[1] The district is thus regarded as the place where the Hebrews, on
the one side, and the Moabites and Ammonites, on the other, commence
their independent history. Whilst the latter settle across the
Jordan, Abraham moves down south to Hebron.
[2] Tradition points to the _Jebel Usdum_ (cp. the name Sodom) at the
S.W. end of the Dead Sea. It consists almost entirely of pure
crystallized salt with pillars and pinnacles such as might have given
rise to the story (see Driver, Genesis, p. 201; and cf. also
_Palestine Explor. Fund, Quart. Statements_, 1871, p. 16, 1885, p.
20; Conder, _Syrian Stone-lore_, p. 279 seq.). Jesus cites the story
of Lot and his wife to illustrate the sudden coming of the Kingdom of
God (Luke xvii. 28-32). The history of the interpretation of the
legend by the early and medieval church down to the era of rational
and scientific investigation will be found in A. D. White, _Warfare
of Science with Theology_, ii. ch. xviii.
LOT (Lat. _Oltis_), a river of southern France flowing westward across
the central plateau, through the departments of Lozère, Aveyron, Lot and
Lot-et-Garonne. Its length is about 300 m., the area of its basin 4444
sq. m. The river rises in the Cévennes on the Mont du Goulet at a height
of 4918 ft. about 15 m. E. of Mende, past which it flows. Its upper
course lies through gorges between the Causse of Mende and Aubrac
Mountains on the north and the tablelands (_causses_) of Sauveterre,
Severac and Comtal on the south. Thence its sinuous course crosses the
plateau of Quercy and entering a wider fertile plain flows into the
Garonne at Aiguillon between Agen and Marmande. Its largest tributary,
the Truyère, rises in the Margeride mountains and after a circuitous
course joins it on the right at Entraygues (department of Aveyron), its
affluence more than doubling the volume of the river. Lower down it
receives the Dourdou de Bozouls (or du Nord) on the left and on the right
the Célé above Cahors (department of Lot), which is situated on a
peninsula skirted by one of the river's many windings. Villeneuve-sur-Lot
(department of Lot-et-Garonne) is the only town of any importance between
this point and its mouth. The Lot is canalized between Bouquiès, above
which there is no navigation, and the Garonne (160 m.).
LOT, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790 from the
district of Quercy, part of the old province of Guyenne. It is bounded
N. by Corrèze, W. by Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by Tarn-et-Garonne,
and E. by Aveyron and Cantal. Area 2017 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 216,611. The
department extends over the western portion of the Massif Central of
France; it slopes towards the south-west, and has a maximum altitude of
2560 ft. on the borders of Cantal with a minimum of 213 ft. at the point
where the river Lot quits the department. The Lot, which traverses it
from east to west, is navigable for the whole distance (106 m.) with the
help of locks; its principal tributary within the department is the Célé
(on the right). In the north of the department the Dordogne has a course
of 37 m.; among its tributaries are the Cère, which has its rise in
Cantal, and the Ouysse, a river of no great length, but remarkable for
the abundance of its waters. The streams in the south of Lot all flow
into the Tarn. The eastern and western portions of the department are
covered by ranges of hills; the north, the centre, and part of the south
are occupied by a belt of limestone plateaus or _causses_, that to the
north of the Dordogne is called the Causse de Martel; between the
Dordogne and the Lot is the Causse de Gramat or de Rocamadour; south of
the Lot is the Causse de Cahors. The _causses_ are for the most part
bare and arid owing to the rapid disappearance of the rain in clefts and
chasms in the limestone, which are known as _igues_. These are most
numerous in the Causse de Gramat and are sometimes of great beauty; the
best known is the Gouffre de Padirac, 7 m. N.E. of Rocamadour. The
altitude of the _causses_ (from 700 to 1300 ft., much lower than that of
the similar plateaus in Lozère, Hérault and Aveyron) permits the
cultivation of the vine; they also yield a small quantity of cereals and
potatoes and some wood. The deep intervening valleys are full of
verdure, being well watered by abundant springs. The climate is on the
whole that of the Girondine region; the valleys are warm, and the
rainfall is somewhat above the average for France. The difference of
temperature between the higher parts of the department belonging to the
central plateau and the sheltered valleys of the south-west is
considerable. Wheat, maize, oats and rye are the chief cereals. Wine is
the principal product, the most valued being that of Cahors grown in the
valley of the Lot, which is, in general, the most productive portion of
the department. It is used partly for blending with other wines and
partly for local consumption. The north-east cantons produce large
quantities of chestnuts; walnuts, apples and plums are common, and the
department also grows potatoes and tobacco and supplies truffles. Sheep
are the most abundant kind of live stock; but pigs, horned cattle,
horses, asses, mules and goats are also reared, as well as poultry and
bees. Iron and coal are mined, and there are important zinc deposits
(Planioles). Limestone is quarried. There are oil-works and numerous
mills, and wool spinning and carding as well as cloth making, tanning,
currying, brewing and the making of agricultural implements are carried
on to some extent. The three arrondissements are those of Cahors, the
capital, Figeac and Gourdon; there are 29 cantons and 329 communes.
Lot belongs to the 17th military district, and to the _académie_ of
Toulouse, and falls within the circumscription of the court of appeal at
Agen, and the province of the archbishop of Albi. It is served by the
Orleans railway. Cahors, Figeac and Rocamadour are the principal places.
Of the interesting churches and châteaux of the department, may be
mentioned the fine feudal fortress at Castelnau occupying a commanding
natural position, with an audience hall of the 12th century, and the
Romanesque abbey-church at Souillac with fine sculpturing on the
principal entrance. The plateau of Puy d'Issolu, near Vayrac, is
believed by most authorities to be the site of the ancient Uxcellodunum,
the scene of the last stand of the Gauls against Julius Caesar in 51
B.C. Lot has many dolmens, the finest being that of Pierre Martine, near
Livernon (arr. of Figeac).
LOT-ET-GARONNE, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790 of
Agenais and Bazadais, two districts of the old province of Guienne, and
of Condomois, Lomagne, Brullois and pays d'Albret, formerly portions of
Gascony. It is bounded W. by Gironde, N. by Dordogne, E. by Lot and
Tarn-et-Garonne, S. by Gers and S.W. by Landes. Area 2079 sq. m. Pop.
(1906) 274,610. The Garonne, which traverses the department from S.E. to
N.W., divides it into two unequal parts. That to the north is a country
of hills and deep ravines, and the slope is from east to west, while in
the region to the south, which is a continuation of the plateau of
Lannemezan and Armagnac, the slope is directly from south to north. A
small portion in the south-west belongs to the sterile region of the
Landes (q.v.); the broad valleys of the Garonne and of its affluent the
Lot are proverbial for their fertility. The wildest part is towards the
north-east on the borders of Dordogne, where a region of _causses_
(limestone plateaus) and forests begins; the highest point (896 ft.) is
also found here. The Garonne, where it quits the department, is only some
20 ft. above the sea-level; it is navigable throughout, with the help of
its lateral canal, as also are the Lot and Baise with the help of locks.
The Drot, a right affluent of the Garonne in the north of the department,
is also navigable in the lower part of its course. The climate is that of
the Girondine region--mild and fine--the mean temperature of Agen being
56.6° Fahr., or 5° above that of Paris; the annual rainfall, which, in
the plain of Agen, varies from 20 to 24 in., is nearly the least in
France. Agriculturally the department is one of the richest. Of cereals
wheat is the chief, maize and oats coming next. Potatoes, vines and
tobacco are important sources of wealth. The best wines are those of
Clairac and Buzet. Vegetable and fruit-growing are prosperous. Plum-trees
(_pruniers d'ente_) are much cultivated in the valleys of the Garonne and
Lot, and the apricots of Nicole and Tonneins are well known. The chief
trees are the pine and the oak; the cork-oak flourishes in the Landes,
and poplars and willows are abundant on the borders of the Garonne.
Horned cattle, chiefly of the Garonne breed, are the principal live
stock. Poultry and pigs are also reared profitably. There are deposits of
iron in the department. The forges, blast furnaces and foundries of Fumel
are important; and agricultural implements and other machines are
manufactured. The making of lime and cement, of tiles, bricks and
pottery, of confectionery and dried plums (pruneaux d'Agen) and other
delicacies, and brewing and distilling, occupy many of the inhabitants.
At Tonneins (pop. 4691 in 1906) there is a national tobacco manufactory.
Cork cutting, of which the centre is Mézin, hat and candle making, wool
spinning, weaving of woollen and cotton stuffs, tanning, paper-making,
oil-making, dyeing and flour and saw-milling are other prominent
industries. The peasants still speak the Gascon patois. The
arrondissements are 4--Agen, Marmande, Nérac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot--and
there are 35 cantons and 326 communes.
Agen, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of the court of appeal
for the department of Lot-et-Garonne. The department belongs to the
region of the XVII. army corps, the _académie_ of Bordeaux, and the
province of the archbishop of Bordeaux. Lot-et-Garonne is served by the
lines of the Southern and the Orleans railways, its rivers afford about
160 m. of navigable waterway, and the lateral canal of the Garonne
traverses it for 54 m. Agen, Marmande, Nérac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot, the
principal places, are treated under separate headings. The department
possesses Roman remains at Mas d'Agenais and at Aiguillon. The churches
of Layrac, Monsempron, Mas d'Agenais, Moirax, Mézin and Vianne are of
interest, as also are the fortifications of Vianne of the 13th century,
and the châteaux of Xaintrailles, Bonaguil, Gavaudun and of the
industrial town of Casteljaloux.
LOTHAIR I. (795-855), Roman emperor, was the eldest son of the emperor
Louis I., and his wife Irmengarde. Little is known of his early life,
which was probably passed at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne,
until 815 when he became ruler of Bavaria. When Louis in 817 divided the
Empire between his sons, Lothair was crowned joint emperor at
Aix-la-Chapelle and given a certain superiority over his brothers. In
821 he married Irmengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugo, count of Tours; in
822 undertook the government of Italy; and, on the 5th of April 823, was
crowned emperor by Pope Paschal I. at Rome. In November 824 he
promulgated a statute concerning the relations of pope and emperor which
reserved the supreme power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards
issued various ordinances for the good government of Italy. On his
return to his father's court his stepmother Judith won his consent to
her plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which was
carried out in 829. Lothair, however, soon changed his attitude, and
spent the succeeding decade in constant strife over the division of the
Empire with his father. He was alternately master of the Empire, and
banished and confined to Italy; at one time taking up arms in alliance
with his brothers and at another fighting against them; whilst the
bounds of his appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced. When
Louis was dying in 840, he sent the imperial _insignia_ to Lothair, who,
disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole of the Empire.
Negotiations with his brother Louis and his half-brother Charles, both
of whom armed to resist this claim, were followed by an alliance of the
younger brothers against Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at
Fontenoy on the 25th of June 841, when, in spite of his personal
gallantry, Lothair was defeated and fled to Aix. With fresh troops he
entered upon a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too
strong for him, and taking with him such treasure as he could collect,
he abandoned to them his capital. Efforts to make peace were begun, and
in June 842 the brothers met on an island in the Sâone, and agreed to an
arrangement which developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the
treaty of Verdun signed in August 843. By this Lothair received Italy
and the imperial title, together with a stretch of land between the
North and Mediterranean Seas lying along the valleys of the Rhine and
the Rhone. He soon abandoned Italy to his eldest son, Louis, and
remained in his new kingdom, engaged in alternate quarrels and
reconciliations with his brothers, and in futile efforts to defend his
lands from the attacks of the Normans and the Saracens. In 855 he became
seriously ill, and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided
his lands between his three sons, and on the 23rd of September entered
the monastery of Prüm, where he died six days later. He was buried at
Prüm, where his remains were found in 1860. Lothair was entirely
untrustworthy and quite unable to maintain either the unity or the
dignity of the empire of Charlemagne.
See "Annales Fuldenses"; Nithard, "Historiarum Libri," both in the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bände_ i. and ii. (Hanover
and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Mühlbacher, _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs
unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des
ostfränkischen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); B. Simson, _Jahrbücher
des deutschen Reiches unter Ludwig dem Frommen_ (Leipzig, 1874-1876).
LOTHAIR II. or III. (c. 1070-1137), surnamed the "Saxon," Roman emperor,
son of Gebhard, count of Supplinburg, belonged to a family possessing
extensive lands around Helmstadt in Saxony, to which he succeeded on his
father's death in 1075. Gebhard had been a leading opponent of the
emperor Henry IV. in Saxony, and his son, taking the same attitude,
assisted Egbert II., margrave of Meissen, in the rising of 1088. The
position and influence of Lothair in Saxony, already considerable, was
increased when in 1100 he married Richenza, daughter of Henry, count of
Nordheim, who became an heiress on her father's death in 1101, and
inherited other estates when her brother Otto died childless in 1116.
Having assisted the German king, Henry V., against his father in 1104,
Lothair was appointed duke of Saxony by Henry, when Duke Magnus, the
last of the Billungs, died in 1106. His first care was to establish his
authority over some districts east of the Elbe; and quickly making
himself independent of the king, he stood forth as the representative of
the Saxon race. This attitude brought him into collision with Henry V.,
to whom, however, he was forced to submit after an unsuccessful rising
in 1112. A second rising was caused when, on the death of Ulrich II.,
count of Weimar and Orlamünde, without issue in 1112, Henry seized these
counties as vacant fiefs of the empire, while Lothair supported the
claim of Siegfried, count of Ballenstädt, whose mother was a relative of
Ulrich. The rebels were defeated, and Siegfried was killed at Warnstädt
in 1113, but his son secured possession of the disputed counties. After
the defeat by Lothair of Henry's forces at Welfesholz on the 11th of
February 1115, events called Henry to Italy; and Lothair appears to have
been undisturbed in Saxony until 1123, when the death of Henry II.,
margrave of Meissen and Lusatia raised a dispute as to the right of
appointment to the vacant margraviates. A struggle ensued, in which
victory remained with the duke. The Saxony policy of Lothair during
these years had been to make himself independent, and to extend his
authority; to this end he allied himself with the papal party, and
easily revived the traditional hostility of the Saxons to the Franconian
emperors.
When Henry V. died in 1125, Lothair, after a protracted election, was
chosen German king at Mainz on the 30th of August 1125. His election was
largely owing to the efforts of Adalbert, archbishop of Mainz, and the
papal party, who disliked the candidature of Henry's nephew and heir,
Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia. The new king was crowned
at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 13th of September 1125. Before suffering a
severe reverse, brought about by his interference in the internal
affairs of Bohemia, Lothair requested Frederick of Hohenstaufen to
restore to the crown the estates bequeathed to him by the emperor Henry
V. Frederick refused, and was placed under the ban. Lothair, unable to
capture Nüremberg, gained the support of Henry the Proud, the new duke
of Bavaria, by giving him his daughter, Gertrude, in marriage, and that
of Conrad, count of Zähringen, by granting him the administration of the
kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles. As a counterstroke, however, Conrad of
Hohenstaufen, the brother of Frederick, was chosen German king in
December 1127, and was quickly recognized in northern Italy. But Lothair
gained the upper hand in Germany, and by the end of 1129 the
Hohenstaufen strongholds, Nüremberg and Spires, were in his possession.
This struggle was accompanied by disturbances in Lorraine, Saxony and
Thuringia, but order was soon restored after the resistance of the
Hohenstaufen had been beaten down. In 1131 the king led an expedition
into Denmark, where one of his vassals had been murdered by Magnus, son
of the Danish king, Niels, and where general confusion reigned; but no
resistance was offered, and Niels promised to pay tribute to Lothair.
The king's attention at the time was called to Italy where two popes,
Innocent II. and Anacletus II., were clamouring for his support. At
first Lothair, fully occupied with the affairs of Germany, remained
heedless and neutral; but in March 1131 he was visited at Liége by
Innocent, to whom he promised his assistance. Crossing the Alps with a
small army in September 1132, he reached Rome in March 1133, accompanied
by Innocent. As St Peter's was held by Anacletus, Lothair's coronation
as emperor took place on the 4th of June 1133 in the church of the
Lateran. He then received as papal fiefs the vast estates of Matilda,
marchioness of Tuscany, thus securing for his daughter and her Welf
husband lands which might otherwise have passed to the Hohenstaufen. His
efforts to continue the investiture controversy were not very serious.
He returned to Germany, where he restored order in Bavaria, and made an
expedition against some rebels in the regions of the lower Rhine.
Resuming the struggle against the Hohenstaufen, Lothair soon obtained
the submission of the brothers, who retained their lands, and a general
peace was sworn at Bamberg. The emperor's authority was now generally
recognized, and the annalists speak highly of the peace and order of his
later years. In 1135, Eric II., king of Denmark, acknowledged himself a
vassal of Lothair; Boleslaus III., prince of the Poles, promised
tribute and received Pomerania and Rügen as German fiefs; while the
eastern emperor, John Comnenus, implored Lothair's aid against Roger II.
of Sicily.
The emperor seconded the efforts of his vassals, Albert the Bear,
margrave of the Saxon north mark, and Conrad I., margrave of Meissen and
Lusatia, to extend the authority of the Germans in the districts east of
the Elbe, and assisted Norbert, archbishop of Magdeburg, and Albert I.,
archbishop of Bremen, to spread Christianity. In August 1136, attended
by a large army, Lothair set out upon his second Italian journey. The
Lombard cities were either terrified into submission or taken by storm;
Roger II. was driven from Apulia; and the imperial power enforced over
the whole of southern Italy. A mutiny among the German soldiers and a
breach with Innocent concerning the overlordship of Apulia compelled the
emperor to retrace his steps. An arrangement was made with regard to
Apulia, after which Lothair, returning to Germany, died at Breitenwang,
a village in the Tirol, on the 3rd or 4th of December 1137. His body was
carried to Saxony and buried in the monastery which he had founded at
Königslutter. Lothair was a strong and capable ruler, who has been
described as the "imitator and heir of the first Otto." Contemporaries
praise his justice and his virtue, and his reign was regarded,
especially by Saxons and churchmen, as a golden age for Germany.
The main authorities for the life and reign of Lothair are: "Vita
Norberti archiepiscopi Magdeburgensis"; Otto von Freising, "Chronicon
Annalista Saxo" and "Narratio de electione Lotharii" all in the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, Bände vi., xii. and xx.
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The best modern works are: L. von
Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. viii. (Leipzig, 1887-1888); W. von
Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv.
(Brunswick, 1877), Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); Ph. Jaffe, _Geschichte des
Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar_ (Berlin, 1843); W. Bernhardi, _Lothar
von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); O. von Heinemann, _Lothar der Sachse
und Konrad III._ (Halle, 1869); and Ch. Volkmar, "Das Vërhältniss
Lothars III. zur Investiturfrage," in the _Forschungen zur Deutschen
Geschichte_, Band xxvi. (Göttingen, 1862-1886).
LOTHAIR (941-986), king of France, son of Louis IV., succeeded his
father in 954, and was at first under the guardianship of Hugh the
Great, duke of the Franks, and then under that of his maternal uncle
Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. The beginning of his reign was occupied
with wars against the vassals, particularly against the duke of
Normandy. Lothair then seems to have conceived the design of recovering
Lorraine. He attempted to precipitate matters by a sudden attack, and in
the spring of 978 nearly captured the emperor Otto II. at
Aix-la-Chapelle. Otto took his revenge in the autumn by invading France.
He penetrated as far as Paris, devastating the country through which he
passed, but failed to take the town, and was forced to retreat with
heavy loss. Peace was concluded in 980 at Margut-sur-Chiers, and in 983
Lothair was even chosen guardian to the young Otto III. Towards 980,
however, Lothair quarrelled with Hugh the Great's son, Hugh Capet, who,
at the instigation of Adalberon, archbishop of Reims, became reconciled
with Otto III. Lothair died on the 2nd of March 986. By his wife Emma,
daughter of Lothair, king of Italy, he left a son who succeeded him as
Louis V.
See F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891); and the
_Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V._, edited by L. Halphen
and F. Lot (1908).
LOTHAIR (825-869), king of the district called after him Lotharingia, or
Lorraine, was the second son of the emperor Lothair I. On his father's
death in 855, he received for his kingdom a district lying west of the
Rhine, between the North Sea and the Jura mountains, which was called
_Regnum Lotharii_ and early in the 10th century became known as
Lotharingia or Lorraine. On the death of his brother Charles in 863 he
added some lands south of the Jura to this inheritance, but, except for
a few feeble expeditions against the Danish pirates, he seems to have
done little for its government or its defence. The reign was chiefly
occupied by efforts on the part of Lothair to obtain a divorce from his
wife Teutberga, a sister of Hucbert, abbot of St Maurice (d. 864); and
his relations with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German,
were influenced by his desire to obtain their support to this plan.
Although quarrels and reconciliations between the three kings followed
each other in quick succession, in general it may be said that Louis
favoured the divorce, and Charles opposed it, while neither lost sight
of the fact that Lothair was without male issue. Lothair, whose desire
for the divorce was prompted by his affection for a certain Waldrada,
put away Teutberga; but Hucbert took up arms on her behalf, and after
she had submitted successfully to the ordeal of water, Lothair was
compelled to restore her in 858. Still pursuing his purpose, he won the
support of his brother, the emperor Louis II., by a cession of lands,
and obtained the consent of the local clergy to the divorce and to his
marriage with Waldrada, which was celebrated in 862. A synod of Frankish
bishops met at Metz in 863 and confirmed this decision, but Teutberga
fled to the court of Charles the Bald, and Pope Nicholas I. declared
against the decision of the synod. An attack on Rome by the emperor was
without result, and in 865 Lothair, convinced that Louis and Charles at
their recent meeting had discussed the partition of his kingdom, and
threatened with excommunication, again took back his wife. Teutberga,
however, either from inclination or compulsion, now expressed her desire
for a divorce, and Lothair went to Italy to obtain the assent of the new
pope Adrian II. Placing a favourable interpretation upon the words of
the pope, he had set out on the return journey, when he was seized with
fever and died at Piacenza on the 8th of August 869. He left, by
Waldrada, a son Hugo who was declared illegitimate, and his kingdom was
divided between Charles the Bald and Louis the German.
See Hincmar, "Opusculum de divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergae
reginae," in _Cursus completus patrologiae_, tome cxxv., edited by J.
P. Migne (Paris, 1857-1879); M. Sdralek, _Hinkmars von Rheims
Kanonistisches Gutachten über die Ehescheidung des Königs Lothar II._
(Freiburg, 1881); E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches_
(Leipzig, 1887-1888); and E. Mühlbacher, _Die Regenten des
Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881).
LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. MARK KERR, 1st earl of Lothian (d.
1609), was the eldest son of Mark Kerr (d. 1584), abbot, and then
commendator, of Newbattle, or Newbottle, and was a member of the famous
border family of Ker of Cessford. The earls and dukes of Roxburghe, who
are also descended from the Kers of Cessford, have adopted the spelling
Ker, while the earls and marquesses of Lothian have taken the form Kerr.
Like his father, the abbot of Newbattle, Mark Kerr was an extraordinary
lord of session under the Scottish king James VI.; he became Lord
Newbattle in 1587 and was created earl of Lothian in 1606. He was master
of inquests from 1577 to 1606, and he died on the 8th of April 1609,
having had, as report says, thirty-one children by his wife, Margaret
(d. 1617), daughter of John Maxwell, 4th Lord Herries. His son Robert,
the 2nd earl, died without sons in July 1624. He had, in 1621, obtained
a charter from the king enabling his daughter Anne to succeed to his
estates provided that she married a member of the family of Ker.
Consequently in 1631 she married William Ker, son of Robert, 1st earl of
Ancrum (1578-1654), a member of the family of Ker of Ferniehurst, whose
father, William Ker, had been killed in 1590 by Robert Ker, afterwards
1st earl of Roxburghe. Robert was in attendance upon Charles I. both
before and after he came to the throne, and was created earl of Ancrum
in 1633. He was a writer and a man of culture, and among his friends
were the poet Donne and Drummond of Hawthornden. His elder son William
was created earl of Lothian in 1631, the year of his marriage with Anne
Kerr, and Sir William Kerr of Blackhope, a brother of the 2nd earl, who
had taken the title of earl of Lothian in 1624, was forbidden to use it
(see _Correspondence of Sir Robert Ker, earl of Ancrum, and his son
William, third earl of Lothian_, 1875).
WILLIAM KER (c. 1605-1675), who thus became 3rd earl of Lothian, signed
the Scottish national covenant in 1638 and marched with the Scots into
England in 1640, being present when the English were routed at Newburn,
after which he became governor of Newcastle-on-Tyne. During the Civil
War he was prominent rather as a politician than as a soldier; he
became a Scottish secretary of state in 1649, and was one of the
commissioners who visited Charles II. at Breda in 1650. He died at
Newbattle Abbey, near Edinburgh, in October 1675. William's eldest son
Robert, the 4th earl (1636-1703), supported the Revolution of 1688 and
served William III. in several capacities; he became 3rd earl of Ancrum
on the death of his uncle Charles in 1690, and was created marquess of
Lothian in 1701. His eldest son William, the 2nd marquess (c.
1662-1722), who had been a Scottish peer as Lord Jedburgh since 1692,
was a supporter of the union with England. His son William, the 3rd
marquess (c. 1690-1767), was the father of William Henry, the 4th
marquess, who was wounded at Fontenoy and was present at Culloden. He
was a member of parliament for some years and had reached the rank of
general in the army when he died at Bath on the 12th of April 1775. His
grandson William, the 6th marquess (1763-1824), married Henrietta
(1762-1805), daughter and heiress of John Hobart, 2nd earl of
Buckinghamshire, thus bringing Blickling Hall and the Norfolk estates of
the Hobarts into the Kerr family. In 1821 he was created a peer of the
United Kingdom as Baron Ker and he died on the 27th of April 1824. In
1900 Robert Schomberg Kerr (b. 1874) succeeded his father, Schomberg
Henry, the 9th marquess (1833-1900), as 10th marquess of Lothian.
LOTHIAN. This name was formerly applied to a considerably larger extent
of country than the three counties of Linlithgow, Edinburgh and
Haddington. Roxburghshire and Berwickshire at all events were included
in it, probably also the upper part of Tweeddale (at least Selkirk). It
would thus embrace the eastern part of the Lowlands from the Forth to
the Cheviots, i.e. all the English part of Scotland in the 11th century.
This region formed from the 7th century onward part of the kingdoms of
Bernicia and Northumbria, though we have no definite information as to
the date or events by which it came into English hands. In Roman times,
according to Ptolemy, it was occupied by a people called Otadini, whose
name is thought to have been preserved in Manaw Gododin, the home of the
British king Cunedda before he migrated to North Wales. There is no
reason to doubt that the district remained in Welsh hands until towards
the close of the 6th century; for in the _Historia Brittonum_ the
Bernician king Theodoric, whose traditional date is 572-579, is said to
have been engaged in war with four Welsh kings. One of these was
Rhydderch Hen who, as we know from Adamnan, reigned at Dumbarton, while
another named Urien is said to have besieged Theodoric in Lindisfarne.
If this statement is to be believed it is hardly likely that the English
had by this time obtained a firm footing beyond the Tweed. At all events
there can be little doubt that the whole region was conquered within the
next fifty years. Most probably the greater part of it was conquered by
the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith, who, according to Bede, ravaged the
territory of the Britons more often than any other English king, in some
places reducing the natives to dependence, in others exterminating them
and replacing them by English settlers.
In the time of Oswic the English element became predominant in northern
Britain. His supremacy was acknowledged both by the Welsh in the western
Lowlands and by the Scots in Argyllshire. On the death of the Pictish
king Talorgan, the son of his brother Eanfrith, he seems to have
obtained the sovereignty over a considerable part of that nation also.
Early in Ecgfrith's reign an attempt at revolt on the part of the Picts
proved unsuccessful. We hear at this time also of the establishment of
an English bishopric at Abercorn, which, however, only lasted for a few
years. By the disastrous overthrow of Ecgfrith in 685 the Picts, Scots
and some of the Britons also recovered their independence. Yet we find a
succession of English bishops at Whithorn from 730 to the 9th century,
from which it may be inferred that the south-west coast had already by
this time become English. The Northumbrian dominions were again enlarged
by Eadberht, who in 750 is said to have annexed Kyle, the central part
of Ayrshire, with other districts. In conjunction with Oengus mac
Fergus, king of the Picts, he also reduced the whole of the Britons to
submission in 756. But this subjugation was not lasting, and the British
kingdom, though now reduced to the basin of the Clyde, whence its
inhabitants are known as Strathclyde Britons, continued to exist for
nearly three centuries. After Eadberht's time we hear little of events
in the northern part of Northumbria, and there is some reason for
suspecting that English influence in the south-west began to decline
before long, as our list of bishops of Whithorn ceases early in the 9th
century; the evidence on this point, however, is not so decisive as is
commonly stated. About 844 an important revolution took place among the
Picts. The throne was acquired by Kenneth mac Alpin, a prince of
Scottish family, who soon became formidable to the Northumbrians. He is
said to have invaded "Saxonia" six times, and to have burnt Dunbar and
Melrose. After the disastrous battle at York in 867 the Northumbrians
were weakened by the loss of the southern part of their territories, and
between 883 and 889 the whole country as far as Lindisfarne was ravaged
by the Scots. In 919, however, we find their leader Aldred calling in
Constantine II., king of the Scots, to help them. A few years later
together with Constantine and the Britons they acknowledged the
supremacy of Edward the Elder. After his death, however, both the Scots
and the Britons were for a time in alliance with the Norwegians from
Ireland, and consequently Æthelstan is said to have ravaged a large
portion of the Scottish king's territories in 934. Brunanburh, where
Æthelstan defeated the confederates in 937, is believed by many to have
been in Dumfriesshire, but we have no information as to the effects of
the battle on the northern populations. By this time, however, the
influence of the Scottish kingdom certainly seems to have increased in
the south, and in 945 the English king Edmund gave Cumberland, i.e.
apparently the British kingdom of Strathclyde, to Malcolm I., king of
the Scots, in consideration of his alliance with him. Malcolm's
successor Indulph (954-962) succeeded in capturing Edinburgh, which
thenceforth remained in possession of the Scots. His successors made
repeated attempts to extend their territory southwards, and certain late
chroniclers state that Kenneth II. in 971-975 obtained a grant of the
whole of Lothian from Edgar. Whatever truth this story may contain, the
cession of the province was finally effected by Malcolm II. by force of
arms. At his first attempt in 1006 he seems to have suffered a great
defeat from Uhtred, the son of earl Waltheof. Twelve years later,
however, he succeeded in conjunction with Eugenius, king of Strathclyde,
in annihilating the Northumbrian army at Carham on the Tweed, and Eadulf
Cudel, the brother and successor of Uhtred, ceded all his territory to
the north of that river as the price of peace. Henceforth in spite of an
invasion by Aldred, the son of Uhtred, during the reign of Duncan,
Lothian remained permanently in possession of the Scottish kings. In the
reign of Malcolm III. and his son, the English element appears to have
acquired considerable influence in the kingdom. Some three years before
he obtained his father's throne Malcolm had by the help of earl Siward
secured the government of Cumbria (Strathclyde) with which Lothian was
probably united. Then in 1068 he received a large number of exiles from
England, amongst them the Ætheling Eadgar, whose sister Margaret he
married. Four other sons in succession occupied the throne, and in the
time of the youngest, David, who held most of the south of Scotland as
an earldom from 1107-1124 and the whole kingdom from 1124-1153, the
court seems already to have been composed chiefly of English and
Normans.
AUTHORITIES.--Bede, _Historia Ecclesiastica_ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford,
1896); _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899);
Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series, ed. T. Arnold, 1882); W. F. Skene,
_Chronicle of Picts and Scots_ (Edinburgh, 1867), and _Celtic
Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1876-1880); and J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_
(London). (F. G. M. B.)
LOTI, PIERRE [the pen-name of LOUIS MARIE JULIEN VIAUD] (1850- ),
French author, was born at Rochefort on the 14th of January 1850. The
Viauds are an old Protestant family, and Pierre Loti consistently
adhered, at least nominally, to the faith of his fathers. Of the
picturesque and touching incidents of his childhood he has given a very
vivid account in _Le Roman d'un enfant_ (1890). His education began in
Rochefort, but at the age of seventeen, being destined for the navy, he
entered the naval school, Le Borda, and gradually rose in his
profession, attaining the rank of captain in 1906. In January 1910 he
was placed on the reserve list. His pseudonym is said to be due to his
extreme shyness and reserve in early life, which made his comrades call
him after _le Loti_, an Indian flower which loves to blush unseen. He
was never given to books or study (when he was received at the French
Academy, he had the courage to say, "Loti ne sait pas lire"), and it was
not until 1876 that he was persuaded to write down and publish some
curious experiences at Constantinople, in _Aziyadé_, a book which, like
so many of Loti's, seems half a romance, half an autobiography. He
proceeded to the South Seas, and on leaving Tahiti published the
Polynesian idyll, originally called _Rarahu_ (1880), which was reprinted
as _Le Mariage de Loti_, and which first introduced to the wider public
an author of remarkable originality and charm. _Le Roman d'un spahi_, a
record of the melancholy adventures of a soldier in Senegambia, belongs
to 1881. In 1882 Loti issued a collection of short studies under the
general title of _Fleurs d'ennui_. In 1883 he achieved the widest
celebrity, for not only did he publish _Mon frère Yves_, a novel
describing the life of a French bluejacket in all parts of the
world--perhaps his most characteristic production--but he was involved
in a public discussion in a manner which did him great credit. While
taking part as a naval officer in the Tongking War, Loti had exposed in
the _Figaro_ a series of scandals which followed on the capture of Hué
(1883), and was suspended from the service for more than a year. He
continued for some time nearly silent, but in 1886 he published a novel
of life among the Breton fisher-folk, called _Pêcheur d'islande_, the
most popular of all his writings. In 1887 he brought out a volume of
extraordinary merit, which has not received the attention it deserves;
this is _Propos d'exil_, a series of short studies of exotic places, in
his peculiar semi-autobiographic style. The fantastic novel of Japanese
manners, _Madame Chrysanthème_, belongs to the same year. Passing over
one or two slighter productions, we come in 1890 to _Au Maroc_, the
record of a journey to Fez in company with a French embassy. A
collection of strangely confidential and sentimental reminiscences,
called _Le Livre de la pitié et de la mort_, belongs to 1891. Loti was
on board his ship at the port of Algiers when news was brought to him of
his election, on the 21st of May 1891, to the French Academy. In 1892 he
published _Fantôme d'orient_, another dreamy study of life in
Constantinople, a sort of continuation of _Aziyadé_. He described a
visit to the Holy Land, somewhat too copiously, in three volumes
(1895-1896), and wrote a novel, _Ramuntcho_ (1897), a story of manners
in the Basque province, which is equal to his best writings. In 1900 he
visited British India, with the view of describing what he saw; the
result appeared in 1903--_L'Inde_ (_sans les Anglais_). At his best
Pierre Loti was unquestionably the finest descriptive writer of the day.
In the delicate exactitude with which he reproduced the impression given
to his own alert nerves by unfamiliar forms, colours, sounds and
perfumes, he was without a rival. But he was not satisfied with this
exterior charm; he desired to blend with it a moral sensibility of the
extremest refinement, at once sensual and ethereal. Many of his best
books are long sobs of remorseful memory, so personal, so intimate, that
an English reader is amazed to find such depth of feeling compatible
with the power of minutely and publicly recording what is felt. In spite
of the beauty and melody and fragrance of Loti's books his mannerisms
are apt to pall upon the reader, and his later books of pure description
were rather empty. His greatest successes were gained in the species of
confession, half-way between fact and fiction, which he essayed in his
earlier books. When all his limitations, however, have been rehearsed,
Pierre Loti remains, in the mechanism of style and cadence, one of the
most original and most perfect French writers of the second half of the
19th century. Among his later works were: _La Troisième jeunesse de Mme
Prune_ (1905); _Les Désenchantées_ (1906, Eng. trans. by C. Bell); _La
Mort de Philae_ (1908); _Judith Renaudin_ (Théâtre Antoine, 1904), a
five-act historical play based on an earlier book; and, in
collaboration with Émile Vedel, a translation of _King Lear_, also
produced at the Théâtre Antoine in 1904. (E. G.)
LÖTSCHEN PASS, or LÖTSCHBERG, an easy glacier pass (8842 ft.) leading
from Kandersteg in the Bernese Oberland to the Lötschen valley in the
Valais. It is a very old pass, first mentioned distinctly in 1352, but
probably crossed previously by the Valaisans who colonized various parts
of the Bernese Oberland. In 1384 and again in 1419 battles were fought
on it between the Bernese and the Valaisans, while in 1698 a mule path
(of which traces still exist) was constructed on the Bernese slope,
though not continued beyond owing to the fear of the Valaisans that the
Bernese would come over and alter their religion. In 1906 the piercing
of a tunnel (8½ m. long) beneath this pass was begun, starting a little
above Kandersteg and ending at Goppenstein near the mouth of the
Lötschen valley. Subsidies were granted by both the confederation and
the canton of Bern. This pass is to be carefully distinguished from the
Lötschenlücke (10,512 ft.), another easy glacier pass which leads from
the head of the Lötschen valley to the Great Aletsch glacier.
(W. A. B. C.)
LOTTERIES. The word lottery[1] has no very definite signification. It
may be applied to any process of determining prizes by lot, whether the
object be amusement or gambling or public profit. In the Roman
Saturnalia and in the banquets of aristocratic Romans the object was
amusement; the guests received _apophoreta_. The same plan was followed
on a magnificent scale by some of the emperors. Nero gave such prizes as
a house or a slave. Heliogabalus introduced an element of absurdity--one
ticket for a golden vase, another for six flies. This custom descended
to the festivals given by the feudal and merchant princes of Europe,
especially of Italy; and it formed a prominent feature of the splendid
court hospitality of Louis XIV. In the Italian republics of the 16th
century the lottery principle was applied to encourage the sale of
merchandise. The lotto of Florence and the seminario of Genoa are well
known, and Venice established a monopoly and drew a considerable revenue
for the state. The first letters patent for a lottery in France were
granted in 1539 by Francis I., and in 1656 the Italian, Lorenzo Tonti
(the originator of "Tontines") opened another for the building of a
stone bridge between the Louvre and the Faubourg St Germain. The
institution became very popular in France, and gradually assumed an
important place in the government finance. The parlements frequently
protested against it, but it had the support of Mazarin, and L.
Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, by this means raised the expenses of
the Spanish Succession War. Necker, in his _Administration des
finances_, estimates the public charge for lotteries at 4,000,000 livres
per annum. There were also lotteries for the benefit of religious
communities and charitable purposes. Two of the largest were the
_Loteries de Piété_ and _Des Enfans Trouvés_. These and also the great
_Loterie de l'École militaire_ were practically merged in the _Loterie
Royale_ by the decree of 1776, suppressing all private lotteries in
France. The financial basis of these larger lotteries was to take
(5/24)ths for expenses and benefit, and return (19/24)ths to the public
who subscribed. The calculation of chances had become a familiar
science. It is explained in detail by Caminade de Castres in _Enc. méth.
finances_, ii. s.v. "Loterie." The names of the winning numbers in the
first drawing were (1) _extrait_, (2) _ambe_, (3) _terne_, (4)
_quaterne_, (5) _quine_. After this there were four drawings called
_primes gratuites_. The _extrait_ gave fifteen times the price of the
ticket; the _quine_ gave one million times the price. These are said to
be much more favourable terms than were given in Vienna, Frankfort and
other leading European cities at the end of the 18th century. The
_Loterie Royale_ was ultimately suppressed in 1836. Under the law of the
29th of May 1844 lotteries may be held for the assistance of charity and
the fine arts. In 1878 twelve million lottery tickets of one franc each
were sold in Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors in the great
Exhibition and expenses of working-men visitors. The first prize was
worth £5000; the second, £4000, and the third and fourth £2000 each. The
Société du Crédit Foncier, and many of the large towns, are permitted to
contract loans, the periodical repayments of which are determined by
lot. This practice, which is prohibited in Germany and England,
resembles the older system of giving higher and lower rates of interest
for money according to lot. Lotteries were suppressed in Belgium in
1830, Sweden in 1841 and Switzerland in 1865, but they still figure in
the state budgets of Austria-Hungary, Prussia and other German States,
Holland, Spain, Italy and Denmark. In addition to lottery loans,
ordinary lotteries (_occasion lotteries_) are numerous in various
countries of the continent of Europe. They are of various magnitude and
are organized for a variety of purposes, such as charity, art,
agriculture, church-building, &c. It is becoming the tendency, however,
to discourage private and indiscriminate lotteries, and even state
lotteries which contribute to the revenue. In Austria-Hungary and
Germany, for instance, every year sees fewer places where tickets can be
taken for them receive licenses. In 1904 a proposal for combining a
working-class savings bank with a national lottery was seriously
considered by the Prussian ministry. The scheme, which owes its
conception to August Scherl, editor of the Berlin _Lokalanzeiger_, is an
endeavour to utilize the love of gambling for the purpose of promoting
thrift among the working-classes. It was proposed to make weekly
collections from subscribers, in fixed amounts, ranging from sixpence to
four shillings. The interest on the money deposited would not go to the
depositors but would be set aside to form the prizes. Three hundred
thousand tickets, divisible into halves, quarters and eighths, according
to the sum deposited weekly, would form a series of 12,500 prizes, of a
total value of £27,000. At the same time, the subscriber, while having
his ordinary lottery chances of these prizes, still has to his credit
intact the amount which he has subscribed week by week.
In England the earliest lotteries sanctioned by government were for such
purposes as the repair of harbours in 1569, and the Virginia Company in
1612. In the lottery of 1569, 40,000 chances were sold at ten shillings
each, the prizes being "plate, and certain sorts of merchandises." In
1698 lotteries, with the exception of the Royal Oak lottery for the
benefit of the Royal Fishing Company, were prohibited as common
nuisances, by which children, servants and other unwary persons had been
ruined. This prohibition was in the 18th century gradually extended to
illegal insurances on marriages and other events, and to a great many
games with dice, such as faro, basset, hazard, except backgammon and
games played in the royal palace. In spite of these prohibitions, the
government from 1709 down to 1824 annually raised considerable sums in
lotteries authorized by act of parliament. The prizes were in the form
of terminable or perpetual annuities. The £10 tickets were sold at a
premium of say 40% to contractors who resold them in retail (sometimes
in one-sixteenth parts) by "morocco men," or men with red leather books
who travelled through the country. As the drawing extended over forty
days, a very pernicious system arose of insuring the fate of tickets
during the drawing for a small premium of 4d. or 6d. This was partly
cured by the Little Go Act of 1802, directed against the itinerant
wheels which plied between the state lotteries, and partly by Perceval's
Act in 1806, which confined the drawing of each lottery to one day. From
1793 to 1824 the government made an average yearly profit of £346,765.
Cope, one of the largest contractors, is said to have spent £36,000 in
advertisements in a single year. The English lotteries were used to
raise loans for general purposes, but latterly they were confined to
particular objects, such as the improvement of London, the disposal of
a museum, the purchase of a picture gallery, &c. Through the efforts of
Lord Lyttleton and others a strong public opinion was formed against
them, and in 1826 they were finally prohibited. An energetic proposal to
revive the system was made before the select committee on metropolitan
improvements in 1830, but it was not listened to. By a unique blunder in
legislation, authority was given to hold a lottery under an act of 1831
which provided a scheme for the improvement of the city of Glasgow.
These "Glasgow lotteries" were suppressed by an act of 1834. Art Unions
were legalized by the Art Unions Act 1846. The last lottery prominently
before the public in England was that of Dethier's twelfth-cake lottery,
which was suppressed on the 27th of December 1860. As defined at the
beginning of this article, the word lottery has a meaning wide enough to
include missing-word competitions, distributions by tradesmen of prize
coupons, sweepstakes, &c. See _Report of Joint Select Committee on
Lotteries, &c._ (1908). The statute law in Scotland is the same as in
England. At common law in Scotland it is probable that all lotteries and
raffles, for whatever purpose held, may be indicted as nuisances. The
art unions are supposed to be protected by a special statute.
_United States._--The American Congress of 1776 instituted a national
lottery. Most states at that time legalized lotteries for public
objects, and before 1820 the Virginia legislature passed seventy acts
authorizing lotteries for various public purposes, such as schools,
roads, &c.--about 85% of the subscriptions being returned in prizes. At
an early period (1795) the city of Washington was empowered to set up
lotteries as a mode of raising money for public purposes; and this
authorization from the Maryland legislature was approved by an act of
the Federal Congress in 1812. In 1833 they were prohibited in New York
and Massachusetts and gradually in the other states, until they survived
only in Louisiana. In that state, the Louisiana State Lottery, a company
chartered in 1868, had a monopoly for which it paid $40,000 to the state
treasury. Its last charter was granted in 1879 for a period of
twenty-five years, and a renewal was refused in 1890. In 1890 Congress
forbade the use of the mails for promoting any lottery enterprise by a
statute so stringent that it was held to make it a penal offence to
employ them to further the sale of Austrian government bonds, issued
under a scheme for drawing some by lot for payment at a premium (see
_Horner_ v. _United States_, 147 United States Reports, 449). This had
the effect of compelling the Louisiana State Lottery to move its
quarters to Honduras, in which place it still exists, selling its bonds
to a considerable extent in the Southern States.
Since lotteries have become illegal there have been a great number of
judicial decisions defining a lottery. In general, where skill or
judgment is to be exercised there is no lottery, the essential element
of which is chance or lot. There are numerous statutes against
lotteries, the reason being given that they "tend to promote a
gambling spirit," and that it is the duty of the state to "protect the
morals and advance the welfare of the people." In New York the
Constitution of 1846 forbade lotteries, and by § 324 of the Penal Code
a lottery is declared "unlawful and a public nuisance." "Contriving"
and advertising lotteries is also penal. The following have been held
illegal lotteries: In New York, a concert, the tickets for which
entitled the holder to a prize to be drawn by lot; in Indiana,
offering a gold watch to the purchaser of goods who guesses the number
of beans in a bottle; in Texas, selling "prize candy" boxes; and
operating a nickel-in-the-slot machine--so also in Louisiana; in
Massachusetts, the "policy" or "envelope game," or a "raffle"; in
Kentucky (1905), prize coupon packages, the coupons having to spell a
certain word (_U.S._ v. _Jefferson_, 134 Fed. R. 299); in Kansas
(1907) it was held by the Supreme Court that the gift of a hat-pin to
each purchaser was not illegal as a "gift enterprise," there being no
chance or lot. In Oklahoma (1907) it was held that the making of
contracts for the payment of money, the certainty in value of return
being dependent on chance, was a lottery (_Fidelity Fund Co._ v.
_Vaughan_, 90 Pac. Rep. 34). The chief features of a lottery are
"procuring through lot or chance, by the investment of a sum of money
or something of value, some greater amount of money or thing of
greater value. When such are the chief features of any scheme whatever
it may be christened, or however it may be guarded or concealed by
cunningly devised conditions or screens, it is under the law a
lottery" (_U.S._ v. _Wallace_, 58, Fed. Rep. 942). In 1894 and 1897
Congress forbade the importation of lottery tickets or advertisements
into the United States. In 1899, setting up or promoting lotteries in
Alaska was prohibited by Congress, and in 1900 it forbade any lottery
or sale of lottery tickets in Hawaii. In Porto Rico lotteries, raffles
and gift-enterprises are forbidden (Penal Code, 1902, § 291).
AUTHORITIES.--_Critique hist. pol. mor. econ. et comm. sur les
loteries anc. et mod. spirituelles et temporelles des états et des
églises_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1697), by the Bolognese historian
Gregorio Leti; J. Dessaulx, _De la passion du jeu depuis les anciens
temps jusqu'à nos jours_ (Paris, 1779); Endemann, _Beiträge zur
Geschichte der Lottrie und zur heutigen Lotterie_ (Bonn, 1882);
Larson, _Lottrie und Volkswirtschaft_ (Berlin, 1894); J. Ashton,
_History of English Lotteries_ (1893); _Annual Report of the American
Historical Association_ (1892); _Journal of the American Social
Science Association_, xxxvi. 17.