivation of the earth, the care of plants and animals
(watering and pruning the plants, carrying the grain to the chickens,
etc.). These activities call for various co-ordinated movements, as,
for example, in hoeing, in getting down to plant things, and in
rising; the trips which children make in carrying objects to some
definite place, and in making a definite practical use of these objects,
offer a field for very valuable gymnastic exercises. The scattering of
minute objects, such as corn and oats, is valuable, and also the
exercise of opening and closing the gates to the garden and to the
chicken yard. All of these exercises are the more valuable in that they
are carried on in the open air. Among our educational gymnastics we have
exercises to develop co-ordinated movements of the fingers, and these
prepare the children for the exercises of practical life, such as
dressing and undressing themselves. The didactic material which forms
the basis of these last named gymnastics is very simple, consisting of
wooden frames, each mounted with two pieces of cloth, or leather, to be
fastened and unfastened by means of the buttons and buttonholes, hooks
and eyes, eyelets and lacings, or automatic fastenings.
In our "Children's Houses" we use ten of these frames, so constructed
that each one of them illustrates a different process in dressing or
undressing.
One: mounted with heavy pieces of wool which are to be fastened by means
of large bone buttons--corresponds to children's dresses.
Two: mounted with pieces of linen to be fastened with pearl
buttons--corresponds to a child's underwear.
Three: leather pieces mounted with shoe buttons--in fastening these
leather pieces the children make use of the button-hook--corresponds to
a child's shoes.
Four: pieces of leather which are laced together by means of eyelets and
shoe laces.
Five: two pieces of cloth to be laced together. (These pieces are boned
and therefore correspond to the little bodices worn by the peasants in
Italy.)
Six: two pieces of stuff to be fastened by means of large hooks and
eyes.
Seven: two pieces of linen, to be fastened by means of small hooks and
worked eyelets.
Eight: two pieces of cloth to be fastened by means of broad coloured
ribbon, which is to be tied into bows.
Nine: pieces of cloth laced together with round cord, on the same order
as the fastenings on many of the children's underclothes.
Ten: two pieces to be fastened together by means of the modern automatic
fasteners.
Through the use of such toys, the children can practically analyse the
movements necessary in dressing and undressing themselves, and can
prepare themselves separately for these movements by means of repeated
exercises. We succeed in teaching the child to dress himself without his
really being aware of it, that is, without any direct or arbitrary
command we have led him to this mastery. As soon as he knows how to do
it, he begins to wish to make a practical application of his ability,
and very soon he will be proud of being sufficient unto himself, and
will take delight in an ability which makes his body free from the hands
of others, and which leads him the sooner to that modesty and activity
which develops far too late in those children of to-day who are deprived
of this most practical form of education. The fastening games are very
pleasing to the little ones, and often when ten of them are using the
frames at the same time, seated around the little tables, quiet and
serious, they give the impression of a workroom filled with tiny
workers.
RESPIRATORY GYMNASTICS
The purpose of these gymnastics is to regulate the respiratory
movements: in other words, to teach the _art of breathing_. They also
help greatly the correct formation of the child's _speech habits_. The
exercises which we use were introduced into school literature by
Professor Sala. We have chosen the simple exercises described by him in
his treatise, "Cura della Balbuzie."[11] These include a number of
respiratory gymnastic exercises with which are co-ordinated muscular
exercises. I give here an example:
[11] "Cura della Balbuzie e del Difetti di Pronunzia." Sala.
Ulrico Hoepli, publisher, Milan, Italy.
Mouth wide open, tongue held flat, hands on hips.
Breathe deeply, lift the shoulders rapidly, lowering the diaphragm.
Expel breath slowly, lowering shoulders slowly, returning to normal
position.
The directress should select or devise simple breathing exercises, to be
accompanied with arm movements, etc.
Exercises for proper use of _lips, tongue, and teeth_. These exercises
teach the movements of the lips and tongue in the pronunciation of
certain fundamental consonant sounds, reinforcing the muscles, and
making them ready for these movements. These gymnastics prepare the
organs used in the formation of language.
In presenting such exercises we begin with the entire class, but finish
by testing the children individually. We ask the child to pronounce,
_aloud_ and with _force_, the first syllable of a word. When all are
intent upon putting the greatest possible force into this, we call each
child separately, and have him repeat the word. If he pronounces it
correctly, we send him to the right, if badly, to the left. Those who
have difficulty with the word, are then encouraged to repeat it several
times. The teacher takes note of the age of the child, and of the
particular defects in the movements of the muscles used in articulating.
She may then touch the muscles which should be used, tapping, for
example, the curve of the lips, or even taking hold of the child's
tongue and placing it against the dental arch, or showing him clearly
the movements which she herself makes when pronouncing the syllable. She
must seek in every way to aid the normal development of the movements
necessary to the exact articulation of the word.
As the basis for these gymnastics we have the children pronounce the
words: _pane_--_fame_--_tana_--_zina_--_stella_--_rana_--_gatto_.
In the pronunciation of _pane_, the child should repeat with much force,
_pa_, _pa_, _pa_, thus exercising the muscles producing orbicular
contraction of the lips.
In _fame_ repeating _fa_, _fa_, _fa_, the child exercises the movements
of the lower lip against the upper dental arch.
In _tana_, having him repeat _ta_, _ta_, _ta_, we cause him to exercise
the movement of the tongue against the upper dental arch.
In _zina_, we provoke the contact of the upper and lower dental arches.
With _stella_ we have him repeat the whole word, bringing the teeth
together, and holding the tongue (which has a tendency to protrude)
close against the upper teeth.
In _rana_ we have him repeat _r_, _r_, _r_, thus exercising the tongue
in the vibratory movements. In _gatto_ we hold the voice upon the
guttural _g_.