PEDAGOGICAL METHODS USED IN THE "CHILDREN'S HOUSES"
As soon as I knew that I had at my disposal a class of little children,
it was my wish to make of this school a field for scientific
experimental pedagogy and child psychology. I started with a view in
which Wundt concurs; namely, that child psychology does not exist.
Indeed, experimental researches in regard to childhood, as, for example,
those of Preyer and Baldwin, have been made upon not more than two or
three subjects, children of the investigators. Moreover, the instruments
of psychometry must be greatly modified and simplified before they can
be used with children, who do not lend themselves passively as subjects
for experimentation. Child psychology can be established only through
the method of external observation. We must renounce all idea of making
any record of internal states, which can be revealed only by the
introspection of the subject himself. The instruments of psychometric
research, as applied to pedagogy, have up to the present time been
limited to the esthesiometric phase of the study.
My intention was to keep in touch with the researches of others, but to
make myself independent of them, proceeding to my work without
preconceptions of any kind. I retained as the only essential, the
affirmation, or, rather, the definition of Wundt, that "all methods of
experimental psychology may be reduced to one; namely, carefully
recorded observation of the subject."
Treating of children, another factor must necessarily intervene: the
study of the development. Here too, I retained the same general
criterion, but without clinging to any dogma about the activity of the
child according to age.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION
In regard to physical development, my first thought was given to the
regulating of anthropometric observations, and to the selection of the
most important observations to be made.
I designed an anthropometer provided with the metric scale, varying
between .50 metre and 1.50 metres. A small stool, 30 centimetres high,
could be placed upon the floor of the anthropometer for measurements
taken in a sitting position. I now advise making the anthropometer with
a platform on either side of the pole bearing the scale, so that on one
side the total stature can be measured, and on the other the height of
the body when seated. In the second case, the zero is indicated at 30
centimetres; that is, it corresponds to the seat of the stool, which is
fixed. The indicators on the vertical post are independent one of the
other and this makes it possible to measure two children at the same
time. In this way the inconvenience and waste of time caused by having
to move the seat about, is obviated, and also the trouble of having to
calculate the difference in the metric scale.
Having thus facilitated the technique of the researches, I decided to
take the measurements of the children's stature, seated and standing,
every month, and in order to have these regulated as exactly as possible
in their relation to development, and also to give greater regularity
to the research work of the teacher, I made a rule that the measurements
should be taken on the day on which the child completed each month of
his age. For this purpose I designed a register arranged on the
following plan:--
==========================================================
|| SEPTEMBER | OCTOBER
---------++--------------------+--------------------------
Day of || Stature | Stature Etc.
month |+----------+---------+----------+---------------
|| Standing | Sitting | Standing | Sitting
---------++----------+---------+----------+---------------
1 || | | |
|+----------+---------+----------+---------------
2 || | | |
|+----------+---------+----------+---------------
3 || | | |
|+----------+---------+----------+---------------
4 || | | |
|+----------+---------+----------+---------------
Etc. || | | |
---------++----------+---------+----------+---------------
The spaces opposite each number are used to register the name of the
child born on that day of the month. Thus the teacher knows which
scholars she must measure on the days which are marked on the calendar,
and she fills in his measurements to correspond with the month in which
he was born. In this way a most exact registration can be arrived at
without having the teacher feel that she is overburdened, or fatigued.
With regard to the weight of the child, I have arranged that it shall be
taken every week on a pair of scales which I have placed in the
dressing-room where the children are given their bath. According to the
day on which the child is born, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, etc., we
have him weighed when he is ready to take a bath. Thus the children's
baths (no small matter when we consider a class of fifty) are
sub-divided into seven days, and from three to five children go to the
bath every day. Certainly, theoretically, a daily bath would be
desirable, but in order to manage this a large bath or a number of small
ones would be necessary, so that a good many children could be bathed at
once. Even a weekly bath entails many difficulties, and sometimes has to
be given up. In any case, I have distributed the taking of the weight in
the order stated with the intention of thus arranging for and making
sure of periodical baths.[7]
[7] Incidentally, I may say, that I have invented a means
of bathing children contemporaneously, without having a
large bath. In order to manage this, I thought of having a
long trough with supports at the bottom, on which small,
separate tubs could rest, with rather large holes in the
bottom. The little tubs are filled from the large trough, into
which the water runs and then goes into all the little tubs
together, by the law of the levelling of liquids, going
through the holes in the bottom. When the water is settled, it
does not pass from tub to tub, and the children will each have
their own bath. The emptying of the trough brings with it the
simultaneous emptying of the little tubs, which being of light
metal, will be easily moved from the bottom of the big tub, in
order to clean it. It is not difficult to imagine arranging a
cork for the hole at the bottom. These are only projects for
the future!
The form here given shows the register which we use in recording the
weight of the children. Every page of the register corresponds to a
month.
It seems to me that the anthropological measurements, the taking and
recording of which I have just described, should be the only ones with
which the schoolmistress need occupy herself; and, therefore, the only
ones which should be taken actually within the school. It is my plan
that other measurements should be taken by a physician, who either is,
or is preparing to be, a specialist in infant anthropology. In the
meantime, I take these special measurements myself.
======================================================
| SEPTEMBER
+----------+----------+----------+----------
| 1st week | 2nd week | 3rd week | 4th week
| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.
+----------+----------+----------+----------
Monday____|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
Tuesday___|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
Wednesday_|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
______|__________|__________|__________|__________
Etc. | | | |
| | | |
----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
The examination made by the physician must necessarily be complex, and
to facilitate and regulate the taking of these measurements I have
designed and had printed biological charts, of which I here give an
example.
_Number_ _____________ _Date_ _________________
_Name and Surname_ ______________________________ _Age_ ________
_Name of Parents_ ________ _Mother's Age_ ___ _Father's Age_ ___
_Professions_ __________________________________________
_Details of Hereditary Antecedents_ ____________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_Personal Antecedents_ ________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Standing | Weight | Chest | Seated | Index of | Ponderal |
| Stature | | Meas. | Stature | Stature[8] | Index[9] |
|----------+--------+-------+---------+------------+----------|
| | | | | | |
|----------+--------+-------+---------+------------+----------|
| | | | | | |
+----------+--------+-------+---------+------------+----------+
+------------------------------------+
| HEAD |
|----------------+-------------------|
| | Dia. | Dia. | Cephalic |
| Cir. | Front | Across | Index |
| | to Back | | |
|------+---------+--------+----------|
| | | | |
|------+---------+--------+----------|
| | | | |
+------+---------+--------+----------+
_Physical Constitution_ ________________________________
_Condition of Muscles_ ________________________________
_Colour of Skin_ ______________________________________
_Colour of Hair_ ______________________________________
NOTES
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
[8] For the Index of Stature Dr. Montessori combines the seated and
standing statures.
[9] The Ponderal Index is found by combining the height and weight.
As will be seen, these charts are very simple. I made them so because I
wished the doctor and the schoolmistress to be able to use them freely
and independently.
By this method the anthropometrical records are arranged in an orderly
way, while the simplicity of the mechanism, and the clearness of the
charts, guarantee the making of such observations as I have considered
fundamental. Referring to the physician's biographical chart, I advise
that once a year the following measurements be taken: Circumference of
the head; the two greater diameters of the head; the circumference of
the chest; and the cephalic, ponderal, and stature indices. Further
information concerning the selection of these measurements may be found
in my treatise, "Antropologia Pedagogica." The physician is asked to
take these measurements during the week, or at least within the month,
in which the child completes a year of his age, and, if it is possible,
on the birthday itself. In this way the task of the physician will also
be made easier, because of its regularity. We have, at the most, fifty
children in each of our schools, and the birthdays of these scattered
over the 365 days of the year make it possible for the physician to take
his measurements from time to time, so that the burden of his work is
not heavy. It is the duty of the teacher to inform the doctor of the
birthdays of the children.
The taking of these anthropometrical measurements has also an
educational side to it, for the pupils, when they leave the "Children's
House," know how to answer with clearness and certainty the following
questions:--
On what day of the week were you born?
On what day of the month?
When does your birthday come?
And with all this they will have acquired habits of order, and, above
all, they will have formed the habit of observing themselves. Indeed, I
may say here, that the children take a great pleasure in being measured;
at the first glance of the teacher and at the word stature, the child
begins instantly to take off his shoes, laughing and running to place
himself upon the platform of the anthropometer; placing himself of his
own accord in the normal position so perfectly that the teacher needs
only to arrange the indicator and read the result.
Aside from the measurements which the physician takes with the ordinary
instruments (calipers and metal yard measure), he makes observations
upon the children's colouring, condition of their muscles, state of
their lymphatic glands, the condition of the blood, etc. He notices any
malformations; describes any pathological conditions with care (any
tendency to rickets, infant paralysis, defective sight, etc.). This
objective study of the child will guide the doctor when he finds it
advisable to talk with the parents concerning its condition. Following
this, when the doctor has found it desirable, he makes a thorough,
sanitary inspection of the home of the child, prescribing necessary
treatment and eventually doing away with such troubles as eczema,
inflammation of the ear, feverish conditions, intestinal disturbances,
etc. This careful following of the case in hand is greatly assisted by
the existence of the _dispensary within the house_, which makes feasible
direct treatment and continual observation.
I have found that the usual question asked patients who present
themselves at the clinics, are not adapted for use in our schools, as
the members of the families living in these tenements are for the
greater part perfectly normal.
I therefore encourage the directress of the school to gather from her
conversations with the mothers information of a more practical sort. She
informs herself as to the education of the parents, their habits, the
wages earned, the money spent for household purposes, etc., and from all
this she outlines a history of each family, much on the order of those
used by Le-Play. This method is, of course, practical only where the
directress lives among the families of her scholars.
In every case, however, the physician's advice to the mothers concerning
the hygienic care of each particular child, as well as his directions
concerning hygiene in general, will prove most helpful. The directress
should act as the go-between in these matters, since she is in the
confidence of the mothers, and since from her, such advice comes
naturally.
ENVIRONMENT: SCHOOLROOM FURNISHINGS
The method of _observation_ must undoubtedly include the _methodical
observation_ of the morphological growth of the pupils. But let me
repeat that, while this element necessarily enters, it is not upon this
particular kind of observation that the method is established.
The method of observation is established upon one fundamental base--_the
liberty of the pupils in their spontaneous manifestations_.
With this in view, I first turned my attention to the question of
environment, and this, of course, included the furnishing of the
schoolroom. In considering an ample playground with space for a garden
as an important part of this school environment, I am not suggesting
anything new.
The novelty lies, perhaps, in my idea for the use of this open-air
space, which is to be in direct communication with the schoolroom, so
that the children may be free to go and come as they like, throughout
the entire day. I shall speak of this more fully later on.
The principal modification in the matter of school furnishings is the
abolition of desks, and benches or stationary chairs. I have had tables
made with wide, solid, octagonal legs, spreading in such a way that the
tables are at the same time solidly firm and very light, so light,
indeed, that two four-year-old children can easily carry them about.
These tables are rectangular and sufficiently large to accommodate two
children on the long side, there being room for three if they sit rather
close together. There are smaller tables at which one child may work
alone.
I also designed and had manufactured little chairs. My first plan for
these was to have them cane seated, but experience has shown the wear on
these to be so great, that I now have chairs made entirely of wood.
These are very light and of an attractive shape. In addition to these, I
have in each schoolroom a number of comfortable little armchairs, some
of wood and some of wicker.
Another piece of our school furniture consists of a little washstand, so
low that it can be used by even a three-year-old child. This is painted
with a white waterproof enamel and, besides the broad, upper and lower
shelves which hold the little white enameled basins and pitchers, there
are small side shelves for the soap-dishes, nail-brushes, towels, etc.
There is also a receptacle into which the basins may be emptied.
Wherever possible, a small cupboard provides each child with a space
where he may keep his own soap, nail-brush, tooth-brush, etc.
In each of our schoolrooms we have provided a series of long low
cupboards, especially designed for the reception of the didactic
materials. The doors of these cupboards open easily, and the care of the
materials is confided to the children. The tops of these cases furnish
room for potted plants, small aquariums, or for the various toys with
which the children are allowed to play freely. We have ample blackboard
space, and these boards are so hung as to be easily used by the smallest
child. Each blackboard is provided with a small case in which are kept
the chalk, and the white cloths which we use instead of the ordinary
erasers.
Above the blackboards are hung attractive pictures, chosen carefully,
representing simple scenes in which children would naturally be
interested. Among the pictures in our "Children's Houses" in Rome we
have hung a copy of Raphael's "Madonna della Seggiola," and this picture
we have chosen as the emblem of the "Children's Houses." For indeed,
these "Children's Houses" represent not only social progress, but
universal human progress, and are closely related to the elevation of
the idea of motherhood, to the progress of woman and to the protection
of her offspring. In this beautiful conception, Raphael has not only
shown us the Madonna as a Divine Mother holding in her arms the babe who
is greater than she, but by the side of this symbol of all motherhood,
he has placed the figure of St. John, who represents humanity.
So in Raphael's picture we see humanity rendering homage to
maternity,--maternity, the sublime fact in the definite triumph of
humanity. In addition to this beautiful symbolism, the picture has a
value as being one of the greatest works of art of Italy's greatest
artist. And if the day shall come when the "Children's Houses" shall be
established throughout the world, it is our wish that this picture of
Raphael's shall have its place in each of the schools, speaking
eloquently of the country in which they originated.
The children, of course, cannot comprehend the symbolic significance of
the "Madonna of the Chair," but they will see something more beautiful
than that which they feel in more ordinary pictures, in which they see
mother, father, and children. And the constant companionship with this
picture will awaken in their heart a religious impression.
This, then, is the environment which I have selected for the children we
wish to educate.
I know the first objection which will present itself to the minds of
persons accustomed to the old-time methods of discipline;--the children
in these schools, moving about, will overturn the little tables and
chairs, producing noise and disorder; but this is a prejudice which has
long existed in the minds of those dealing with little children, and for
which there is no real foundation.
Swaddling clothes have for many centuries been considered necessary to
the new-born babe, walking-chairs to the child who is learning to walk.
So in the school, we still believe it necessary to have heavy desks and
chairs fastened to the floor. All these things are based upon the idea
that the child should grow in immobility, and upon the strange prejudice
that, in order to execute any educational movement, we must maintain a
special position of the body;--as we believe that we must assume a
special position when we are about to pray.
Our little tables and our various types of chairs are all light and
easily transported, and we permit the child to _select_ the position
which he finds most comfortable. He can _make himself comfortable_ as
well as seat himself in his own place. And this freedom is not only an
external sign of liberty, but a means of education. If by an awkward
movement a child upsets a chair, which falls noisily to the floor, he
will have an evident proof of his own incapacity; the same movement had
it taken place amid stationary benches would have passed unnoticed by
him. Thus the child has some means by which he can correct himself, and
having done so he will have before him the actual proof of the power he
has gained: the little tables and chairs remain firm and silent each in
its own place. It is plainly seen that the _child has learned to command
his movements_.
In the old method, the proof of discipline attained lay in a fact
entirely contrary to this; that is, in the immobility and silence of the
child himself. Immobility and silence which _hindered_ the child from
learning to move with grace and with discernment, and left him so
untrained, that, when he found himself in an environment where the
benches and chairs were not nailed to the floor, he was not able to move
about without overturning the lighter pieces of furniture. In the
"Children's Houses" the child will not only learn to move gracefully and
properly, but will come to understand the reason for such deportment.
The ability to move which he acquires here will be of use to him all his
life. While he is still a child, he becomes capable of conducting
himself correctly, and yet, with perfect freedom.
The Directress of the Casa dei Bambini at Milan constructed under one of
the windows a long, narrow shelf upon which she placed the little tables
containing the metal geometric forms used in the first lessons in
design. But the shelf was too narrow, and it often happened that the
children in selecting the pieces which they wished to use would allow
one of the little tables to fall to the floor, thus upsetting with great
noise all the metal pieces which it held. The directress intended to
have the shelf changed, but the carpenter was slow in coming, and while
waiting for him she discovered that the children had learned to handle
these materials so carefully that in spite of the narrow and sloping
shelf, the little tables no longer fell to the floor.
The children, by carefully directing their movements, had overcome the
defect in this piece of furniture. The simplicity or imperfection of
external objects often serves to develop the _activity_ and the
dexterity of the pupils. This has been one of the surprises of our
method as applied in the "Children's Houses."
It all seems very logical, and now that it has been actually tried and
put into words, it will no doubt seem to everyone as simple as the egg
of Christopher Columbus.