[1] See D. D. Addison, _Lucy Larcom; Life, Letters and Diary_
(Boston, 1897).
LOWELL INSTITUTE, an educational foundation in Boston, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., providing for free public lectures, and endowed by the bequest
of $237,000 left by John Lowell, junior, who died in 1836. Under the
terms of his will 10% of the net income was to be added to the
principal, which in 1909 was over a million dollars. None of the fund
was to be invested in a building for the lectures; the trustees of the
Boston Athenaeum were made visitors of the fund; but the trustee of the
fund is authorized to select his own successor, although in doing so he
must "always choose in preference to all others some male descendant of
my grandfather John Lowell, provided there is one who is competent to
hold the office of trustee, and of the name of Lowell," the sole trustee
so appointed having the entire selection of the lecturers and the
subjects of lectures. The first trustee was John Lowell junior's cousin,
John Amory Lowell, who administered the trust for more than forty years,
and was succeeded in 1881 by his son, Augustus Lowell, who in turn was
succeeded in 1900 by his son Abbott Lawrence Lowell, who in 1909 became
president of Harvard University.
The founder provided for two kinds of lectures, one popular, "and the
other more abstruse, erudite and particular." The popular lectures have
taken the form of courses usually ranging from half a dozen to a dozen
lectures, and covering almost every subject. The fees have always been
large, and many of the most eminent men in America and Europe have
lectured there. A large number of books have been published which
consist of those lectures or have been based upon them. As to the
advanced lectures, the founder seems to have had in view what is now
called university extension, and in this he was far in advance of his
time; but he did not realize that such work can only be done effectively
in connexion with a great school. In pursuance of this provision public
instruction of various kinds has been given from time to time by the
Institute. The first freehand drawing in Boston was taught there, but
was given up when the public schools undertook it. In the same way a
school of practical design was carried on for many years, but finally,
in 1903, was transferred to the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction for
working men was given at the Wells Memorial Institute until 1908, when
the Franklin Foundation took up the work. A Teachers' School of Science
is maintained in co-operation with the Natural History Society. For many
years advanced courses of lectures were given by the professors of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but in 1904 they were superseded
by an evening school for industrial foremen. In 1907, under the title of
"Collegiate Courses," a number of the elementary courses in Harvard
University were offered free to the public under the same conditions of
study and examination as in the university.
For the earlier period, see Harriett Knight Smith, _History of the
Lowell Institute_ (Boston, 1898).
LÖWENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on
the Bober, 39 m. E. of Görlitz by rail. Pop. 5682. It is one of the
oldest towns in Silesia; its town hall dates from the 16th century, and
it has a Roman Catholic church built in the 13th century and restored in
1862. The town has sandstone and gypsum quarries, breweries and woollen
mills, and cultivates fruit and vegetables. Löwenberg became a town in
1217 and has been the scene of much fighting, especially during the
Napoleonic wars. Near the town is the village and estate of Hohlstein,
the property of the Hohenzollern family.
LÖWENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, capital of
the mediatized county of that name, situated under the north slope of
the Löwenstein range, 6 m. from Heilbronn. Pop. 1527. It is dominated by
the ruined castle of the counts of Löwenstein, and enclosed by medieval
walls. The town contains many picturesque old houses. There is also a
modern palace. The cultivation of vines is the chief industry, and there
is a brine spring (Theusserbad).
Löwenstein was founded in 1123 by the counts of Calw, and belonged to the
Habsburgs from 1281 to 1441. In 1634 the castle was destroyed by the
imperialists. The county of Löwenstein belonged to a branch of the family
of the counts of Calw before 1281, when it was purchased by the German
king Rudolph I., who presented it to his natural son Albert. In 1441
Henry, one of Albert's descendants, sold it to the elector palatine of
the Rhine, Frederick I., and later it served as a portion for Louis (d.
1524), a son of the elector by a morganatic marriage, who became a count
of the Empire in 1494. Louis's grandson Louis II. (d. 1611) inherited the
county of Wertheim and other lands by marriage and called himself count
of Löwenstein-Wertheim; his two sons divided the family into two
branches. The heads of the two branches, into which the older and
Protestant line was afterwards divided, were made princes by the king of
Bavaria in 1812 and by the king of Württemberg in 1813; the head of the
younger, or Roman Catholic line, was made a prince of the Empire in 1711.
Both lines are flourishing, their present representatives being Ernst (b.
1854) prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, and Aloyse (b. 1871)
prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. The lands of the family were
mediatized after the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. The area of the
county of Löwenstein was about 53 sq. m.
See C. Rommel, _Grundzüge einer Chronik der Stadt Löwenstein_
(Löwenstein, 1893).
LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place in the
Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 117½ m. N.E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 29,850. It lies on
either side of the formerly natural, now artificial outlet of the river
Waveney to the North Sea, while to the west the river forms Oulton Broad
and Lothing Lake. The northern bank is the original site. South
Lowestoft arose on the completion of harbour improvements, begun in
1844, when the outlet of the Waveney, reopened in 1827, was deepened.
The old town is picturesquely situated on a lofty declivity, which
includes the most easterly point of land in England. The church of St
Margaret is Decorated and Perpendicular. South Lowestoft has a fine
esplanade, a park (Bellevue) and other adjuncts of a watering-place.
Bathing facilities are good. There are two piers enclosing a harbour
with a total area of 48 acres, having a depth of about 16 ft. at high
tide. The fisheries are important and some 600 smacks belong to the
port. Industries include ship and boat building and fitting, and motor
engineering. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area 2178 acres.
Lowestoft (Lothu Wistoft, Lowistoft, Loistoft) owes its origin to its
fisheries. In 1086 it was a hamlet in the demesne of the royal manor of
Lothingland. The men of Lowestoft as tenants on ancient demesne of the
crown possessed many privileges, but had no definite burghal rights
until 1885. For several centuries before 1740 the fisheries were the
cause of constant dispute between Lowestoft and Yarmouth. During the
last half of the 18th century the manufacture of china flourished in the
town. A weekly market on Wednesdays was granted to John, earl of
Richmond, in 1308 together with an eight days' fair beginning on the
vigil of St Margaret's day, and in 1445 John de la Pole, earl of
Suffolk, one of his successors as lord of the manor, received a further
grant of the same market and also two yearly fairs, one on the feast of
St Philip and St James and the other at Michaelmas. The market is still
held on Wednesdays, and in 1792 the Michaelmas fair and another on
May-day were in existence. Now two yearly fairs for small wares are held
on the 13th of May and the 11th of October. In 1643 Cromwell performed
one of his earlier exploits in taking Lowestoft, capturing large
supplies and making prisoners of several influential royalists. In the
war of 1665 the Dutch under Admiral Opdam were defeated off Lowestoft by
the English fleet commanded by the duke of York.
See _Victoria County History, Suffolk_; E. Gillingwater, _An
Historical Account of the Town of Lowestoft_ (ed. 1790).
LOWIN, JOHN (1576-1659), English actor, was born in London, the son of a
carpenter. His name frequently occurs in Henslowe's Diary in 1602, when
he was playing at the Rose Theatre in the earl of Worcester's company,
and he was at the Blackfriars in 1603, playing with Shakespeare, Burbage
and the others, and owning--by 1608--a share and a half of the twenty
shares in that theatre. About 1623 he was one of the managers. He lived
in Southwark, and Edward Alleyn speaks of his dining with him in 1620.
"Lowin in his latter days kept an inn (the Three Pigeons) at Brentford,
where he deyed very old." Two of his favourite parts were Falstaff, and
Melanteus in _The Maid's Tragedy_.
LOWLAND, in physical geography, any broad expanse of land with a general
low level. The term is thus applied to the landward portion of the
upward slope from oceanic depths to continental highlands, to a region
of depression in the interior of a mountainous region, to a plain of
denudation or to any region in contrast to a highland. The Lowlands and
Highlands of Scotland are typical.
LOWNDES, THOMAS (1692-1748), founder of the Lowndean professorship of
astronomy at Cambridge university, England, was born in 1692, both his
father and mother being Cheshire landowners. In 1725 he was appointed
provost marshal of South Carolina, a post he preferred to fill by
deputy. In 1727 Lowndes claimed to have taken a prominent part in
inducing the British government to purchase Carolina, but he surrendered
his patent when the transfer of the colony to the crown was completed.
His patent was renewed in 1730, but he resigned it in 1733. He then
brought various impractical schemes before the government to check the
illicit trade in wool between Ireland and France; to regulate the paper
currency of New England; and to supply the navy with salt from brine,
&c. He died on the 12th of May 1748. By his will he left his inherited
Cheshire properties to the university of Cambridge for the foundation of
a chair of astronomy and geometry.
LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS (1798-1843), English bibliographer, was born
about 1798, the son of a London bookseller. His principal work, _The
Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature_--the first systematic work
of the kind--was published in four volumes in 1834. It took Lowndes
fourteen years to compile, but, despite its merits, brought him neither
fame nor money. Lowndes, reduced to poverty, subsequently became
cataloguer to Henry George Bohn, the bookseller and publisher. In 1839
he published the first parts of _The British Librarian_, designed to
supplement his early manual, but owing to failing health did not
complete the work. Lowndes died on the 31st of July 1843.
LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called because of its
proximity to the "highest" of all feasts and Sundays, Easter. It was
also known formerly as White Sunday, being still officially termed by
the Roman Catholic Church _Dominica in albis_, "Sunday in white
garments," in allusion to the white garments anciently worn on this day
by those who had been baptized and received into the Church just before
Easter. Alb Sunday, Quasimodo and, in the Greek Church, Antipascha, and
[Greek: ê deuteroprotê Kuriakê] (literally "second-first Sunday," i.e.
the second Sunday after the first) were other names for the day.
LOWTH, ROBERT (1710-1787), English divine and Orientalist, was born at
Winchester on the 27th of November 1710. He was the younger son of
William Lowth (1661-1732), rector of Buriton, Hampshire, a theologian of
considerable ability. Robert was educated on the foundation of
Winchester College, and in 1729 was elected to a scholarship at New
College, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1737, and in 1741 he was appointed
professor of poetry at Oxford, in which capacity he delivered the
_Praelectiones Academicae de Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum_. Bishop Hoadly
appointed him in 1744 to the rectory of Ovington, Hampshire, and in 1750
to the archdeaconry of Winchester. In 1753 he was collated to the
rectory of East Woodhay, Hampshire, and in the same year he published
his lectures on Hebrew poetry. In 1754 he received the degree of doctor
of divinity from his university, and in 1755 he went to Ireland for a
short time as first chaplain to the lord-lieutenant, the 4th duke of
Devonshire. He declined a presentation to the see of Limerick, but
accepted a prebendal stall at Durham and the rectory of Sedgefield. In
1758 he published his _Life of William of Wykeham_; this was followed in
1762 by _A Short Introduction to English Grammar_. In 1765, the year of
his election into the Royal Societies of London and Göttingen, he
engaged in controversy with William Warburton on the book of Job, in
which he was held by Gibbon to have had the advantage. In June 1766
Lowth was consecrated bishop of St David's, and about four months
afterwards he was translated to Oxford, where he remained till 1777,
when he became bishop of London and dean of the Chapel Royal. In 1778
appeared his last work, _Isaiah, a new Translation, with a Preliminary
Dissertation, and Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory_. He
declined the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1783, and died at Fulham on
the 3rd of November 1787.
The _Praelectiones_, translated in 1787 by G. Gregory as _Lectures on
the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews_, exercised a great influence both in
England and on the continent. Their chief importance lay in the idea
of looking at the sacred poetry as poetry, and examining it by the
ordinary standards of literary criticism. Lowth's aesthetic criticism
was that of the age, and is now in great part obsolete, a more natural
method having been soon after introduced by Herder. The principal
point in which Lowth's influence has been lasting is his doctrine of
poetic parallelism, and even here his somewhat mechanical
classification of the forms of Hebrew sense-rhythm, as it should
rather be called, is open to serious objections. Editions of the
_Lectures_ and of the _Isaiah_ have been numerous, and both have been
translated into German. A volume of _Sermons and other Remains_, with
memoir by the topographer, Peter Hall (1802-1849), was published in
1834, and an edition of the _Popular Works_ of Robert Lowth in 3 vols.
appeared in 1843.
LOXODROME (from Gr. [Greek: loxos], oblique, and [Greek: dromos],
course), the line on the earth's surface making a constant angle with
the meridian.
LOYALISTS or TORIES, in America, the name given to the colonists who
were loyal to Great Britain during the War of Independence. In New
England and the Middle Colonies loyalism had a religious as well as a
political basis. It represented the Anglican as opposed to the
Calvinistic influence. With scarcely an exception the Anglican ministers
were ardent Loyalists, the writers and pamphleteers were the ministers
and teachers of that faith, and virtually all the military or civil
leaders were members of that church. The Loyalists north of Maryland
represented the old Tory traditions. In the southern colonies, where
Anglicanism predominated, the division did not follow religious lines so
closely. In Virginia and South Carolina the Whig leaders were almost
without exception members of the established church. Out of twenty
Episcopal ministers in South Carolina only five were Loyalists. Although
many of the wealthy Anglican planters of the tide-water section fought
for the mother country, the Tories derived their chief support from the
non-Anglican Germans and Scotch in the upper country. The natural
leaders in these colonies were members of the same church as the
governor and vied with him in their zeal for the support of that church.
Since religion was not an issue, the disputes over questions purely
political in character, such as taxation, distribution of land and
appointment of officials, were all the more bitter. The settlers on the
frontier were snubbed both socially and politically by the low-country
aristocracy, and in North Carolina and South Carolina were denied courts
of justice and any adequate representation in the colonial assembly.
Naturally they refused to follow such leaders in a war in defence of
principles in which they had no material interest. They did not drink
tea and had little occasion for the use of stamps, since they were not
engaged in commerce and had no courts in which to use legal documents.
The failure of the British officers to realize that conditions in the
south differed from those in the north, and the tendency on their part
to treat all Dissenters as rebels, were partly responsible for the
ultimate loss of their southern campaign. The Scotch-Irish in the south,
influenced perhaps by memories of commercial and religious oppression in
Ulster, were mostly in sympathy with the American cause.
Taking the Thirteen Colonies as a whole, loyalism drew its strength
largely from the following classes: (1) the official class--men holding
positions in the civil, military and naval services, and their immediate
families and social connexions, as, for example, Lieutenant-Governor
Bull in South Carolina, Governor Dunmore in Virginia and Governor Tryon
in New York; (2) the professional classes--lawyers, physicians, teachers
and ministers, such as Benjamin Kissam, Peter Van Schaack and Dr Azor
Betts of New York and Dr Myles Cooper, president of King's College (now
Columbia University); (3) large landed proprietors and their tenants,
e.g. William Wragg in South Carolina and the De Lanceys, De Peysters and
Van Cortlandts in New York; (4) the wealthy commercial classes in New
York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Charleston, whose business
interests would be affected by war; (5) natural conservatives of the
type of Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, and numerous political trimmers
and opportunists. Before 1776 the Loyalists may be divided into two
groups. There was a minority of extremists led by the Anglican ministers
and teachers, who favoured an unquestioning obedience to all British
legislation. The moderate majority disapproved of the mother country's
unwise colonial policy and advocated opposition to it through legally
organized bodies. Many even sanctioned non-importation and
non-exportation agreements, and took part in the election of delegates
to the First Continental Congress. The aggressive attitude of Congress,
the subsequent adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and the
refusal to consider Lord Howe's conciliatory propositions finally forced
them into armed opposition. Very few really sanctioned the British
policy as a whole, but all felt that it was their first duty to fight
for the preservation of the empire and to leave constitutional questions
for a later settlement. John Adams's estimate that one-third of all the
people in the thirteen states in 1776 were Loyalists was perhaps
approximately correct. In New England the number was small, perhaps
largest in Connecticut and in the district which afterwards became the
state of Vermont. New York was the chief stronghold. The "De Lancey
party" or the "Episcopalian party" included the majority of the wealthy
farmers, merchants and bankers, and practically all communicants of the
Anglican church. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and
Virginia contained large and influential Loyalist minorities; North
Carolina was about equally divided; South Carolina probably, and Georgia
certainly, had Loyalist majorities. Some of the Loyalists joined the
regular British army, others organized guerilla bands and with their
Indian allies inaugurated a reign of terror on the frontier from New
York to Georgia. New York alone furnished about 15,000 Loyalists to the
British army and navy, and about 8500 militia, making in all 23,500
Loyalist troops. This was more than any other colony supplied, perhaps
more than all the others combined. Johnson's "Loyal Greens" and Butler's
"Tory Rangers" served under General St Leger in the Burgoyne campaign of
1777, and the latter took part in the Wyoming and Cherry Valley
massacres of 1778. The strength of these Loyalists in arms was weakened
in New York by General Sullivan's success at Newtown (now Elmira) on the
29th of August 1779, and broken in the north-west by George Rogers
Clark's victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in 1778 and 1779, and in
the south by the battles of King's Mountain and Cowpens in 1780. Severe
laws were passed against the Loyalists in all the states. They were in
general disfranchised and forbidden to hold office or to practise law.
Eight of the states formally banished certain prominent Tories either
conditionally or unconditionally, and the remaining five, Connecticut,
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, did practically the same
indirectly. Social and commercial ostracism forced many others to flee.
Their property was usually confiscated for the support of the American
cause. They went to England, to the West Indies, to the Bahamas, to
Canada and to New York, Newport, Charleston and other cities under
British control. According to a trustworthy estimate 60,000 persons went
into exile during the years from 1775 to 1787. The great majority
settled in Nova Scotia and in Upper and Lower Canada, where they and
their descendants became known as "United Empire Loyalists." Those who
remained in the United States suffered for many years, and all the laws
against them were not finally repealed until after the War of 1812. The
British government, however, endeavoured to look after the interests of
its loyal colonists. During the war a number of the prominent Loyalists
(e.g. Joseph Galloway) were appointed to lucrative positions, and
rations were issued to many Loyalists in the cities, such as New York,
which were held by the British. During the peace negotiations at Paris
the treatment of the Loyalists presented a difficult problem, Great
Britain at first insisting that the United States should agree to remove
their disabilities and to act toward them in a spirit of conciliation.
The American commissioners, knowing that a treaty with such provisions
would not be accepted at home, and that the general government had,
moreover, no power to bind the various states in such a matter, refused
to accede; but in the treaty, as finally ratified, the United States
agreed (by Article V.) to recommend to the legislatures of the various
states that Loyalists should "have free liberty to go to any part or
parts of any of the thirteen United States, and therein to remain twelve
months, unmolested in their endeavours to obtain the restitution of such
of their estates, rights and properties as may have been confiscated,"
that acts and laws in the premises be reconsidered and revised, and that
restitution of estates, &c., should be made. The sixth article provided
"that there shall be no future confiscations made, nor any prosecutions
commenced against any person" for having taken part in the war; and that
those in confinement on such charges should be liberated. In Great
Britain opponents of the government asserted that the Loyalists had
virtually been betrayed; in America the treaty aroused opposition as
making too great concessions to them. Congress made the promised
recommendations, but they were unheeded by the various states, in spite
of the advocacy by Alexander Hamilton and others of a conciliatory
treatment of the Loyalists; and Great Britain, in retaliation, refused
until 1796 to evacuate the western posts as the treaty prescribed.
Immediately after the war parliament appointed a commission of five to
examine the claims of the Loyalists for compensation for services and
losses; and to satisfy these claims and to establish Loyalists in Nova
Scotia and Canada the British government expended fully £6,000,000.
See C. H. van Tyne, _The Loyalists in the American Revolution_ (New
York, 1902), which contains much valuable information but does not
explain adequately the causes of loyalism. More useful in this respect
is the monograph by A. C. Flick, _Loyalism in New York daring the
American Revolution_ (New York, 1901). On the biographical side see
Lorenzo Sabine, _Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American
Revolution_ (2 vols., Boston, 1864); on the literary side, M. C.
Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_, 1763-1783 (2
vols., New York, 1897).
LOYALTY, allegiance to the sovereign or established government of one's
country, also personal devotion and reverence to the sovereign and royal
family. The English word came into use in the early part of the 15th
century in the sense of fidelity to one's oath, or in service, love,
&c.; the later and now the ordinary sense appears in the 16th century.
The O. Fr. _loialtê_, mod. _loyauté_, is formed from _loial_, loyal,
Scots _leal_, Lat. _legalis_, legal, from _lex_, law. This was used in
the special feudal sense of one who has full legal rights, a _legalis
homo_ being opposed to the _exlex_, _utlegatus_, or outlaw. Thence in
the sense of faithful, it meant one who kept faithful allegiance to his
feudal lord, and so loyal in the accepted use of the word.
LOYALTY ISLANDS (Fr. _Iles Loyalty_ or _Loyauté_), a group in the South
Pacific Ocean belonging to France, about 100 m. E. of New Caledonia,
with a total land area of about 1050 sq. m. and 20,000 inhabitants. It
consists of Uea or Uvea (the northernmost), Lifu (the largest island,
with an area of 650 sq. m.), Tiga and several small islands and Maré or
Nengone. They are coral islands of comparatively recent elevation, and
in no place rise more than 250 ft. above the level of the sea. Enough of
the rocky surface is covered with a thin coating of soil to enable the
natives to grow yams, taro, bananas, &c., for their support; cotton
thrives well, and has even been exported in small quantities, but there
is no space available for its cultivation on any considerable scale.
Fresh water, rising and falling with the tide, is found in certain large
caverns in Lifu, and by sinking to the sea-level a supply may be
obtained in any part of the island. The chief product of the islands are
bananas; the chief export sandal-wood.
The Loyalty islanders are Melanesians; the several islands have each its
separate language, and in Uea one tribe uses a Samoan and another a New
Hebridean form of speech. The Loyalty group was discovered at the
beginning of the 19th century, and Dumont d'Urville laid down the
several islands in his chart. For many years the natives had a
reputation as dangerous cannibals, but they are now among the most
civilized Melanesians. Christianity was introduced into Maré by native
teachers from Rarotonga and Samoa; missionaries were settled by the
London Missionary Society at Maré in 1854, at Lifu in 1859 and at Uea in
1865: Roman Catholic missionaries also arrived from New Caledonia; and
in 1864 the French, considering the islands a dependency of that
colony, formally instituted a commandant. An attempt was made by this
official to put a stop to the English missions by violence; but the
report of his conduct led to so much indignation in Australia and in
England that the emperor Napoleon, on receipt of a protest from Lord
Shaftesbury and others, caused a commission of inquiry to be appointed
and free liberty of worship to be secured to the Protestant missions. A
further persecution of Christians in Uea, during 1875, called forth a
protest from the British government.
LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491-1556), founder of the Society of Jesus.
Inigo Lopez de Recalde, son of Beltran, lord of the noble houses of
Loyola and Oñaz, was born, according to the generally accepted opinion,
on the 24th of December 1491 at the castle of Loyola, which is situated
on the river Urola, about 1 m. from the town of Azpeitia, in the
province of Guipuzcoa. He was the youngest of a family of thirteen. As
soon as he had learnt the elements of reading and writing, he was sent
as a page to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; afterwards, until his
twenty-sixth year, he took service with Antonio Maurique, duke of
Nagera, and followed the career of arms. He was free in his relations
with women, gambled and fought; but he also gave indications of that
courage, constancy and prudence which marked his after life. In a
political mission to settle certain disputes in the province he showed
his dexterity in managing men.
Despite the treaty of Noyon (1516), Charles V. kept Pampeluna, the
capital of Navarre. André de Foix, at the head of the French troops,
laid siege to the town in 1521 and Ignatius was one of the defending
garrison. In the hour of danger, the claims of religion reasserted
themselves on the young soldier, and, following a custom when no priest
was at hand, he made his confession to a brother officer, who in turn
also confessed to him. During the final assault on the 19th of May 1521
a cannon ball struck him, shattering one of his legs and badly wounding
the other. The victorious French treated him kindly for nearly two
weeks, and then sent him in a litter to Loyola. The doctors declared
that the leg needed to be broken and set again; and the operation was
borne without a sign of pain beyond a clenching of his fist. His vanity
made him order the surgeons to cut out a bone which protruded below the
knee and spoilt the symmetry of his leg. He was lame for the rest of his
days. Serious illness followed the operations, and, his life being
despaired of, he received the last sacraments on the 28th of June. That
night, however, he began to mend, and in a few days he was out of
danger. During convalescence two books that were to influence his life
were brought to him. These were a Castilian translation of _The Life of
Christ_ by Ludolphus of Saxony, and the popular _Flowers of the Saints_,
a series of pious biographies. He gradually became interested in these
books, and a mental struggle began. Sometimes he would pass hours
thinking of a certain illustrious lady, devising means of seeing her and
of doing deeds that would win her favour; at other times the thoughts
suggested by the books got the upper hand. He began to recognize that
his career of arms was over: so he would become the knight of Christ. He
determined to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to practise all the
austerities that he read of in _The Flowers of the Saints_. Expiating
his sins was not so much his aim as to accomplish great deeds for God.
During the struggle that went on in his soul, he began to take note of
his psychological state; and this was the first time that he exercised
his reason on spiritual things; the experience thus painfully gained he
found of great use afterwards in directing others. One night while he
lay awake, he tells us, he saw the likeness of the Blessed Virgin with
her divine Son; and immediately a loathing seized him for the former
deeds of his life, especially for those relating to carnal desires; and
he asserts that for the future he never yielded to any such desires.
This was the first of many visions. Ignatius proposed after returning
from Jerusalem to join the Carthusian order at Seville as a lay brother.
About the same time Martin Luther was in the full course of his protest
against the papal supremacy and had already burnt the pope's bull at
Worms. The two opponents were girding themselves for the struggle; and
what the Church of Rome was losing by the defection of the Augustinian
was being counterbalanced by the conversion of the founder of the
Society of Jesus.
As soon as Ignatius had regained strength, he started ostensibly to
rejoin the duke of Nagera, but in reality to visit the great Benedictine
abbey of Montserrato, a famous place of pilgrimage. On the way, he was
joined by a Moor, who began to jest at some of the Christian doctrines,
especially at the perpetual virginity of the Blessed Virgin. Ignatius
was no controversialist; and the Moor rode off victorious. The
chivalrous nature of Ignatius was aroused. Seized with a longing to
pursue and kill the Moor on account of his insulting language, Ignatius,
still doubting as to his best course, left the matter to his mule, which
at the dividing of the ways took the path to the abbey, leaving the open
road which the Moor had taken. Before reaching Montserrato, Ignatius
purchased some sackcloth for a garment and hempen shoes, which, with a
staff and gourd, formed the usual pilgrim's dress. Approaching the abbey
he resolved to do as his favourite hero Amadis de Gaul did--keep a vigil
all night before the Lady altar and then lay aside his worldly armour to
put on that of Christ. He arrived at the abbey just about the feast of
St Benedict (the 21st of March 1522), and there made a confession of his
life to a priest belonging to the monastery. He found in use for the
pilgrims a translation of the _Spiritual Exercises_ of the former abbot,
Garcia di Cisneros (d. 1510); and this book evidently gave Ignatius the
first idea of his more famous work under the same title. Leaving his
mule to the abbey, and giving away his worldly clothes to a beggar, he
kept his watch in the church during the night of the 24th-25th of March,
and placed on the Lady altar his sword and dagger. Early the next
morning he received the Holy Eucharist and left before any one could
recognize him, going to the neighbouring town of Manresa, where he first
lived in the hospice. Here began a series of heavy spiritual trials
which assailed him for many months. Seven hours a day he spent on his
knees in prayer and three times a day he scourged his emaciated body.
One day, almost overcome with scruples, he was tempted to end his
miseries by suicide. At another time, for the same reason, he kept an
absolute fast for a week. He tells us that, at this time, God wrought
with him as a master with a schoolboy whom he teaches. But his energies
were not confined to himself. He assisted others who came to him for
spiritual advice; and seeing the fruit reaped from helping his
neighbour, he gave up the extreme severities in which he had delighted
and began to take more care of his person, so as not needlessly to
offend those whom he might influence for good.
During his stay at Manresa, he lived for the most part in a cell at the
Dominican convent; and here, evidently, he had severe illnesses. He
recounts the details of at least two of these attacks, but says nothing
about the much-quoted swoon of eight days, during which he is supposed
to have seen in vision the scheme of the future Society. Neither does he
refer in any way to the famous cave in which, according to the Ignatian
myth, the _Spiritual Exercises_ were written. Fortunately we have the
first-hand evidence of his autobiography, which is a surer guide than
the lines written by untrustworthy disciples. Ignatius remained at
Manresa for about a year, and in the spring of 1523 set out for
Barcelona on his way to Rome, where he arrived on Palm Sunday. After two
weeks he left, having received the blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and
proceeded by Padua to Venice, where he begged his bread and slept in the
Piazza di San Marco until a rich Spaniard gave him shelter and obtained
an order from the doge for a passage in a pilgrim ship bound for Cyprus,
whence he could get to Jaffa. In due course Ignatius arrived at
Jerusalem, where he intended to remain, in order continuously to visit
the holy places and help souls. For this end he had obtained letters of
recommendation to the guardian, to whom, however, he only spoke of his
desire of satisfying his devotion, not hinting his other motive. The
Franciscans gave him no encouragement to remain; and the provincial
threatened him with excommunication if he persisted. Not only had the
friars great difficulty in supporting themselves, but they dreaded an
outbreak from the fanatical Turks who resented some imprudent
manifestations of Loyola's zeal. Ignatius returned to Venice in the
middle of January 1524; and, determining to devote himself for a while
to study, he set out for Barcelona, where he arrived in Lent. Here he
consulted Isabella Roser, a lady of high rank and piety, and also the
master of a grammar school. These both approved his plan; the one
promised to teach him without payment and the other to provide him with
the necessaries of life. Here, in his thirty-third year, he began to
learn Latin, and after two years his master urged him to go to Alcalá to
begin philosophy. During his stay of a year and a half in this
university, besides his classes, he found occasion to give to some
companions his _Spiritual Exercises_ in the form they had then taken and
certain instructions in Christian doctrine. On account of these
discourses Ignatius came into conflict with the Inquisition. He and his
companions were denounced as belonging to the sects of _Sagati_ and
_Illuminati_. Their mode of life and dress was peculiar and hinted at
innovation. But, always ready to obey authority, Ignatius was able to
disarm any charges that, now and at other times, were brought against
him. The Inquisition merely advised him and his companions to dress in a
less extraordinary manner and to go shod. Four months later he was
suddenly cast into prison; and, after seventeen days, he learnt that he
was falsely accused of sending two noble ladies on a pilgrimage to Jaen.
During their absence, from the 21st of April 1527 to the 1st of June, he
remained in prison, and was then set free with a prohibition against
instructing others until he had spent four years in study.
Seeing his way thus barred at Alcalá, he went with his companions to
Salamanca. Here the Dominicans, doubting the orthodoxy of the
new-comers, had them put into prison, where they were chained foot to
foot and fastened to a stake set up in the middle of the cell. Some days
afterwards Ignatius was examined and found without fault. His patience
won him many friends; and when he and his companions remained in prison
while the other prisoners managed to escape, their conduct excited much
admiration. After twenty-two days they were called up to receive
sentence. No fault was found in their life and teaching; but they were
forbidden to define any sins as being mortal or venial until they had
studied for four years. Hampered again by such an order, Ignatius
determined to go to Paris to continue his studies. Up to the present he
was far from having any idea of founding a society. The only question
before him now was whether he should join an order, or continue his
wandering existence. He decided upon Paris for the present, and before
leaving Salamanca he agreed with his companions that they should wait
where they were until he returned; for he only meant to see whether he
could find any means by which they all might give themselves to study.
He left Barcelona and, travelling on foot to Paris, he arrived there in
February 1528. The university of Paris had reached its zenith at the
time of the council of Constance (1418), and was now losing its
intellectual leadership under the attacks of the Renaissance and the
Reformation. In 1521 the university had condemned Luther's _Babylonish
Captivity_, and in 1527 Erasmus's _Colloquies_ met with the same fate.
Soon after his arrival, Ignatius may have seen in the Place de Grève the
burning of Louis de Berquin for heresy.[1] At this period there were
between twelve and fifteen thousand students attending the university,
and the life was an extraordinary mixture of licentiousness and devout
zeal. When Ignatius arrived in Paris, he lodged at first with some
fellow-countrymen; and for two years attended the lectures on humanities
at the collège de Montaigu, supporting himself at first by the charity
of Isabella Roser; but, a fellow-lodger defrauding him of his stock, he
found himself destitute and compelled to beg his bread. He retired to
the hospice of St Jacques; and, following the advice of a Spanish monk,
spent his vacations in Flanders, where he was helped by the rich Spanish
merchants. At Bruges he became acquainted with the famous Spanish
scholar, Juan Luis Vives, with whom he lodged. In the summer of 1530 he
went to London, where he received alms more abundantly than elsewhere.
As he could only support himself at Paris with difficulty, it was
impossible to send for his companions in Salamanca. Others, however,
joined him in Paris, and to some of them he gave the _Spiritual
Exercises_, with the result that the Inquisition made him give up
speaking on religious subjects during the time he was a student. At the
end of 1529 he came into contact with the men who were eventually to
become the first fathers of the Society of Jesus. He won over the
Savoyard Pierre Lefèvre (Faber), whose room he shared, and the Navarrese
Francis Xavier, who taught philosophy in the college of St Barbara.
Afterwards he became acquainted with the young Castilian, Diego Laynez,
who had heard of him at Acalá and found him out in Paris. With Laynez
came two other young men, the Toledan Alfonso Salmeron and the
Portuguese Simon Rodriguez. Nicholas Bobadilla, a poor Spaniard who had
finished his studies, was the next to join him. The little company of
seven determined to consecrate their union by vows. On the 15th of
August 1534, the Feast of the Assumption, they assembled in the crypt of
the church of St Mary on Montmartre, and Faber, the only one who was a
priest, said Mass. They then took the vows of poverty and chastity, and
pledged themselves to go to the Holy Land as missionaries or for the
purpose of tending the sick; or if this design should prove
impracticable, to go to Rome and place themselves at the disposal of the
pope for any purpose. But, whatever may have been the private opinion of
Ignatius, there was on this occasion no foundation of any society. The
vows were individual obligations which could be kept quite apart from
membership in a society. A provision was made that if, after waiting a
year at Venice, they were unable to go to Jerusalem, this part of the
vow should be cancelled and they should at once betake themselves to
Rome.
At this time Ignatius was again suffering from his former imprudent
austerities; and he was urged to return for a while to his native air.
He left Paris for Spain in the autumn of 1535, leaving Faber in charge
of his companions to finish their studies. During the absence of
Ignatius, Faber gained three more adherents. But before leaving Paris
Ignatius heard once more that complaints had been lodged against him at
the Inquisition; but these like the others were found to be without any
foundation. When he arrived near Loyola he would not go to the castle,
but lived at the public hospice at Azpeitia, and began his usual life of
teaching Christian doctrine and reforming morals. Falling ill again he
went to other parts of Spain to transact business for his companions.
Then, sailing from Valencia to Genoa, he made his way to Venice, where
he arrived during the last days of 1535. Here he waited for a year until
his companions could join him, and meanwhile he occupied himself in his
usual good works, gaining several more companions and meeting Giovanni
Piero Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV., who had lately founded the
Theatines. What happened between the two does not appear; but henceforth
Caraffa seems to have borne ill will towards Ignatius and his
companions. At Venice Ignatius was again accused of heresy, and it was
said that he had escaped from the Inquisition in Spain and had been
burnt in effigy at Paris. These charges he met successfully by insisting
that the nuncio should thoroughly inquire into the matter.
After a journey of fifty-four days his companions arrived at Venice in
January 1537; and here they remained until the beginning of Lent, when
Ignatius sent them to Rome to get money for the proposed voyage to
Palestine. He himself stayed behind, as he feared that, if he went with
them, Caraffa at Rome, together with Dr Ortiz, a German opponent in
Paris and now Charles V.'s ambassador at the Vatican, would prejudice
the pope against them. But Ortiz proved a friend and presented them to
Paul III., who gave them leave to go to Palestine to preach the Gospel,
bestowing upon them abundant alms. He likewise gave licence for those
not yet priests to be ordained by any catholic bishop on the title of
poverty. They had returned to Venice where Ignatius and the others were
ordained priests on the 24th of June 1537, after having renewed their
vows of poverty and chastity to the legate Verallo. Ignatius, now a
priest, waited for eighteen months before saying Mass, which he did for
the first time on the 25th of December 1538 in the church of Santa Maria
Maggiore in Rome.
The year of waiting passed away without any chance of going to the Holy
Land. Finding it impossible to keep this part of their vow, the fathers
met at Vicenza, where Ignatius was staying in a ruined monastery; and
here after deliberation it was determined that he, Laynez and Faber
should go to Rome to place the little band at the disposal of the pope.
It was now that the Society began to take some visible form. A common
rule was devised and a name adopted. Ignatius declared that having
assembled in the name of Jesus, the association should henceforth bear
the name of the "Company of Jesus." The word used shows Loyola's
military ideal of the duties and methods of the nascent society.
On the road to Rome a famous vision took place, as to which we have the
evidence of Ignatius himself. In a certain church, a few miles before
Rome, whilst in prayer he was aware of a stirring and a change in his
soul; and so openly did he see God the Father placing him with Christ,
that he could not dare to doubt that God the Father had so placed him.
Subsequent writers add that Christ, looking at him with a benign
countenance, said: "I shall be propitious to you"; while others add the
significant words, "at Rome." Ignatius, however, says nothing about so
important a matter; indeed he understood the vision to mean that many
things would be adverse to them, and told his companions when they
reached the city that he saw the windows there closed against him. He
also said: "We must of necessity proceed with caution; and we must not
make the acquaintance of women unless they be of very high rank." They
arrived in Rome in October 1537; and lived at first in a little cottage
in a vineyard and near the Trinità dei Monti. The pope appointed Faber
to teach Holy Scripture, and Laynez scholastic theology, in the
university of the Sapienza. Ignatius was left free to carry on his
spiritual work, which became so large that he was obliged to call his
other companions to Rome. During the absence of the pope, a certain
hermit began to spread heresy and was opposed by Ignatius and his
companions. In revenge the hermit brought up the former accusations
concerning the relations to the Inquisition, and proclaimed Ignatius and
his friends to be false, designing men and no better than concealed
heretics. The matter was examined and the legate ordered the suit to be
quashed. But this did not suit Ignatius. It was necessary for his own
good repute and the future of his work that a definitive sentence should
be pronounced and his name cleared once and for all. The legate
demurred; but on the pope's return sentence was formally given in his
favour.
The life of Ignatius is now mainly identified with the formation and
growth of his Society (see JESUITS), but his zeal found other outlets in
Rome. He founded institutions for rescuing fallen women, started
orphanages and organized catechetical instructions. He obtained, after
difficulty, the official recognition of his Society from Paul III. on
the 27th of September 1540, and successfully steered it through many
perils that beset it in its early days. He was unanimously elected the
first general in April 1541; and on the 22nd of that month received the
first vows of the Society in the church of San Paolo _fuori la mura_.
Two works now chiefly occupied the remainder of his life: the final
completion of the _Spiritual Exercises_ and the drawing up of the
_Constitutions_, which received their final form after his death. These
two are so constantly connected that the one cannot be understood
without the other. The _Constitutions_ are discussed in the article on
the Jesuits. In these he taught his followers to respond to the call; by
the _Spiritual Exercises_ he moulded their character.
The _Book of the Spiritual Exercises_ has been one of the world-moving
books. In its strict conception it is only an application of the
Gospel precepts to the individual soul. Its object is to convince a
man of sin, of justice and of judgment. The idea of the book is not
original to Ignatius At Montserrato he had found in use a popular
translation of the _Exercitatorio de la vida spiritual_ (1500),
written in Latin by Abbot Garcias de Cisneros (d. 1510), and divided
into three ways or periods during which purity of soul, enlightenment
and union are to be worked for; a fourth part is added on
contemplation. This book evidently afforded the root idea of the
Ignatian and more famous book. But the differences are great. While
taking the title, the idea of division by periods and the subjects of
most of the meditations from the older work, Ignatius skilfully
adapted it to his own requirements. Above all the methods of the two
are essentially different. The Benedictine work follows the old
monastic tradition of the direct intercourse of the soul with God.
Ignatius, with his military instinct and views of obedience,
intervenes with a director who gives the exercises to the person who
in turn receives them. If this introduction of the director is
essential to the end for which Ignatius framed his _Exercises_, in it
we also find dangers. A director, whose aim is only the personal
advantage of the one who is receiving the exercises, will be the
faithful interpreter of his founder's intentions: but in the case of
one whose _esprit de corps_ is unbalanced, the temporary and pecuniary
advantage of the Society may be made of more importance than that of
the exercitant. Another danger may come when minuteness of direction
takes away the wholesome sense of responsibility. Apart from these
abuses the _Spiritual Exercises_ have proved their value over and over
again, and have received the sincerest form of flattery in countless
imitations. The original parts of the book are principally to be found
in the meditations, which are clearly Ignatian in conception as well
as method. These are _The Reign of Christ_, wherein Christ as an
earthly king calls his subjects to war: and _Two Standards_, one of
Jesus Christ and the other of Lucifer. Besides these there are various
additions to the series of meditations, which are mostly the practical
results of the experiences which Ignatius went through in the early
stages of his conversion. He gives various methods of prayer; methods
of making an election; his series of rules for the discernment of
spirits; rules for the distribution of alms and the treatment of
scruples; tests of orthodoxy. These additions are skilfully worked
into the series of meditations; so that when the exercitant by
meditation has moved his soul to act, here are practical directions at
hand.
The exercises are divided into four series of meditations technically
called "weeks," each of which may last as long as the director
considers necessary to achieve the end for which each week is
destined. But the whole period is generally concluded in the space of
a month. The first week is the foundation, and has to do with the
consideration of the end of man, sin, death, judgment and hell. Having
purified the soul from sin and obtained a detestation thereof, the
second week treats of the kingdom of Christ, and is meant to lead the
soul to make an election of the service of God. The third and fourth
weeks are intended to confirm the soul in the new way chosen, to teach
how difficulties can be overcome, to inflame it with the love of God
and to help it to persevere.
_The Book of the Spiritual Exercises_ was not written at Manresa,
although there is in that place an inscription testifying to the
supposed fact. Ignatius was constantly adding to his work as his own
personal experience increased, and as he watched the effects of his
method on the souls of those to whom he gave the exercises. The latest
critics, even those of the Society itself, give 1548 as the date when
the book received its final touches; though Father Roothaan gives
Rome, the 9th of July 1541, as the date at the end of the ancient MS.
version. Ignatius wrote originally in Spanish, but the book was twice
translated into Latin during his lifetime. The more elegant version
(known as the common edition) differs but slightly from the Spanish.
Francisco Borgia, while duke of Gandia, petitioned Paul III. to have
the book examined and approved. The pope appointed censors for both
translations, who found the work to be replete with piety and
holiness, highly useful and wholesome. Paul III. on receiving this
report confirmed it on the 31st of July 1548 by the breve _Pastoralis
officii cura_. This book, which is rightly called the spiritual arm of
the Society, was the first book published by the Jesuits.
The progress of the Society of Jesus in Loyola's lifetime was rapid (see
JESUITS). Having always had an attraction for a life of prayer and
retirement, in 1547 he tried to resign the generalship, and again in
1550, but the fathers unanimously opposed the project. One of his last
trials was to see in 1556 the election as pope of his old opponent
Caraffa, who soon showed his intention of reforming certain points in
the Society that Ignatius considered vital. But at this difficult crisis
he never lost his peace of mind. He said: "If this misfortune were to
fall upon me, provided it happened without any fault of mine, even if
the Society were to melt away like salt in water, I believe that a
quarter of an hour's recollection in God would be sufficient to console
me and to re-establish peace within me." It is clear that Ignatius never
dreamed of putting his Society before the church nor of identifying the
two institutions.
In the beginning of 1556 Ignatius grew very weak and resigned the active
government to three fathers, Polanco, Madrid and Natal. Fever laid hold
of him, and he died somewhat suddenly on the 31st of July 1556, without
receiving or asking for the last sacraments. He was beatified in 1609 by
Paul V. and canonized in 1628 by Gregory XV. His body lies under the
altar in the north transept of the Gesù in Rome.
His portrait is well known. The olive complexion, a face emaciated by
austerities, the large forehead, the brilliant and small eyes, the high
bald head tell their own tale. He was of medium height and carried
himself so well that his lameness was hardly noticeable. His character
was naturally impetuous and enthusiastic, but became marked with great
self-control as he gradually brought his will under his reason. There
was always that love of overcoming difficulty inherent in a chivalrous
nature; and this also accounts for that desire of surpassing every one
else that marked his early days. Whilst other Christians, following St
Paul, were content to do all things for the glory of God, Ignatius set
himself and his followers to strive after the greater glory. Learning by
his own experience and errors, he wisely developed a sovereign prudence
which nicely adjusted means to the end in view. He impressed on his
followers the doctrine that in all things the end was to be considered.
Never would Ignatius have countenanced so perverted an idea as that the
end justified the means, for with his spiritual light and zeal for God's
glory he saw clearly that means in themselves unjust were opposed to the
very end he held in view. As a ruler he displayed the same common sense.
Obedience he made one of his great instruments, yet he never intended it
to be a galling yoke. His doctrine on the subject is found in the
well-known letter to the Portuguese Jesuits in 1553, and if this be read
carefully together with the _Constitutions_ his meaning is clear. If he
says that a subject is to allow himself to be moved and directed, under
God, by a superior just as though he were a corpse or as a staff in the
hands of an old man, he is also careful to say that the obedience is
only due in all things "wherein it cannot be defined (as it is said)
that any kind of sin appears." The way in which his teaching on
obedience is practically carried out is the best corrective of the false
ideas that have arisen from misconceptions of its nature. His high ideas
on the subject made him a stern ruler. There are certain instances in
his life which, taken by themselves, show a hardness in treating
individuals who would not obey; but as a rule, he tempered his authority
to the capacity of those with whom he had to deal. When he had to choose
between the welfare of the Society and the feelings of an individual it
was clear to which side the balance would fall.
There was in his character a peculiar mixture of conservatism and a keen
sense of the requirements of the day. In intellectual matters he was not
in advance of his day. The Jesuit system of education, set forth in the
_Ratio studiorum_, owes nothing to him. While he did not reject any
approved learning, he abhorred any intellectual culture that destroyed
or lessened piety. He wished to secure uniformity in the judgment of the
Society even in points left open and free by the church: "Let us all
think in the same way, let us all speak in the same manner if possible."
Bartole, the official biographer of Ignatius, says that he would not
permit any innovation in the studies; and that, were he to live five
hundred years, he would always repeat "no novelties" in theology, in
philosophy or in logic--not even in grammar. The revival of learning had
led many away from Christ; intellectual culture must be used as a means
of bringing them back. The new learning in religion had divided
Christendom; the old learning of the faith, once delivered to the
saints, was to reconcile them. This was the problem that faced Ignatius,
and in his endeavour to effect a needed reformation in the individual
and in society his work and the success that crowned it place him among
the moral heroes of humanity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Ignatian literature is very large. Fortunately we
have in the _Acta quaedam_ what is in effect the autobiography of the
saint. This has been translated into English under the title of _The
testament of Ignatius Loyola, being sundry acts of our Father
Ignatius, under God, the first founder of the Society of Jesus, taken
down from the Saint's own lips by Luis Gonzales_ (London, 1900); and
the above account of Ignatius is taken in most places directly from
this, which is not only the best of all sources but also a valuable
corrective of the later and more imaginative works. Next to the _Acta
quaedam_ comes in value Polanco's Vita Ignatii Loiolae, which is
published in the _Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu_ now in
progress. Polanco was the saint's secretary towards the end of his
life. Ribadeneira, who as a youth had been associated with the
founder, wrote his _Vida del S. Ignacio de Loyola_ (Madrid, 1594),
based on an early Latin work (Naples, 1572). Bartole, the official
biographer, wrote his _Della vita e dell' instituto di S. Ignatio_
(Rome, 1650, 1659); Genelli wrote _Das Leben des heiligen Ignatius von
Loyola_ (Innsbruck, 1848); Nicolas Orlandinus gives a life in the
first volume of the _Historiae Societatis Jesu_ (Rome, 1615). It would
be impossible to give a list even of the other lives, most of which
are without value as histories, being written mainly for edification.
But the student may be referred to the modern books Henri Joli's _St
Ignace de Loyola_ (Paris, 1899), which is based on the best
authorities, and to H. Müller's curious _Les Origines de la Compagnie
de Jésus_ (Paris, 1898), in which the author tries to establish a
Mahommedan origin for many of the ideas adopted by the saint.
The literature connected with the _Spiritual Exercises_ is also large.
It will be sufficient here to mention: _A Book of Spiritual Exercises,
written by Garcias de Cisneros_ (London, 1876); the official Latin
text in the third volume of the Avignon edition of the _Constitutions_
(1830); Roothaan's _Exercitia spiritualia S. P. Ignatii de Loyola, cum
versione litterali ex autographo Hispanico, notis illustrata_ (Namur,
1841); Diertino, _Historia exercitiorum S. P. Ignatii de Loyola_
(1887). Especially worthy of notice is P. Watrigant's _La Genèse des
exercices de Saint Ignace de Loyola_, republished from _Les Études_
(20th May, 20th July, 20th October 1897). (E. Tn.)