FOOTNOTE:

[1] _Ad Q. Fratr._ ii. 9 (11), 13. Both sense and words have been

much disputed. The general sense is probably that given by the

following restoration, "Lucretii poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt multis

hominibus ingenii multae etiam (MSS. tamen) artis, sed cum _ad

umbilicum_ (omitted in MSS.) veneris, virum te putabo, si Sallustii

Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo." This would concede Lucretius

both genius and art, but imply at the same time that he was not easy

reading.

LUCRINUS LACUS, or LUCRINE LAKE, a lake of Campania, Italy, about ½ m.

to the N. of Lake Avernus, and only separated from the sea (Gulf of

Pozzuoli) by a narrow strip of land, traversed by the coast road, Via

Herculanea, which runs on an embankment, the construction of which was

traditionally attributed to Heracles in Strabo's time--and the modern

railway. Its size has been much reduced by the rise of the crater of the

Montenuovo in 1538. Its greatest depth is about 15 ft. In Roman days its

fisheries were important and were let out by the state to contractors.

Its oyster-beds were, as at the present day, renowned; their foundation

is attributed to one Sergius Orata, about 100 B.C. It was also in favour

as a resort for pleasure excursions from Baiae (cf. Martial i. 63), and

its banks were covered with villas, of which the best known was Cicero's

Academia, on the E. bank. The remnants of this villa, with the village

of Tripergola, disappeared in 1538.

See J. Beloch, _Campanien_, ed. 2 (Breslau, 1890), 172.

LUCULLUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family of the Licinian _gens_. By

far the most famous of its members was LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS (c.

110-56), surnamed Ponticus from his victories in Asia Minor over

Mithradates VI. of Pontus. His father, of the same name, had held an

important military command in Sicily, but on his return to Rome he was

prosecuted on a charge of bribery and condemned to exile. His mother was

Caecilia, of the family of the Metelli, and sister of Quintus Caecilius

Metellus Numidicus. Early in life he attached himself to the party of

Sulla, and to that party he remained constant. He attracted Sulla's

notice in the Social War (90) and in 88, when Sulla was appointed to the

command of the war against Mithradates, accompanied him as quaestor to

Greece and Asia Minor. While Sulla was besieging Athens, Lucullus raised

a fleet and drove Mithradates out of the Mediterranean. He won a

brilliant victory off Tenedos, and had he been more of a patriot and

less of a party man he might have ended a perilous war. In 84 peace was

concluded with Mithradates. Sulla returned to Rome, while Lucullus

remained in Asia, and by wise and generous financial reforms laid the

foundation of the prosperity of the province. The result of his policy

was that he became extremely popular with the provincials, but offended

many of the _publicani_, a powerful class which farmed the public

revenue. In 80 he returned to Rome as curule aedile, in which capacity

he exhibited games of exceptional magnificence. Soon afterwards (77) he

was elected praetor, and was next appointed to the province of Africa,

where he again won a good name as a just and considerate governor. In 74

he became consul, and went to Asia at the head of about 30,000 foot and

2000 horse, to defend the province of Bithynia against Mithradates, who

was besieging his colleague, Marcus Aurelius Cotta, in Chalcedon on the

Propontis. Mithradates was forced to retire along the sea-coast till he

halted before the strong city of Cyzicus, which he besieged. Lucullus,

however, cut off his communications on the land side, and, aided by bad

weather, forced him to raise the siege. In the autumn of 73 Lucullus

marched to Cabeira or Neocaesarea, where the king had gone into winter

quarters with a vague hope that his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of

Armenia, and possibly even the Parthians, might come to his aid.

Although the forces of Mithradates were far superior in numbers, his

troops were no match for the Roman legionaries. A large detachment of

his army having been cut up by one of Lucullus's lieutenant-generals,

the king decided on instant retreat. The retreat soon became a

disorderly flight, Mithradates himself escaping with difficulty into

Lesser Armenia.

Thus Pontus, with the exception of some of the maritime cities, such as

Sinope, Heraclea and Amisus, became Roman territory. Two years were

occupied in the capture of these strongholds, while Lucullus busied

himself with a general reform of the administration of the province of

Asia. His next step was to demand the surrender of Mithradates and to

threaten Tigranes with war in the event of refusal. In the spring of 69,

at the head of only two legions, he marched through Sophene, the

south-western portion of Armenia, crossed the Tigris, and pushed on to

the newly-built royal city, Tigranocerta, situated on one of the

affluents of that river. A motley host, made up out of the tribes

bordering on the Black Sea and the Caspian, hovered round his small

army, but failed to hinder him from laying siege to the town. Lucullus

showed consummate military capacity, contriving to maintain the siege

and at the same time to give battle to the enemy's vastly superior

forces. There might now have been peace but for the interference of

Mithradates, who pressed Tigranes to renew the war and to seek the aid

and alliance of Parthia. The Parthian king, however, preferred a treaty

with Rome to a treaty with Armenia, and desired simply to have the

Euphrates recognized as his western boundary. Mithradates next appealed

to the national spirit of the peoples of the East generally, and

endeavoured to rouse them to a united effort. The position of Lucullus

was critical. The home government was for recalling him, and his army

was disaffected. Nevertheless, though continually harassed by the enemy,

he persisted in marching northwards from Tigranocerta over the high

table-land of central Armenia, in the hope of reaching Artaxata on the

Araxes. But the open mutiny of his troops compelled him to recross the

Tigris into the Mesopotamian valley. Here, on a dark tempestuous night,

he surprised and stormed Nisibis, the capital of the Armenian district

of Mesopotamia, and in this city, which yielded him a rich booty, he

found satisfactory winter quarters. Meantime Mithradates was again in

Pontus, and in a disastrous engagement at Ziela the Roman camp was taken

and the army slaughtered to a man. Lucullus was obliged to retreat into

Asia Minor, leaving Tigranes and Mithradates masters of Pontus and

Cappadocia. The work of eight years of war was undone. In 66 Lucullus

was superseded by Pompey. He had fairly earned the honour of a triumph,

but his powerful enemies at Rome and charges of maladministration, to

which his immense wealth gave colour, caused it to be deferred till 63.

From this time, with the exception of occasional public appearances, he

gave himself up to elegant luxury, with which he combined a sort of

dilettante pursuit of philosophy, literature and art. As a general he

does not seem to have possessed the entire confidence of his troops,

owing probably to his natural hauteur and the strict discipline which he

imposed on them. The same causes made him unpopular with the Roman

capitalists, whose sole object was the accumulation of enormous fortunes

by farming the revenue of the provinces.

Among the Roman nobles who revelled in the newly acquired riches of the

East, Lucullus stood pre-eminent. His park and pleasure grounds near

Rome, and the costly and laborious works in his parks and villas at

Tusculum, near Naples, earned for him from Pompey (it is said) the title

of the "Roman Xerxes." On one of his luxurious entertainments he is said

to have spent upwards of £2000. He was a liberal patron of Greek

philosophers and men of letters, and he collected a valuable library, to

which such men had free access. He himself is said to have been a

student of Greek literature, and to have written a history of the

Marsian war in Greek, inserting solecisms to show that he was a Roman.

He was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's _Academica_, the second book

(first edition) of which was called _Lucullus_. Sulla also entrusted him

with the revision of his _Memoirs_. The introduction of the cherry-tree

from Asia into Europe is attributed to him. It appears that he became

mentally feeble some years before his death, and was obliged to

surrender the management of his affairs to his brother Marcus. The usual

funeral panegyric was pronounced on him in the Forum, and the people

would have had him buried by the side of Sulla in the Campus Martius,

but at his brother's request he was laid in his splendid villa at

Tusculum.

See Plutarch's _Lucullus_; Appian's _Mithridatic War_; the epitomes of

the lost books of Livy; and many passages in Cicero. Some allusions

will also be found in Dio Cassius, Pliny and Athenaeus. For the

Mithradatic wars, see bibliography under MITHRADATES (VI. of Pontus);

and generally G. Boissier, _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng: trans. by A.

D. Jones, 1897); H. Peter, _Hist. Rom. Reliquiae_, i. p. cclxxxv.; W.

Drumann, _Geschichte Roms_, iv. His _Elogium_ is given in _C.I.L._ i.

292.

His brother, MARCUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS, was adopted by Marcus Terentius

Varro, and was hence known as Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus. In 82

B.C. he served under Sulla against Marius. In 79 he was curule aedile

with his brother, in 77 praetor, in 73 consul with Gaius Cassius Varus.

When praetor he forbade the carrying of arms by slaves, and with his

colleague in the consulship passed the _lex Terentia Cassia_, to give

authority for purchasing corn with the public money and retailing it at

a fixed price at Rome. As proconsul in Macedonia he made war with great

cruelty against the Dardani and Bessi, and compelled them to acknowledge

the supremacy of Rome. Having enjoyed a triumph, he was sent out to the

East to settle the affairs of the provinces conquered by his brother. He

sided with Cicero during the Catilinarian conspiracy, did his utmost to

prevent his banishment, and subsequently supported his claim for the

restoration of his house. He was one of the better representatives of

the optimates, and enjoyed some reputation as an orator.

See Cicero, _De Domo_, 52; _Pro Tullio_, 8; _In Verrem_, iii. 70, v.

21; _Florus_, iii. 4, 7; Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. 4, 11; Plutarch,

_Sulla_, 27; _Lucullus_, 35, 36, 43; Orelli's _Onomasticon Tullianum_.

LUCUS FERONIAE, an ancient shrine in Etruria. It was visited both by

Latins and Sabines even in the time of Tullus Hostilius and was

plundered by Hannibal in 211 B.C. It was undoubtedly in the territory of

Capena (q.v.); but in imperial times it became an independent community

receiving a colony of Octavian's veterans (_Colonia Iulia felix

Lucoferensis_) and possessing an amphitheatre. Its site has been

disputed. Some authorities place it on the Colle Civitucola (but see

CAPENA), others at the church of S. Abbondio near Rignano, others (and

probably rightly) at Nazzano, which was reached by a branch road from

the Via Flaminia, where remains of a circular temple have been found.

See E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. 569 sqq.; H. Nissen,

_Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 369 sqq. (T. As.)

LUCY, RICHARD DE (d. 1179), called the "loyal," chief justiciar of

England, appears in the latter part of Stephen's reign as sheriff and

justiciar of the county of Essex. He became, on the accession of Henry

II., chief justiciar conjointly with Robert de Beaumont, earl of

Leicester; and after the death of the latter (1168) held the office

without a colleague for twelve years. The chief servant and intimate of

the king he was among the first of the royal party to incur

excommunication in the Becket controversy. In 1173 he played an

important part in suppressing the rebellion of the English barons, and

commanded the royalists at the battle of Fornham. He resigned the

justiciarship in 1179, though pressed by the king to continue in office,

and retired to Lesues Abbey in Kent, which he had founded and where he

died. Lucy's son, Godfrey de Lucy (d. 1204), was bishop of Winchester

from 1189 to his death in September 1204; he took a prominent part in

public affairs during the reigns of Henry II., Richard I. and John.

See J. H. Round, _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); Sir J. H. Ramsay,

_Angevin Empire_ (1903); and W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol.

i.

LUCY, SIR THOMAS (1532-1600), the English Warwickshire squire who is

traditionally associated with the youth of William Shakespeare, was born

on the 24th of April 1532, the son of William Lucy, and was descended,

according to Dugdale, from Thurstane de Cherlecote, whose son Walter

received the village of Charlecote from Henry de Montfort about 1190.

Walter is said to have married into the Anglo-Norman family of Lucy, and

his son adopted the mother's surname. Three of Sir Thomas Lucy's

ancestors had been sheriffs of Warwickshire and Leicestershire, and on

his father's death in 1552 he inherited Sherborne and Hampton Lucy in

addition to Charlecote, which was rebuilt for him by John of Padua,

known as John Thorpe, about 1558. By his marriage with Joyce Acton he

inherited Sutton Park in Worcestershire, and became in 1586 high sheriff

of the county. He was knighted in 1565. He is said to have been under

the tutorship of John Foxe, who is supposed to have imbued his pupil

with the Puritan principles which he displayed as knight of the shire

for Warwick in the parliament of 1571 and as sheriff of the county, but

as Mrs Carmichael Stopes points out Foxe only left Oxford in 1545, and

in 1547 went up to London, so that the connexion must have been short.

He often appeared at Stratford-on-Avon as justice of the peace and as

commissioner of musters for the county. As justice of the peace he

showed great zeal against the Catholics, and took his share in the

arrest of Edward Arden in 1583. In 1585 he introduced into parliament a

bill for the better preservation of game and grain, and his reputation

as a preserver of game gives some colour to the Shakespearian tradition

connected with his name. Nicholas Rowe, writing in 1710, told a story

that Lucy prosecuted Shakespeare for deer-stealing from Charlecote Park

in 1585, and that Shakespeare aggravated the offence by writing a ballad

on his prosecutor. The trouble arising from this incident is said to

have driven Shakespeare from Stratford to London. The tale was

corroborated by Archdeacon Davies of Sapperton, Gloucestershire, who

died in 1708. The story is not necessarily falsified by the fact that

there was no deer park at Charlecote at the time, since there was a

warren, and the term warren legally covers a preserve for other animals

than hares or rabbits, roe-deer among others. Shakespeare is generally

supposed to have caricatured the local magnate of Stratford in his

portrait of Justice Shallow, who made his first appearance in the second

part of _Henry IV._, and a second in the _Merry Wives of Windsor_.

Robert Shallow is a justice of the peace in the county of Gloucester and

his ancestors have the dozen white luces in their coats, the arms of the

Lucys being three luces, while in Dugdale's _Warwickshire_ (ed. 1656)

there is drawn a coat-of-arms in which these are repeated in each of the

four quarters, making twelve in all. There are many considerations which

make it unlikely that Shallow represents Lucy, the chief being the

noteworthy difference in their circumstances. Lucy died at Charlecote on

the 7th of July 1600. His grandson, Sir Thomas Lucy (1585-1640), was a

friend of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and was eulogized by John Davies of

Hereford in 1610. The Charlecote estates eventually passed to the Rev.

John Hammond through his marriage with Alice Lucy, and in 1789 he

adopted the name of Lucy.

For a detailed account of Sir Thomas Lucy, with his son and grandson

of the same name, see Mrs C. Carmichael Stopes, _Shakespeare's

Warwickshire Contemporaries_ (2nd ed., 1907). Cf. also an article by

Mrs Stopes in the _Fortnightly Review_ (Feb. 1903), entitled "Sir

Thomas Lucy not the Original of Justice Shallow," and J. O.

Halliwell-Phillipps, _Observations on the Charlecote Traditions_

(Brighton, 1887).

LUDDITES, the name given to organized bands of English rioters for the

destruction of machinery, who made their first appearance in Nottingham

and the neighbouring districts towards the end of 1811. The origin of

the name is given in Pellew's _Life of Lord Sidmouth_ (iii. 80). In 1779

there lived in a village in Leicestershire a person of weak intellect,

called Ned Ludd, who was the butt of the boys of the village. On one

occasion Ludd pursued one of his tormentors into a house where were two

of the frames used in stocking manufacture, and, not being able to catch

the boy, vented his anger on the frames. Afterwards, whenever any frames

were broken, it became a common saying that Ludd had done it. The riots

arose out of the severe distress caused by the war with France. The

leader of the riotous bands took the name of "General Ludd." The riots

were specially directed against machinery because of the widespread

prejudice that its use produced a scarcity in the demand for labour.

Apart from this prejudice, it was inevitable that the economic and

social revolution implied in the change from manual labour to work by

machinery should give rise to great misery. The riots began with the

destruction of stocking and lace frames, and, continuing through the

winter and the following spring, spread into Yorkshire, Lancashire,

Derbyshire and Leicestershire. They were met by severe repressive

legislation, introduced by Lord Liverpool's government, a notable

feature in the opposition to which was Lord Byron's speech in the House

of Lords. In 1816 the rioting was resumed, caused by the depression

which followed the peace of 1815 and aggravated by one of the worst of

recorded harvests. In that year, although the centre of the rioting was

again in Nottingham, it extended over almost the whole kingdom. The

rioters were also thoroughly organized. While part of the band destroyed

the machinery, sentinels were posted to give warning of the approach of

the military. Vigorous repressive measures, and, especially, reviving

prosperity, brought the movement to an end.

See G. Pellew, _Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, 1st Viscount

Sidmouth_ (London, 1847); Spencer Walpole, _History of England_, vol.

i. (London, 1890); and the _Annual Register_ for 1811, 1812 and 1816.

LÜDENSCHEID, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 19 m. by

rail S.S.E. of Hagen. Pop. (1905) 28,921. It is the seat of various

hardware manufactures, among them metal-plated and tin-plated goods,

buckles, fancy nails and brooches, and has iron-foundries and machine

shops. From the counts of Altena Lüdenscheid passed to the counts of the

Mark, with which district it was ceded to Brandenburg early in the 17th

century.

LUDHIANA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur

division of the Punjab. The town is 8 m. from the present left bank of

the Sutlej, 228 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 48,649. It is an

important centre of trade in grain, and has manufactures of shawls, &c.,

by Kashmiri weavers, and of scarves, turbans, furniture and carriages.

There is an American Presbyterian mission, which maintains a medical

school for Christian women, founded in 1894.

The DISTRICT OF LUDHIANA lies south of the river Sutlej, and north of

the native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. Area 1455 sq.

m. The district consists for the most part of a broad plain, without

hills or rivers, stretching northward from the native borders to the

ancient bed of the Sutlej. The soil is a rich clay, broken by large

patches of shifting sand. On the eastern edge, towards Umballa, the clay

is covered by a bed of rich mould, suitable for the cultivation of

cotton and sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand occurs in union with

the superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil, on which cereals

form the most profitable crop. Even here, however, the earth is so

retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped from fields which

appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste. These southern uplands

descend to the valley of the Sutlej by an abrupt terrace, which marks

the former bed of the river. The principal stream has shifted to the

opposite side of the valley, leaving an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width,

between its ancient and its modern bed. The Sutlej itself is here only

navigable for boats of small burden. A branch of the Sirhind canal

irrigates a large part of the western area. The population in 1901 was

673,097. The principal crops are wheat, millets, pulse, maize and

sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the main line of the

North-Western railway from Delhi to Lahore, with two branches.

During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is bound up with

that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted Rajputs, who received

the country as a fief under the Sayyid dynasty, about 1445. The town of

Ludhiana was founded in 1480 by two of the Lodi race (then ruling at

Delhi), from whom it derives its name, and was built in great part from

the prehistoric bricks of Sunet. The Lodis continued in possession until

1620, when it again fell into the hands of the Rais of Raikot.

Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul empire the Raikot family held

sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of the troubled period which

accompanied the Mogul decadence to establish their supremacy south of

the Sutlej. Several of their chieftains made encroachments on the

domains of the Rais, who were only able to hold their own by the aid of

George Thomas, the famous adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh

crossed the Sutlej and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and

distributed their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the

British occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and

population.

See _Ludhiana District Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1907).

LUDINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county, Michigan, U.S.A.,

on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Marquette river, about 85 m. N.W.

of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 7166 (2259 foreign-born); (1904, state

census) 7259; (1910) 9132. It is served by the Père Marquette, and the

Ludington and Northern railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago,

Milwaukee and other lake ports. To Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Kewanee and Two

Rivers, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, cars, especially

those of the Père Marquette railway, are ferried from here. Ludington

was formerly well known as a lumber centre, but this industry has

greatly declined. There are various manufactures, and the city has a

large grain trade. On the site of the city Père Marquette died and was

buried, but his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace.

Ludington was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in 1873.

It was originally named Père Marquette, but was renamed in 1871 in

honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman.

LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English parliamentarian, son of Sir Henry

Ludlow of Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, whose family had been established

in that county since the 15th century, was born in 1617 or 1618. He went

to Trinity College, Oxford, and was admitted to the Inner Temple in

1638. When the Great Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in

the life guard of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester,

his next at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643,

but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the 18th of March

1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged as major of Sir A.

Hesilrige's regiment of horse. He was present at the second battle of

Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of Basing House in November, and

took part in an expedition to relieve Taunton in December. In January

his regiment was surprised by Sir M. Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping

with difficulty. In 1646 he was elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of

his father and attached himself to the republican party. He opposed the

negotiations with the king, and was one of the chief promoters of

Pride's Purge in 1648. He was one of the king's judges, and signed the

warrant for his execution. In February he was elected a member of the

council of state. In January 1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as

lieutenant-general of horse, holding also a civil commission. Here he

spared neither health nor money in the public service. Ireton, the

deputy of Ireland, died on the 26th of November 1651; Ludlow then held

the chief command, and had practically completed the conquest of the

island when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October 1652.

Though disapproving Cromwell's action in dissolving the Long Parliament,

he maintained his employment, but when Cromwell was declared Protector

he declined to acknowledge his authority. On returning to England in

October 1655 he was arrested, and on refusing to submit to the

government was allowed to retire to Essex. After Oliver Cromwell's death

Ludlow was returned for Hindon in Richard's parliament of 1659, but

opposed the continuance of the protectorate. He sat in the restored

Rump, and was a member of its council of state and of the committee of

safety after its second expulsion, and a commissioner for the nomination

of officers in the army. In July he was sent to Ireland as

commander-in-chief. Returning in October 1659, he endeavoured to support

the failing republican cause by reconciling the army to the parliament.

In December he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in

favour of the Long Parliament, but on arrival found himself almost

without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660, and was met

by an impeachment presented against him to the restored parliament. His

influence and authority had now disappeared, and all chance of regaining

them vanished with Lambert's failure. He took his seat in the Convention

parliament as member for Hindon, but his election was annulled on the

18th of May. Ludlow was not excepted from the Act of Indemnity, but was

included among the fifty-two for whom punishment less than capital was

reserved. Accordingly, on the proclamation of the king ordering the

regicides to come in, Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the

20th of June surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was

not assured, he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva and

Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection of the canton

of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots to assassinate him he

was unmolested by the government of that canton, which had also extended

its protection to other regicides. He steadily refused during thirty

years of exile to have anything to do with the desperate enterprises of

republican plotters. But in 1689 he returned to England, hoping to be

employed in Irish affairs. He was however remembered only as a regicide,

and an address from the House of Commons was presented to William III.

by Sir Edward Seymour, requesting the king to issue a proclamation for

his arrest. Ludlow escaped again, and returned to Vevey, where he died

in 1692. A monument raised to his memory by his widow is in the church

of St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived was placed

the inscription "Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris." Ludlow married

Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of Wenvoe, Glamorganshire, but

left no issue.

His _Memoirs_, extending to the year 1672, were published in 1698-1699

at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new edition, with notes and

illustrative material and introductory memoir, was issued by C. H.

Firth in 1894. They are strongly partisan, but the picture of the

times is lifelike and realistic. Ludlow also published "a letter from

Sir Hardress Waller ... to Lieutenant-General Ludlow with his answer"

(1660), in defence of his conduct in Ireland. See C. H. Firth's

article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Guizot's _Monk's Contemporaries_; A.

Stein's _Briefe Englischer Flüchtlinge in der Schweiz_.

LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow parliamentary

division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-Shrewsbury joint line

of the Great Western and London & North Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W.

from London. Pop. (1901) 4552. It is beautifully situated at the

junction of the rivers Teme and Corve, upon and about a wooded eminence

crowned by a massive ruined castle. Parts of this castle date from the

11th century, but there are many additions such as the late Norman

circular chapel, the Decorated state rooms, and details in Perpendicular

and Tudor styles. The parish church of St Lawrence is a cruciform

Perpendicular building, with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy

east window, its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St

Lawrence. There are many fine half-timbered houses of the 17th century,

and one of seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school, founded in

the reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I. The principal public

buildings are the guildhall, town-hall and market-house, and public

rooms, which include a museum of natural history. Tanning and

flour-milling are carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 4

aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 416 acres.

The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly, while the

scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal Hill reaches 1235

ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.). Richard's Castle, 3 m.

S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates from the reign of Edward the

Confessor, but little more than its great artificial mound remains. At

Bromfield, 3 m. above Ludlow on the Teme, the church and some remains of

domestic buildings belonged to a Benedictine monastery of the 12th

century.

Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan in the time

of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire identifies it with

one of the "Ludes" mentioned in the Domesday Survey, which was held by

Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard and supposes that Roger built the

castle soon after 1086, while a chronicle of the FitzWarren family

attributes the castle to Roger earl of Shrewsbury. The manor afterwards

belonged to the Lacys, and in the beginning of the 14th century passed

by marriage to Roger de Mortimer and through him to Edward IV. Ludlow

was a borough by prescription in the 13th century, but the burgesses owe

most of their privileges to their allegiance to the house of York.

Richard, duke of York, in 1450 confirmed their government by 12

burgesses and 24 assistants, and Edward IV. on his accession

incorporated them under the title of bailiffs and burgesses, granted

them the town at a fee-farm of £24, 3s. 4d., a merchant gild and freedom

from toll. Several confirmations of this charter were granted; the last,

dated 1665, continued in force (with a short interval in the reign of

James II.) until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter

of Edward IV. Ludlow returned 2 members to parliament, but in 1867 the

number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was disfranchised. The

market rights are claimed by the corporation under the charters of

Edward IV. (1461) and Edward VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was

established at Ludlow in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be

held here until it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow

castle was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry VII. to

Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton's Comus was

performed in the castle under its original style of "A Masque presented

at Ludlow Castle," before the earl of Bridgewater, Lord President of

Wales. The castle was garrisoned in 1642 by Prince Rupert, who went

there after the battle of Naseby, but in 1646 it surrendered to

Parliament and was afterwards dismantled.

See _Victoria County History_, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, _The History

of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood_ (1826).

LUDLOW GROUP, or LUDLOVIAN, in geology, the uppermost subdivision of the

Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group contains the following

formations in descending order:--Tilestones, Downton Castle sandstones

(90 ft.), Ledbury shales (270 ft.), Upper Ludlow rocks (140 ft.),

Aymestry limestone (up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow rocks (350 to 780 ft.).

The Ludlow group is essentially shaly in character, except towards the

top, where the beds become more sandy and pass gradually into the base

of the Old Red Sandstone. The Aymestry limestone, which is irregular in

thickness, is sometimes absent, and where the underlying Wenlock

limestones are absent the shales of the Ludlow group graduate downwards

into the Wenlock shales. The group is typically developed between Ludlow

and Aymestry, and it occurs also in the detached Silurian areas between

Dudley and the mouth of the Severn.

The _Lower Ludlow rocks_ are mainly grey, greenish and brown mudstones

and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an abundance of fossils.

The series has been zoned by means of the graptolites by E. M. R.

Wood; the following in ascending order, are the zonal forms:

_Monograptus vulgaris_, _M. Nilssoni_, _M. scanicus_, _M. tumescens_

and _M. leintwardinensis_. _Cyathaspis ludensis_, the earliest British

vertebrate fossil, was found in these rocks at Leintwardine in

Shropshire, a noted fossil locality. Trilobites are numerous (_Phacops

caudatus_, _Lichas anglicus_, _Homolonotus delphinocephalus_,

_Calymene Blumenbachii_); brachiopods (_Leptaena rhomboidalis_,

_Rhynchonella Wilsoni_, _Atrypa reticularis_), pelecypods (_Cardiola

interrupta_, _Ctenodonta sulcata_) and gasteropods and cephalopods

(many species of _Orthoceras_ and also _Gomphoceras_, _Trochoceras_)

are well represented. Other fossils are _Ceratiocaris_, _Pterygotus_,

_Protaster_, _Palaeocoma_ and _Palaeodiscus_.

The _Upper Ludlow rocks_ are mainly soft mudstones and shales with

some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as building-stones.

These sandy beds are often found covered with ripple-marks and annelid

tracks; one of the uppermost sandy layers is known as the "Fucoid bed"

from the abundance of the seaweed-like impressions it bears. At the

top of this sub-group, near Ludlow, a brown layer occurs, from a

quarter of an inch to 4 in. in thickness, full of the fragmentary

remains of fish associated with those of _Pterygotus_ and mollusca.

This layer, known as the "Ludlow Bone bed," has been traced over a

very large area (see BONE BED). The common fossils include plants

(_Actinophyllum_, _Chondrites_), ostracods, phyllocarids, eurypterids,

trilobites (less common than in the older groups), numerous

brachiopods (_Lingula minima_, _Chonetes striatella_), gasteropods,

pelecypods and cephalopods (_Orthoceras bullatum_). Fish include

_Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Auchenaspis_. The Tilestones, Downton

Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales are occasionally grouped together

under the term _Downtonian_. They are in reality passage beds between

the Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, and were originally placed in the

latter system by Sir R. I. Murchison. They are mostly grey, yellow or

red micaceous, shaly sandstones. _Lingula cornea_, _Platyschisma

helicites_ and numerous phyllocarids and ostracods occur among the

fossils.

In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the

Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from below

upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the _Monograptus

leintwardinensis_ beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In the Silurian area

of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming the upper part of the

Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the Lower Ludlow; they are

succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000 ft.), the Bannisdale Slates

(5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags (2000 ft.).

In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks are

represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district by the

Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In the northern

belt--Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills--the lower portion (or

Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and greywackes; but

the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up principally of thick red and

yellow sandstones and conglomerates with green mudstones. The Ludlow

rocks of Ireland include the "Salrock beds" of County Galway and the

"Croagmarhin beds" of Dingle promontory.

See SILURIAN, and, for recent papers, the _Q. J. Geol. Soc._ (London)

and _Geological Literature_ (Geol. Soc., London) annual.

LUDOLF (or LEUTHOLF), HIOB (1624-1704), German orientalist, was born at

Erfurt on the 15th of June 1624. After studying philology at the Erfurt

academy and at Leiden, he travelled in order to increase his linguistic

knowledge. While in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an

Abyssinian scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the

Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke of

Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired to

Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote a cherished

scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but his efforts were

unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the authorities of the

Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort in 1684, he gave himself

wholly to literary work, which he continued almost to his death on the

8th of April 1704. In 1690 he was appointed president of the _collegium

imperiale historicum_.

The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with

twenty-five languages, include _Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae_

(Jena, 1676); and the _Historia aethiopica_ (Frankfort, 1681), which

has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was

supplemented by a _Commentarius_ (1691) and by _Appendices_

(1693-1694). Among his other works are: _Grammatica linguae amharicae_

(Frankfort, 1698); _Lexicon amharico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1698);

_Lexicon aethiopico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1699); and _Grammatica

aethiopica_ (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his _Grammatik der

äthiopischen Sprache_ (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on the story

of Ludolf's intimacy with Gregorius.

See C. Juncker, _Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi_

(Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, _Geschichte des alten Testaments in der

christlichen Kirche_ (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, "Hiob Ludolf," in

the _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_ (Leipzig, 1890-1891).

LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895), German physiologist, was

born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on the 29th of December 1816. He

studied medicine at Erlangen and Marburg, taking his doctor's degree at

Marburg in 1839. He made Marburg his home for the next ten years,

studying and teaching anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to F.

L. Fick (1841), then as _privat-docent_ (1842), and finally as

extraordinary professor (1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor of

anatomy and physiology at Zürich, and six years afterwards he went to

Vienna as professor in the Josephinum (school for military surgeons). In

1865 he was appointed to the newly created chair of physiology at

Leipzig, and continued there until his death on the 23rd of April 1895.

Ludwig's name is prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a

large share in bringing about the change in the method of that science

which took place about the middle of the 19th century. With his friends

H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Brücke and E. Du Bois-Reymond, whom he met for

the first time in Berlin in 1847, he rejected the assumption that the

phenomena of living animals depend on special biological laws and vital

forces different from those which operate in the domain of inorganic

nature; and he sought to explain them by reference to the same laws as

are applicable in the case of physical and chemical phenomena. This

point of view was expressed in his celebrated _Text-book of Human

Physiology_ (1852-1856), but it is as evident in his earliest paper

(1842) on the process of urinary secretion as in all his subsequent

work. Ludwig exercised enormous influence on the progress of physiology,

not only by the discoveries he made, but also by the new methods and

apparatus he introduced to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he

showed that secretory glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than

mere filters, and that their secretory action is attended by chemical

and thermal changes both in themselves and in the blood passing through

them. He demonstrated the existence of a new class of secretory nerves

that control this action, and by showing that if the nerves are

appropriately stimulated the salivary glands continue to secrete, even

though the animal be decapitated, he initiated the method of

experimenting with excised organs. He devised the kymograph as a means

of obtaining a written record of the variations in the pressure of the

blood in the blood-vessels; and this apparatus not only conducted him to

many important conclusions respecting the mechanics of the circulation,

but afforded the first instance of the use of the graphic method in

physiological inquiries. For the purpose of his researches on the gases

in the blood, he designed the mercurial blood-pump which in various

modifications has come into extensive use, and by its aid he made many

investigations on the gases of the lymph, the gaseous interchanges in

living muscle, the significance of oxidized material in the blood, &c.

There is indeed scarcely any branch of physiology, except the physiology

of the senses, to which he did not make important contributions. He was

also a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under him

the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized centre of

physiological research, whence issued a steady stream of original work;

and though the papers containing the results usually bore the name of

his pupils only, every investigation was inspired by him and carried out

under his personal direction. Thus his pupils gained a practical

acquaintance with his methods and ways of thought, and, coming from all

parts of Europe, they returned to their own countries to spread and

extend his doctrines. Possessed himself of extraordinary manipulative

skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy work, and he insisted that

experiments on animals should be planned and prepared with the utmost

care, not only to avoid the infliction of pain (which was also guarded

against by the use of an anaesthetic), but to ensure that the deductions

drawn from them should have their full scientific value.

LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist and critic, was

born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February 1813. His father,

who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was twelve years old, and

he was brought up amidst uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his

leisure to poetry and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile

career planned for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was

directed to one of his musical compositions, an opera, _Die Köhlerin_,

and Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under

Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused

him to give up a musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary

studies, and wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter, _Der

Erbförster_ (1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly

psychological study. It was followed by _Die Makkabäer_ (1852), in which

the realistic method of _Der Erbförster_ was transferred to an

historical _milieu_, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer

play of the imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be added

_Die Rechte des Herzens_ and _Das Fräulein von Scuderi_, the comedy

_Hans Frey_, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer,

Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany's most notable dramatic

poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had married and

settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his attention to

fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of Thuringian life,

characterized by the same attention to minute detail and careful

psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these are _Die

Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel_ (1851), and Ludwig's masterpiece, the

powerful novel, _Zwischen Himmel und Erde_ (1855). In his

_Shakespeare-Studien_ (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a

discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of

the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm for

Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way which found

little favour among his countrymen. He died at Dresden on the 25th of

February 1865.

Ludwig's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published by A. Stern and E.

Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892); also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900).

See A. Stern, _Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben_ (1891; 2nd ed., 1906),

and A. Sauer, _Otto Ludwig_ (1893).

LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, 9 m. to the N. of

Stuttgart by rail and 1½ m. from the river Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093.

It was founded and laid out at the beginning of the 18th century by the

duke of Württemberg, Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by

Duke Charles Eugène. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town

bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious

squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military depot in

Württemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in Germany, stands in a

beautiful park and contains a portrait gallery and the burial vault of

the rulers of Württemberg. The industries include the manufacture of

organs and pianos, of cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals,

iron and wire goods, and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is

the beautiful royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the

park of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to 1824

the town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain.

See Belschner, _Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten_ (Ludwigsburg,

1904).

LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the left

bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to Mannheim, with which it is

connected by a steam ferry and a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042,

(1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron,

timber, coal and agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a

harbour opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes

and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose, artificial

manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron foundries and

breweries in the town. The place, which was founded in 1843 by Louis I.,

king of Bavaria, was only made a town in 1859.

See J. Esselborn, _Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen_ (Ludwigshafen,

1888).

LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop. (1905)

6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,

Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There is also another ducal residence, a

fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d.

1837). The town has a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple.

It has manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigslust

was founded by the duke Frederick, being named after this duke's father,

Christian Louis II. It became a town in 1876.

LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly used

colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedish _lugg_,

forelock, lock of hair, gives _lugga_, to pull, tug; and "lug" in some

north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense of

pulling a person's hair. "Luggage," passengers' baggage, means by origin

that which has to be "lugged" about. The Scandinavian word may be also

the source of "lug," in the sense of "ear," in Scotland the regular

dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-shaped

handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the word means

something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also possibly the origin

of the "lug" or "lug-sail," a four-sided sail attached to a yard which

is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the name "lugger" of a

sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The

word may, however, be connected with the Dutch _logger_, a fishing-boat

using drag-nets. "Lug" is also the name of a marine worm, _Arenicola

marina_, used as bait.

LUGANO (Ger. _Lauis_), the most populous and most thriving town in the

Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.) on the northern

shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394, almost all

Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it is dominated by the Monte

Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte

Generoso (5591 ft.)--a magnificent view point. Both mountains are

accessible by railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 51½ m.

from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line, Lugano is now

easily reached, so that it is much frequented by visitors (largely

German) in spring and in autumn. Though politically Swiss since 1512,

Lugano is thoroughly Italian in appearance and character. Of recent

years many improvements have been made in the town, which has two

important suburbs--Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The

railway station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the

fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue of

William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891), a native of the

town, while other works by him are in the gardens of private villas in

the neighbourhood. The principal church, San Lorenzo, in part dates back

earlier than the 15th century, while its richly sculptured façade bears

the figures 1517. This church is now the cathedral church of the bishop

of Lugano, a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian

parts of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built

about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains several very

fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-1530 by

Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures has been built on

the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como. During the struggle

of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from Lombardy, Lugano served as

headquarters for Mazzini and his followers. Books and tracts intended

for distribution in Italy were produced there and at Capolago (9 m.

distant, at the S.E. end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian

police to prevent their circulation were completely powerless.

(W. A. B. C.)

LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO), one of the smaller lakes in

Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.) and the Lake of

Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the great promontory of Monte

Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting off the western arm from the main

lake. The whole lake has an area of 19½ sq. m., its greatest length is

about 22 m., its greatest width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft.,

while its surface is 899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the

town of Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow

that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard railway

line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano (at its northern

end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from Bellinzona and 9 m.

from Capolago, the station at the south-eastern extremity of the lake,

which is but 8 m. by rail from Como. At the south-western extremity a

railway leads S.W. from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the

east end of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como,

while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same

distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore. Of the total

area of the lake, about 7½ sq. m. are in the Swiss Canton of Ticino

(Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests made by the Swiss from the

Milanese in 1512. The remainder of the area is in Italy. The lake lies

among the outer spurs of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin

from that of the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed

by the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not

connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous torrents

issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains, while it is

drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing into Lago Maggiore.

The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1856. (W. A. B. C.)

LUGANSK (also LUGAN and LUGANSKIY ZAVOD), a town of southern Russia, in

the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900) 34,175. It has a technical

railway school and a meteorological observatory, stands on the small

river Lugan, 10 m. from its confluence with the northern Donets, in the

Lugan mining district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has

prospered greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the

coal-mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche,

occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river. Although

it is mentioned in the 16th century, and coal was discovered there at

the time of Peter the Great, it was not until 1795 that an Englishman,

Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established its first iron-works for supplying the

Black Sea fleet and the southern fortresses with guns and shot. This

proved a failure, owing to the great distance from the sea; but during

the Crimean War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and

gun-carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines, and

machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have been the

chief manufactures. There is an active trade in cattle, tallow, wools,

skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured wares.

LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY (1858- ), British soldier, African

explorer and administrator, son of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on

the 22nd of January 1858. He entered the army in 1878, joining the

Norfolk regiment. He served in the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan

campaign of 1884-85, and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on

temporary half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the

British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake

Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in

the same year was engaged by the Imperial British East Africa Company.

In their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring

region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held

by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the

company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end

to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting, chiefly

notable for an unprovoked attack by the "French" on the "British"

faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round Ruwenzori to

Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the country. He also

visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who

had been left there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard

returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandonment of

Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated by the fourth

Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal

Niger Company to Borgu, where, distancing his French and German rivals

in a country up to then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties

with the kings and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British

company. In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on

behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was

recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was

commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the

hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In August

1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until

the end of December 1899. The differences with France were then

composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its charter,

Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern Nigeria. The part of

Northern Nigeria under effective control was small, and Lugard's task in

organizing this vast territory was rendered more difficult by the

refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfil

their treaty obligations. In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir

of Kano and the sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British

control over the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906

he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully

administered under the supervision of British residents (see NIGERIA).

In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was created

a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and

held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora

Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for

some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects for _The

Times_. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published in 1893 _The Rise

of our East African Empire_ (partly autobiographical), and was the

author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the

Colonial Office. Throughout his African administrations Lugard sought

strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native

races, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of

alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.

LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of

districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded N. by the

Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and

Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends

for about 40 m. from the estuary of Rivadéo to Cape de Vares, is

extremely rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those

of Rivadéo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especially in

the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian

chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains

in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by

the Miño. This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in

the northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until

joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the southern

boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most

important are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the

Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces; the Masma,

the Oro and the Landrove.

Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but

fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the

Miño and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk are

produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly owing to

the extreme division of land that prevails throughout Galicia. The

exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a flourishing trade,

was ruined by American and Australian competition. Iron is found at

Caurel and Incio, arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous

lead at Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic are

exported from Rivadéo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly

impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th

century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of

slate and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries

are those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen

stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are registered

at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the fishing fleet,

which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being

salted and tinned for export. The means of communication are

insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads, and the

railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna run through the

province.

Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of

Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondoñedo (10,590), Monforte

(12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Vivero (12,843) are

described in separate articles. The province contained in 1900

twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the largest being

Sarria (11,998) and Saviñao (11,182). For a general description of the

people and the history of this region see GALICIA.

LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the left

bank of the river Miño and on the railway from Corunna to Madrid. Pop.

(1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of

Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the original town, the form of

which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40

ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with projecting semi-circular towers which

numbered 85 as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were

destroyed by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic

cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the 12th century,

but was modernized in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural

merit. The conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th

century. The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of

linen and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Miño,

are the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo.

Lugo (_Lucus Augusti_) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c. 19

B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a _conventus

juridicus_ (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It was

sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered greatly in

the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from a very

early period, and it is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the

middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of

Santiago de Compostela.

LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krassó-Szörény, Hungary, 225 m. S.E.

of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on both banks of

the river Temes, which divides the town in two quarters, the Rumanian on

the right and the German on the left bank. It is the seat of a

Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in

wine, and has several important fairs, while the surrounding country,

which is mountainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of

grapes and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of

greater relative importance than at present. It was the last seat of the

Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849), and the last resort of

Kossuth and several other leaders of the national cause, previous to

their escape to Turkey.

LUGUDUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort or hill of the

god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns in ancient Gaul.

The most important was the town at the confluence of the Saône and Rhone

now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in Roman times two elements. One

was a Roman _colonia_ (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing)

situated on the hill near the present Fourviéres (_Forum vetus_). The

other, territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the

Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic

cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and

Belgica--the so-called Tres Galliae--sent delegates every summer to hold

games and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was

supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements together

composed the most important town of western Europe in Roman times.

Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which passed

from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa; it had a mint; it

was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its position in the south,

and its wealth was such that, when Rome was burnt in Nero's reign, its

inhabitants subscribed largely to the relief of the Eternal City.

(F. J. H.)

LUINI, BERNARDINO (?1465-?1540), the most celebrated master of the

Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of Leonardo da Vinci,

was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore. He wrote his name as

"Bernardin Lovino," but the spelling "Luini" is now generally adopted.

Few facts are known regarding his life, and until a comparatively recent

date many even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of

attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini

studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano

Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500,

or shortly before that event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the

two artists had any personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in

the painting-school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the

later works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is

superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the style

of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited Rome. His

two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence been assigned to

him; and even this can scarcely be true of the younger, who was born in

1530, when Bernardino was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has

also been termed his disciple. One of the sons, Evangelista, has left

little which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accomplished

in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a brother of

Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly

ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a poet, and is said to have

composed a treatise on painting. The precise date of his death is

unknown; he may perhaps have survived till about 1540. A serene,

contented and happy mind, naturally expressing itself in forms of grace

and beauty, seems stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same

character is traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his

fresco of "Christ crowned with Thorns" in the Ambrosian library in

Milan--a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been

preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single

figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22

francs per day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well

satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission, he

painted a Nativity for nothing.

A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini's works.

They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends at least as

much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon the mere

refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of expression

appears in all Luini's productions, whether secular or sacred, and

imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace--not ecclesiastical

unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely

like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and

less variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began indeed

with a somewhat dry style, as in the "Pietà" in the church of the

Passione; but this soon developed into the quality which distinguishes

all his most renowned works; although his execution, especially as

regards modelling, was never absolutely equal to that of Leonardo.

Luini's paintings do not exhibit an impetuous style of execution, and

certainly not a negligent one; yet it appears that he was in fact a very

rapid worker, as his picture of the "Crowning with Thorns," painted for

the College del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures,

is recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which an

assistant added eleven. His method was simple and expeditious, the

shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on thick, while the

lights are of the same colour thinly used, and mixed with a little

white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom of hand than the oil pictures;

and they are on the whole less like the work of Da Vinci, having at an

early date a certain resemblance to the style of Mantegna, as later on

to that of Raphael. Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and

shade forcible.

Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned. At

Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life of

the Madonna--her "Marriage," the "Presentation of the Infant Saviour

in the Temple," the "Adoration of the Magi" and other incidents. His

own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful "Jesus with the

Doctors in the Temple." This series--in which some comparatively

archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses--was partly repeated

from one which Luini had executed towards 1520 in S. Croce. In the

Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the suppressed church of La

Pace and the Convent della Pelucca--the former treating subjects from

the life of the Virgin, the latter, of a classic kind, more decorative

in manner. The subject of girls playing at the game of "hot-cockles,"

and that of three angels depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are

particularly memorable, each of them a work of perfect charm and grace

in its way. In the Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovid's

_Metamorphoses_. The Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S.

Maurizio) is a noble treasure-house of Luini's art--including a large

Crucifixion, with about one hundred and forty figures; "Christ bound

to the Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and

the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyrdom of

this saint; the "Entombment of Christ," and a large number of other

subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco (already mentioned),

covering one entire wall of the Sala della S. Corona, of "Christ

crowned with Thorns," with two executioners, and on each side six

members of a confraternity; in the same building the "Infant Baptist

playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the "Virgin Enthroned, with

Saints" (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the "Daughter of Herodias

receiving the Head of the Baptist"; in the Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna,

the "Virgin between Saints Catherine and Barbara"; in the National

Gallery, London, "Christ disputing with the Doctors" (or rather,

perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or most of these gallery pictures used

to pass for the handiwork of Da Vinci. The same is the case with the

highly celebrated "Vanity and Modesty" in the Sciarra Palace, Rome,

which also may nevertheless in all probability be assigned to Luini.

Another singularly beautiful picture by him is in the Royal Palace in

Milan--a large composition of "Women Bathing." That Luini was also

pre-eminent as a decorative artist is shown by his works in the

Certosa of Pavia.

A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900.

(W. M. R.)

LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the Book of

Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the New Testament. He

alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin (Col. iv. 11, 14), a fact of great

interest in relation to his writings. His name, a more familiar form of

Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus, Acts xvii. 4, 1 Thess. i. 1, and see

_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v., for instances of [Greek: Doukas] on Egyptian

inscriptions), taken together with his profession of physician (Col. iv.

14), suggests that he was son of a Greek freedman possibly connected

with Lucania in south Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship

to all physicians in Rome (Sueton. _Jul._ 42), Luke may even have

inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man would

have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the works attributed

to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's when in Rome (Philemon 24),

where he seems to have remained in constant attendance on his leader, as

physician as well as attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11). That

Luke, before he became a Christian, was an adherent of the

synagogue--not a full proselyte, but one of those "worshippers" of God

to whom Acts makes frequent reference--is fairly certain from the

familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from its

sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from specific

Paulinism, of which there is but little trace.

The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the

Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in MSS. of

both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and Acts, and says that

Paul took him for his companion _quasi ut juris studiosum_ ("as being a

student of law"). Here _juris_ is almost certainly corrupt; and whether

we take the sense to have been "as being devoted to travel" (_ut juris_

= _itineris_) or "as skilled in disease" ([Greek: nosou] passing into

[Greek: nomou] in the Greek original), it is probably a mere inference

from biblical data. Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria

(cf. HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge, we

have the belief to which Origen (_Hom._ i. _in Lucam_) witnesses as

existing in his day, that Luke was the "brother" of 2 Cor. viii. 18,

"whose praise in the Gospel" (as preached) was "throughout all the

churches." Though the basis of the identification be a mistake, yet that

this "brother," "who was also appointed by the churches (note the

generality of this) to travel with us in the matter of the charity," was

none other than Paul's constant companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he

seems to have been almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor.

ix. 2-4) of Paul's circle available[1] at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our

next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in Greek, now

known only in Latin, see _Nov. Test. Latine_ (Oxford), I. iii., II. i.),

perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating that Luke died in

Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is hard to see why this should

be fiction, which usually took the form of martyrdom, as in a later

tradition touching his end. The same prologue, and indeed all early

tradition, connects him originally with Antioch (see Euseb. _Hist.

Eccl._ iii. 4, 6, possibly after Julius Africanus in the first half of

the 3rd century).

That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the

statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal

evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in

Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether any

of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff.,

xiii. 1 ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used by

him (cf. A. Harnack, _The Acts of the Apostles_, 245 ff.) or not, this

knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that church. He

shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have stood in any

such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name "Christians" was

first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in early Church life

there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, "when _we_ were assembled,"

may imply memory of this.

But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with

him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at

least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that

he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the

Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's original home

was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the "certain

Macedonian" seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his

countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that,

because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx.

6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and

disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has

probably a more subtle and psychological[2] meaning (see ACTS). The

local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with

Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and

being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This accords at once with

Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia[3] (_Luke the

Physician_, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited,

that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever

having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current

already in the 2nd century).

The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference

or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius

_Dial. de recta fide_, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus

Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother.

But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his

writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from

which came "the most beautiful book" ever written, as Renan styled his

Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us--especially in the

section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)--reflects his

own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was

indeed a _religio medici_ in its pity for frail and suffering

humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine "healing

art" upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, _The Acts,

Excursus_, iii.). His was also a humane[4] spirit, a spirit so tender

that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the

soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a

feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi.

Luke, "the physician, the beloved physician," that was Paul's

characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings

have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has

been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and

of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can

measure? Harnack even maintains (_The Acts_, p. 301) that his story of

the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the

incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's canon of New

Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a

Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of

Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy

of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient

Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf. _Luke

the Physician_, pp. 139-145).

LITERATURE.--Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's on Luke's

Gospel in the "Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's _Acts of the

Apostles_ ("Oxford Comm."); the article "Luke" in Hastings's _Dict. of

the Bible_ and _Dict. of Christ and the Gospels_, the _Encycl.

Biblica_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's

_Paul the Traveller_ and _Pauline and other Studies_, and A. Harnack's

_Lukas der Arzt_ (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and _Die Apostelgeschichte_

(1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities

quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.)