[1] A committee of the king's household, consisting of the lord
steward and his subordinates, charged with the duty of examining and
passing all the accounts of the household. The board had also power
to punish all offenders within the verge or jurisdiction of the
palace, which extended in every direction for 200 yds. from the gates
of the court yard. The name is derived from the green-covered table
at which the transactions of the board were originally conducted.
LORÉ, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446), baron of Ivry in Normandy and a French
commander, was born at the château of Loré (Orne, arrondissement of
Domfront). His first exploit in arms was at the battle of Agincourt in
1415; he followed the party of the Armagnacs and attached himself to the
dauphin Charles. He waged continual warfare against the English in Maine
until the advent of Joan of Arc. He fought at Jargeau, at
Meung-sur-Loire and at Patay (1429). Using his fortress of Saint Céneri
as a base of operations during the next few years, he seized upon
Matthew Gough near Vivoin in 1431, and made an incursion as far as the
walls of Caen, whence he brought away three thousand prisoners. Taken
captive himself in 1433, he was exchanged for Talbot. In 1435 he and
Dunois defeated the English near Meulan, and in 1436 he helped the
constable Arthur, earl of Richmond (de Richmond), to expel them from
Paris. He was appointed provost of Paris in February 1437, and in 1438
he was made "judge and general reformer of the malefactors of the
kingdom." He was present in 1439 at the taking of Meaux, in 1441 at that
of Pontoise, and he died on the 24th of May 1446.
See the _Nouvelle Biographie Générale_, vol. xxxi., and the _Revue
Historique du Maine_, vols. iii. and vi. (J. V.*)
LORE, properly instruction, teaching, knowledge. The O. Eng. _lár_, as
the Dutch _leer_ and Ger. _Lehre_, represents the Old Teutonic root,
meaning to impart or receive knowledge, seen in "to learn," "learning."
In the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June 1830 it was suggested that "lore"
should be used as a termination instead of the Greek derivative -_ology_
in the names of the various sciences. This was never done, but the word,
both as termination and alone, is frequently applied to the many
traditional beliefs, stories, &c., connected with the body of knowledge
concerning some special subject; e.g. legendary lore, bird-lore, &c. The
most familiar use is in "folk-lore" (q.v.).
LORELEI (from Old High Ger. _Lur_, connected with modern Ger. _lauern_,
"to lurk," "be on the watch for," and equivalent to elf, and _lai_, "a
rock"). The Lorelei is a rock in the Rhine near St Goar, which gives a
remarkable echo, which may partly account for the legend. The tale
appears in many forms, but is best known through Heinrich Heine's poem,
beginning _Ich weiss nicht was soll es bedeuten_. In the commonest form
of the story the Lorelei is a maiden who threw herself into the Rhine in
despair over a faithless lover, and became a siren whose voice lured
fishermen to destruction. The 13th-century minnesinger, known as Der
Marner, says that the Nibelungen treasure was hidden beneath the rock.
The tale is obviously closely connected with the myth of Holda, queen of
the elves. On the Main she sits combing her locks on the Hullenstein,
and the man who sees her loses sight or reason, while he who listens is
condemned to wander with her for ever. The legend, which Clemens
Brentano claimed as his own invention when he wrote his poem "Zu
Bacharach am Rheine" in his novel of _Godwi_ (1802), bears all the marks
of popular mythology. In the 19th century it formed material for a great
number of songs, dramatic sketches, operas and even tragedies, which
are enumerated by Dr Hermann Seeliger in his _Loreleysage in Dichtung
und Musik_ (Leipzig-Reudnitz, 1898). The favourite poem with composers
was Heine's, set to music by some twenty-five musicians, the settings by
Friedrich Silcher (from an old folk-song) and by Liszt being the most
famous.
LORETO, an episcopal see and pilgrimage resort of the Marches, Italy, in
the province of Ancona, 15 m. by rail S.S.E. of that town. Pop. (1901)
1178 (town), 8033 (commune). It lies upon the right bank of the Musone,
at some distance from the railway station, on a hill-side commanding
splendid views from the Apennines to the Adriatic, 341 ft. above
sea-level. The town itself consists of little more than one long narrow
street, lined with shops for the sale of rosaries, medals, crucifixes
and similar objects, the manufacture of which is the sole industry of
the place. The number of pilgrims is said to amount to 50,000 annually,
the chief festival being held on the 8th of September, the Nativity of
the Virgin. The principal buildings, occupying the four sides of the
piazza, are the college of the Jesuits, the Palazzo Apostolico, now
Reale (designed by Bramante), which contains a picture gallery with
works of Lorenzo Lotto, Vouet and Caracci and a collection of majolica,
and the cathedral church of the Holy House (Chiesa della Casa Santa), a
Late Gothic structure continued by Giuliano da Maiano, Giuliano da
Sangallo and Bramante. The handsome façade of the church was erected
under Sixtus V., who fortified Loreto and gave it the privileges of a
town (1586); his colossal statue stands in the middle of the flight of
steps in front. Over the principal doorway is a life-size bronze statue
of the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo; the three superb bronze
doors executed at the latter end of the 16th century and under Paul V.
(1605-1621) are also by Lombardo, his sons and his pupils, among them
Tiburzio Vergelli, who also made the fine bronze font in the interior.
The doors and hanging lamps of the Santa Casa are by the same artists.
The richly decorated campanile, by Vanvitelli, is of great height; the
principal bell, presented by Leo X. in 1516, weighs 11 tons. The
interior of the church has mosaics by Domenichino and Guido Reni and
other works of art. In the sacristies on each side of the right transept
are frescoes, on the right by Melozzo da Forli, on the left by Luca
Signorelli. In both are fine intarsias.
But the chief object of interest is the Holy House itself. It is a plain
stone building, 28 ft. by 12½ and 13½ ft. in height; it has a door on
the north side and a window on the west; and a niche contains a small
black image of the Virgin and Child, in Lebanon cedar, and richly
adorned with jewels. St Luke is alleged to have been the sculptor; its
workmanship suggests the latter half of the 15th century. Around the
Santa Casa is a lofty marble screen, designed by Bramante, and executed
under Popes Leo X., Clement VII. and Paul III., by Andrea Sansovino,
Girolamo Lombardo, Bandinelli, Guglielmo della Porta and others. The
four sides represent the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Arrival of the
Santa Casa at Loreto and the Nativity of the Virgin respectively. The
treasury contains a large variety of rich and curious votive offerings.
The architectural design is finer than the details of the sculpture. The
choir apse is decorated with modern German frescoes, which are somewhat
out of place.
The legend of the Holy House seems to have sprung up (how is not exactly
known) at the close of the crusading period.
It is briefly referred to in the _Italia Illustrata_ of Flavius Blondus,
secretary to Popes Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., Calixtus III. and Pius II.
(_ob._ 1464); it is to be read in all its fullness in the "Redemptoris
mundi Matris Ecclesiae Lauretana historia," by a certain Teremannus,
contained in the _Opera Omnia_ (1576) of Baptista Mantuanus. According
to this narrative the house at Nazareth in which Mary had been born and
brought up, had received the annunciation, and had lived during the
childhood of Jesus and after His ascension, was converted into a church
by the apostles. In 336 the empress Helena made a pilgrimage to Nazareth
and caused a basilica to be erected over it, in which worship continued
until the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Threatened with destruction
by the Turks, it was carried by angels through the air and deposited
(1291) in the first instance on a hill at Tersatto in Dalmatia, where
an appearance of the Virgin and numerous miraculous cures attested its
sanctity, which was confirmed by investigations made at Nazareth by
messengers from the governor of Dalmatia. In 1294 the angels carried it
across the Adriatic to a wood near Recanati; from this wood (lauretum),
or from the name of its proprietrix (Laureta), the chapel derived the
name which it still retains ("sacellum gloriosae Virginis in Laureto").
From this spot it was afterwards (1295) removed to the present hill, one
other slight adjustment being required to fix it in its actual site.
Bulls in favour of the shrine at Loreto were issued by Pope Sixtus IV.
in 1491 and by Julius II. in 1507, the last alluding to the translation
of the house with some caution ("ut pie creditur et fama est"). The
recognition of the sanctuary by subsequent pontiffs has already been
alluded to. In the end of the 17th century Innocent XII. appointed a
"missa cum officio proprio" for the feast of the Translation of the Holy
House, and the feast is still enjoined in the Spanish Breviary as a
"greater double" (December 10).
See also U. Chevalier, _Notre-Dame de Lorette_ (Paris, 1906).
LORETO, an inland department of Peru, lying E. of the Andean Cordilleras
and forming the N.E. part of the republic. Extensive territories,
nominally parts of this department, are in dispute between Peru and the
neighbouring republics of Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador (see PERU), and
the northern and eastern boundaries of the territory are therefore not
definitely determined. Loreto is bounded W. by the departments of
Amazonas and San Martin (the latter a new department, with an area of
30,744 sq. m., taken from Loreto, lying between the central and eastern
Cordilleras and extending from the 6th to the 9th parallels,
approximately), and S. by Huánuco and Cuzco. The area of the department,
including the territories claimed by Peru, is estimated at 257,798 sq.
m. The population is estimated (1906) at 120,000. The aboriginal
population is not numerous, as the thick, humid forests are inhabited
only where lakes and streams make open spaces for sunlight and
ventilation. With the exception of the eastern Andean slopes and a
little-known range of low mountains on the Brazilian frontier, called
the Andes Conomamas, the surface is that of a thickly wooded plain
sloping gently towards the Marañon, or Upper Amazon, which crosses it
from W. to E. There are open plains between the Ucayali and Huallaga,
known as the Pampas del Sacramento, but otherwise there are no extensive
breaks in the forest. The elevation of the plain near the base of the
Andes is 526 ft. on the Ucayali, 558 on the Huallaga, and 453 at
Barranca, on the Marañon, a few miles below the Pongo de Manseriche. The
eastward slope of the plain is about 250 ft. in the 620 m. (direct)
between this point and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier; this not
only shows the remarkably level character of the Amazon valley of which
it forms a part, but also the sluggish character of its drainage. From
the S. the principal rivers traversing Loreto are the Ucayali and
Huallaga, the former entering from Cuzco across its southern boundary
and skirting the eastern base of the Andes for about four degrees of
latitude before it turns away to the N.E. to join the Marañon, and the
latter breaking through the Eastern Cordillera between the 6th and 7th
parallels and entering the Marañon 143 m. below Yurimaguas, where
navigation begins. The lower Ucayali, which has a very tortuous course,
is said to have 868 m. of navigable channel at high water and 620 m. at
low water. North of the Marañon several large rivers pass through
Peruvian territory between the Santiago and Napo (see Ecuador), nearly
all having navigable channels. On the level plains are a number of
lakes, some are formed by the annual floods and are temporary in
character. Among the permanent lakes are the Gran Cocama, of the Pampas
del Sacramento, the Caballococha--a widening of the Amazon itself about
60 m. N.W. of Tabatinga--and Rimachuma, on the north side of the
Marañon, near the lower Pastaza.
The natural resources of this extensive region are incalculable, but
their development has been well nigh impossible through lack of
transport facilities. They include the characteristic woods of the
Amazon valley, rubber, nuts, cinchona or Peruvian bark, medicinal
products, fish, fruits and fibres. The cultivated products include
cocoa, coffee, tobacco and fruits. Straw hats and hammocks are
manufactured to some extent. The natural outlet of this region is the
Amazon river, but this involves 2500 m. of river navigation from Iquitos
before the ocean is reached. Communication with the Pacific coast cities
and ports of Peru implies the crossing of three high, snow-covered
ranges of the Andes by extremely difficult trails and passes. A rough
mountain road has been constructed from Oroya to Puerto Bermudez, at the
head of navigation on the Pachitea, and is maintained by the government
pending the construction of a railway, but the distance is 210 m. and it
takes nine days for a mule train to make the journey. At Puerto Bermudez
a river steamer connects with Iquitos, making the distance of 930 m. in
seven days. From Lima to Iquitos by this route, therefore, involves 17
days travel over a distance of 1268 m. The most feasible route from the
department to the Pacific coast is that which connects Puerto Limon, on
the Marañon, with the Pacific port of Payta, a distance of 410 m., it
being possible to cross the Andes on this route at the low elevation of
6600 ft. The climate of Loreto is hot and humid, except on the higher
slopes of the Andes. The year is divided into a wet and a dry season,
the first from May to October, and the average annual rainfall is
estimated at 70 in. though it varies widely between distant points. The
capital and only town of importance in the department is Iquitos.
LORIENT, a maritime town of western France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Morbihan, on the right bank of the Scorff at its
confluence with the Blavet, 34 m. W. by N. of Vannes by rail. Pop.
(1906) 40,848. The town is modern and regularly built. Its chief objects
of interest are the church of St Louis (1709) and a statue by A. Mercié
of Victor Massé, the composer, born at Lorient in 1822. It is one of the
five maritime prefectures in France and the first port for naval
construction in the country. The naval port to the east of the town is
formed by the channel of the Scorff, on the right bank of which the
chief naval establishments are situated. These include magazines,
foundries, forges, fitting-shops, rope-works and other workshops on the
most extensive scale, as well as a graving dock, a covered slip and
other slips. A floating bridge connects the right bank with the
peninsula of Caudan formed by the union of the Scorff and Blavet. Here
are the shipbuilding yards covering some 38 acres, and comprising nine
slips for large vessels and two others for smaller vessels, besides
forges and workshops for iron shipbuilding. The commercial port to the
south of the town consists of an outer tidal port protected by a jetty
and of an inner dock, both lined by fine quays planted with trees. It
separates the older part of the town, which is hemmed in by
fortifications from a newer quarter. In 1905, 121 vessels of 28,785 tons
entered with cargo and 145 vessels of 38,207 tons cleared. The chief
export is pit-timber, the chief import is coal. Fishing is actively
carried on. Lorient is the seat of a sub-prefect, of commercial and
maritime tribunals and of a tribunal of first instance, and has a
chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycée, schools of
navigation, and naval artillery. Private industry is also engaged in
iron-working and engine making. The trade in fresh fish, sardines,
oysters (which are reared near Lorient) and tinned vegetables is
important and the manufacture of basket-work, tin-boxes and
passementerie, arid the preparation of preserved sardines and vegetables
are carried on. The roadstead, formed by the estuary of the Blavet, is
accessible to vessels of the largest size; the entrance, 3 or 4 m. south
from Lorient, which is defended by numerous forts, is marked on the east
by the peninsula of Gâvres (an artillery practising ground) and the
fortified town of Port Louis; on the west are the fort of Loqueltas and,
higher up, the battery of Kernevel. In the middle of the channel is the
granite rock of St Michel, occupied by a powder magazine. Opposite it,
on the right bank of the Blavet, is the mouth of the river Ter, with
fish and oyster breeding establishments from which 10 millions of
oysters are annually obtained. The roadstead is provided with six
lighthouses. Above Lorient on the Scorff, here spanned by a suspension
bridge, is Kérentrech, a pretty village surrounded by numerous country
houses.
Lorient took the place of Port Louis as the port of the Blavet. The
latter stands on the site of an ancient hamlet which was fortified
during the wars of the League and handed over by Philip Emmanuel, duke
of Morcoeur, to the Spaniards. After the treaty of Vervins it was
restored to France, and it received its name of Port Louis under
Richelieu. Some Breton merchants trading with the Indies had established
themselves first at Port Louis, but in 1628 they built their warehouses
on the other bank. The Compagnie des Indes Orientales, created in 1664,
took possession of these, giving them the name of l'Orient. In 1745 the
Compagnie des Indes, then at the acme of its prosperity, owned
thirty-five ships of the largest class and many others of considerable
size. Its decadence dates from the English conquest of India, and in
1770 its property was ceded to the state. In 1782 the town was purchased
by Louis XVI. from its owners, the Rohan-Guéméné family. In 1746 the
English under Admiral Richard Lestock made an unsuccessful attack on
Lorient.
LORINER, or LORIMER (from O. Fr. _loremier_ or _lorenier_, a maker of
_lorains_, bridles, from Lat. _lorum_, thong, bridle; the proper form is
with the _n_; a similar change is found in Latimer for Latiner, the
title of an old official of the royal household, the king's
interpreter), one who makes bits and spurs and the metal mountings for
saddles and bridles; the term is also applied to a worker in wrought
iron and to a maker of small iron ware. The word is now rarely used
except as the name of one of the London livery companies (see LIVERY
COMPANY).
LORIS, a name of uncertain origin applied to the Indo-Malay
representatives of the lemurs, which, together with the African pottos,
constitute the section _Nycticebinae_ of the family _Nycticebidae_ (see
PRIMATES). From their extremely slow movements and lethargic habits in
the daytime these weird little creatures are commonly called sloths by
Anglo-Indians. Their soft fur, huge staring eyes, rudimentary tails and
imperfectly developed index-fingers render lorises easy of recognition.
The smallest is the slender loris (_Loris gracilis_) of the forests of
Madras and Ceylon, a creature smaller than a squirrel. It is of such
exceeding strangeness and beauty that it might have been thought it
would be protected by the natives; but they hold it alive before a fire
till its beautiful eyes burst in order to afford a supposed remedy for
ophthalmia! The mainland and Cingalese animals form distinct races. Both
in this species and the slow loris there is a pair of rudimentary
abdominal teats in addition to the normal pectoral pair. The slow loris
(_Nycticebus tardigradus_) is a heavier built and larger animal, ranging
from eastern Bengal to Cochin China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java and
Sumatra. There are several races, mostly grey in colour, but the
Sumatran _N. t. hilleri_ is reddish. (R. L.*)
LORIS-MELIKOV, MICHAEL TARIELOVICH, COUNT (1825?-1888), Russian
statesman, son of an Armenian merchant, was born at Tiflis in 1825 or
1826, and educated in St Petersburg, first in the Lazarev School of
Oriental Languages, and afterwards in the Guards' Cadet Institute. He
joined a hussar regiment, and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent
to the Caucasus, where he remained for more than twenty years, and made
for himself during troublous times the reputation of a distinguished
cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity,
though a keen soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warlike and
turbulent population committed to his charge for the transition from
military to normal civil administration, and in this work his favourite
instrument was the schoolmaster. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he
commanded a separate corps d'armée on the Turkish frontier in Asia
Minor. After taking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Mukhtar
Pasha at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at Aladja Dagh,
took Kars by storm, and laid siege to Erzerum. For these services he
received the title of Count. In the following year he was appointed
temporary governor-general of the region of the Lower Volga, to combat
an outbreak of the plague. The measures he adopted proved so effectual
that he was transferred to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the
Nihilists and Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had
succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov. His success in this
struggle led to his being appointed chief of the Supreme Executive
Commission which had been created in St Petersburg to deal with the
revolutionary agitation in general. Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed
a decided preference for the employment of ordinary legal methods rather
than exceptional extra-legal measures, and an attempt on his own life
soon after he assumed office did not shake his convictions. In his
opinion the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by
removing the causes of popular discontent, and for this purpose he
recommended to the emperor a large scheme of administrative and economic
reforms. Alexander II., who was beginning to lose faith in the efficacy
of the simple method of police repression hitherto employed, lent a
willing ear to the suggestion; and when the Supreme Commission was
dissolved in August 1880, he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of
the Interior with exceptional powers. The proposed scheme of reforms was
at once taken in hand, but it was never carried out. On the very day in
March 1881 that the emperor signed a ukaz creating several commissions,
composed of officials and eminent private individuals, who should
prepare reforms in various branches of the administration, he was
assassinated by Nihilist conspirators; and his successor, Alexander
III., at once adopted a strongly reactionary policy. Count Loris-Melikov
immediately resigned, and lived in retirement until his death, which
took place at Nice on the 22nd of December 1888. (D. M. W.)
LORIUM, an ancient village of Etruria, Italy, on the Via Aurelia, 12 m.
W. of Rome. Antoninus Pius, who was educated here, afterwards built a
palace, in which he died. It was also a favourite haunt of Marcus
Aurelius. Remains of ancient buildings exist in the neighbourhood of the
road on each side (near the modern Castel di Guido) and remains of
tombs, inscriptions, &c., were excavated in 1823-1824. Two or three
miles farther west was probably the post-station of Bebiana, where
inscriptions show that some sailors of the fleet were stationed--no
doubt a detachment of those at Centumcellae, which was reached by this
road.
LÖRRACH, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, in the valley of the Wiese,
6 m. by rail N.E. of Basel. Pop. (1905) 10,794. It is the seat of
considerable industry, its manufactures including calico, shawls, cloth,
silk, chocolate, cotton, ribbons, hardware and furniture, and has a
trade in wine, fruit and timber. There is a fine view from the
neighbouring Schützenhaus, 1085 ft. high. In the neighbourhood also is
the castle of Rötteln, formerly the residence of the counts of Hachberg
and of the margraves of Baden; this was destroyed by the French in 1678,
but was rebuilt in 1867. Lörrach received market rights in 1403, but did
not obtain municipal privileges until 1682.
See Höchstetter, _Die Stadt Lörrach_ (Lörrach, 1882).
LORRAINE, one of the former provinces of France. The name has designated
different districts in different periods. Lotharingia, or Lothringen,
i.e. _regnum Lotharii_, is derived from the _Lotharingi_ or
_Lotharienses_ (O.G. _Lotheringen_, Fr. _Loherains, Lorrains_), a term
applied originally to the Frankish subjects of Lothair, but restricted
at the end of the 9th century to those who dwelt north of the southern
Vosges.
_Lorraine in Medieval Times._--The original kingdom of Lorraine was the
northern part of the territories allotted by the treaty of Verdun
(August 843) to the emperor Lothair I., and in 855 formed the
inheritance of his second son, King Lothair. This kingdom of Lorraine
was situated between the realms of the East and the West Franks, and
originally extended along the North Sea between the mouths of the Rhine
and the Ems, including the whole or part of Frisia and the cities on the
right bank of the Rhine. From Bonn the frontier followed the Rhine as
far as its confluence with the Aar, which then became the boundary,
receding from the left bank in the neighbourhood of Bingen so as to
leave the cities of Worms and Spires to Germany, and embracing the duchy
of Alsace. After crossing the Jura, the frontier joined the Saône a
little south of its confluence with the Doubs, and followed the Saône
for some distance, and finally the valleys of the Meuse and the Scheldt.
Thus the kingdom roughly comprised the region watered by the Moselle
and the Meuse, together with the dioceses of Cologne, Trier, Metz,
Toul, Verdun, Liége and Cambrai, Basel, Strassburg and Besançon, and
corresponded to what is now Holland and Belgium, parts of Rhenish
Prussia, of Switzerland, and of the old province of Franche-Comté, and
to the district known later as Upper Lorraine, or simply Lorraine.
Though apparently of an absolutely artificial character, this kingdom
corresponded essentially to the ancient Francia, the cradle of the
Carolingian house, and long retained a certain unity. It was to the
inhabitants of this region that the name of _Lotharienses_ or
_Lotharingi_ was primitively applied, although the word _Lotharingia_,
as the designation of the country, only appears in the middle of the
10th century.
The reign of King Lothair (q.v.), which was continually disturbed by
quarrels with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, and by
the difficulties caused by the divorce of his queen Teutberga, whom he
had forsaken for a concubine called Waldrada, ended on the 8th of August
869. His inheritance was disputed by his uncles, and was divided by the
treaty of Meersen (8th of August 870), by which Charles the Bald
received part of the province of Besançon and some land between the
Moselle and the Meuse. Then for a time the emperor Charles the Fat
united under his authority the whole of the kingdom of Lorraine with the
rest of the Carolingian empire. After the deposition of Charles in 888
Rudolph, king of Burgundy, got himself recognized in Lorraine. He was
unable to maintain himself there, and succeeded in detaching
definitively no more than the province of Besançon. Lorraine remained in
the power of the emperor Arnulf, who in 895 constituted it a distinct
kingdom in favour of his son Zwentibold. Zwentibold quickly became
embroiled with the nobles and the bishops, and especially with Bishop
Radbod of Trier. Among the lay lords the most important was Regnier
(incorrectly called Long-neck), count of Hesbaye and Hainault, who is
styled duke by the Lotharingian chronicler Reginon, though he does not
appear ever to have borne the title. In 898 Zwentibold stripped Regnier
of his fiefs, whereupon the latter appealed to the king of France,
Charles the Simple, whose intervention, however, had no enduring effect.
After the death of Arnulf in 899, the Lotharingians appealed to his
successor, Louis the Child, to replace Zwentibold, who, on the 13th of
August 900, was killed in battle. In spite of the dissensions which
immediately arose between him and the Lotharingian lords, Louis retained
the kingdom till his death. The Lotharingians, however, refused to
recognize the new German king, Conrad I., and testified their attachment
to the Carolingian house by electing as sovereign the king of the West
Franks, Charles the Simple. Charles was at first supported by Giselbert,
son and successor of Regnier, but was abandoned by his ally, who in 919
appealed to the German king, Henry I. The struggle ended in the treaty
of Bonn (921), by which apparently the rights of Charles over Lorraine
were recognized. The revolt of the Frankish lords in 922 and the
captivity of Charles finally settled the question. After an unsuccessful
attack by Rudolph or Raoul, king of France, Henry became master of
Lorraine in 925, thanks to the support of Giselbert, whom he rewarded
with the hand of his daughter Gerberga and the title of duke of
Lorraine. Giselbert at first remained faithful to Henry's son, Otto the
Great, but in 938 he appears to have joined the revolt directed against
Otto by Eberhard, duke of Franconia. In 939, in concert with Eberhard
and Otto's brother, Henry of Saxony, he declared open war against Otto
and appealed to Louis d'Outremer, who penetrated into Lorraine and
Alsace, but was soon called back to France by the revolt of the count of
Vermandois. In the same year Giselbert and Eberhard were defeated and
killed near Andernach, and Otto at once made himself recognized in the
whole of Lorraine, securing it by a treaty with Louis d'Outremer, who
married Giselbert's widow Gerberga, and entrusting the government of it
to Count Otto, son of Ricuin, until Giselbert's son Henry should have
attained his majority.
After the deaths of the young Henry and Count Otto in 944, Otto the
Great gave Lorraine to Conrad the Red, duke of Franconia, the husband
of his daughter Liutgard, a choice which was not completely satisfactory
to the Lotharingians. In 953 Conrad, in concert with Liudulf, the son of
the German king, revolted against Otto, but was abandoned by his
supporters. Otto stripped Conrad of his duchy, and in 954 gave the
government of it to his own brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. Bruno
had to contend against the efforts of the last Carolingians of France to
make good their claims on Lorraine, as well as against the spirit of
independence exhibited by the Lotharingian nobles; and his attempts to
raze certain castles built by brigand lords and to compel them to
respect their oath of fidelity resulted in serious sedition. To obviate
these difficulties Bruno divided the ducal authority, assigning Lower
Lorraine to a certain Duke Godfrey, who was styled _dux Ripuariorum_,
and Upper Lorraine to Frederick (d. 959), count of Bar, a member of the
house of Ardenne and son-in-law of Hugh the Great, with the title of
_dux Mosellanorum_; and it is probable that the partition of the ancient
kingdom of Lorraine into two new duchies was confirmed by Otto after
Bruno's death in 965. In 977 the emperor Otto II. gave the government of
Lower Lorraine to Charles I., a younger son of Louis d'Outremer, on
condition that that prince should acknowledge himself his vassal and
should oppose any attempt of his brother Lothair on Lorraine. The
consequent expedition of the king of France in 978 against
Aix-la-Chapelle had no enduring result, and Charles retained his duchy
till his death about 992. He left two sons, Otto, who succeeded him and
died without issue, and Henry, who is sometimes regarded as the ancestor
of the landgraves of Thuringia. The duchy of Lower Lorraine, sometimes
called _Lothier_ (_Lotharium_), was then given to Godfrey (d. 1023), son
of Count Godfrey of Verdun, and for some time the history of Lorraine is
the history of the attempts made by the dukes of Lothier to seize Upper
Lorraine. Gothelon (d. 1043), son of Duke Godfrey, obtained Lorraine at
the death of Frederick II., duke of Upper Lorraine, in 1027, and
victoriously repulsed the incursions of Odo (Eudes) of Blois, count of
Champagne, who was defeated and killed in a battle near Bar (1037). At
Gothelon's death in 1043, his son Godfrey the Bearded received from the
emperor only Lower Lorraine, his brother Gothelon II. obtaining Upper
Lorraine. Godfrey attempted to seize the upper duchy, but was defeated
and imprisoned in 1045. On the death of Gothelon in 1046, Godfrey
endeavoured to take Upper Lorraine from Albert of Alsace, to whom it had
been granted by the emperor Henry III. The attempt, however, also
failed; and Godfrey was for some time deprived of his own duchy of Lower
Lorraine in favour of Frederick of Luxemburg. Godfrey took part in the
struggles of Pope Leo IX. against the Normans in Italy, and in 1053
married Beatrice, daughter of Duke Frederick of Upper Lorraine and widow
of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany. On the death of Frederick of Luxemburg
in 1065 the emperor Henry IV. restored the duchy of Lower Lorraine to
Godfrey, who retained it till his death in 1069, when he was succeeded
by his son Godfrey the Hunchback (d. 1076), after whose death Henry IV.
gave the duchy to Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the first crusade,
son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Ida, sister of Godfrey the
Hunchback. On the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100 Lower Lorraine
was given to Henry, count of Limburg. The new duke supported the emperor
Henry IV. in his struggles with his sons, and in consequence was deposed
by the emperor Henry V., who gave the duchy in 1106 to Godfrey, count of
Louvain, a descendant of the Lotharingian dukes of the beginning of the
10th century. This Godfrey was the first hereditary duke of Brabant, as
the dukes of Lower Lorraine came to be called.
_Upper Lorraine._--The duchy of Upper Lorraine, or Lorraine _Mosellana_,
to which the name of Lorraine was restricted from the 11th century,
consisted of a tract of undulating country watered by the upper course
of the Meuse and Moselle, and bounded N. by the Ardennes, S. by the
table-land of Langres, E. by the Vosges and W. by Champagne. Its
principal fiefs were the countship of Bar which Otto the Great gave in
951 to Count Frederick of Ardenne, and which passed in 1093 to the lords
of Montbéliard; the countship of Chiny, formed at the end of the 10th
century, of which, since the 13th, Montmédy was the capital; the
lordship of Commercy, whose rulers bore the special title of
_damoiseau_, and which passed in the 13th century to the house of
Saarebrücken; and, finally the three important ecclesiastical lordships
of the bishops of Metz, Toul and Verdun. Theodoric, or Thierri (d.
1026), son of Frederick, count of Bar and first duke of Upper Lorraine,
was involved in a war with the emperor Henry II., a war principally
remarkable for the siege of Metz (1007). After having been the object of
numerous attempts on the part of the dukes of Lower Lorraine, Upper
Lorraine was given by the emperor Henry III. to Albert of Alsace, and
passed in 1048 to Albert's brother Gerard, who died by poison in 1069,
and who was the ancestor of the hereditary house of Lorraine. Until the
15th century the representatives of the hereditary house were Theodoric
II., called the Valiant (1069-1115), Simon (1115-1139), Matthew
(1139-1176), Simon II. (1176-1205), Ferri I. (1205-1206), Ferri II.
(1206-1213), Theobald (Thibaut) I. (1213-1220), Matthew II. (1220-1251),
Ferri III. (1251-1304), Theobald II. (1304-1312), Ferri IV., called the
Struggler (1312-1328), Rudolph, or Raoul (1328-1346), John (1346-1391)
and Charles II. or I., called the Bold (1391-1431). The 12th century and
the first part of the 13th were occupied with wars against the counts of
Bar and Champagne. Theobald I. intervened in Champagne to support Erard
of Brienne against the young count Theobald IV. The regent of Champagne,
Blanche of Navarre, succeeded in forming against the duke of Lorraine a
coalition consisting of the count of Bar and the emperor Frederick II.,
who had become embroiled with Theobald over the question of Rosheim in
Alsace. Attacked by the emperor, the duke of Lorraine was forced at the
treaty of Amance (1218) to acknowledge himself the vassal of the count
of Champagne, and to support the count in his struggles against his
ancient ally the count of Bar. The long government of Ferri III. was
mainly occupied with wars against the feudal lords and the bishop of
Metz, which resulted in giving an impulse to the municipal movement
through Ferri's attempt to use the movement as a weapon against the
nobles. The majority of the municipal charters of Lorraine were derived
from the charter of Beaumont in Argonne, which was at first extended to
the Barrois and was granted by Ferri, in spite of the hostility of his
barons, to La Neuveville in 1257, to Frouard in 1263 and to Lunéville in
1265. In the church lands the bishops of Toul and Metz granted liberties
from the end of the 12th century to the communes in their lordship, but
not the Beaumont charter, which, however, obtained in the diocese of
Verdun in the 14th and 15th centuries.
By the will of Duke Charles the Bold, Lorraine was to pass to his
daughter Isabella, who married René of Anjou, duke of Bar, in 1420. But
Anthony of Vaudemont, Charles's nephew and heir male, disputed this
succession with René, who obtained from the king of France an army
commanded by Arnault Guilhem de Barbazan. René, however, was defeated
and taken prisoner at the battle of Bulgnéville, where Barbazan was
killed (2nd of July 1431). The negotiations between René's wife and
Anthony had no result, in spite of the intervention of the council of
Basel and the emperor Sigismund, and it was not until 1436 that René
obtained his liberty by paying a ransom of 200,000 crowns, and was
enabled to dispute with Alfonso of Aragon the kingdom of Naples, which
he had inherited in the previous year. In 1444 Charles VII. of France
and the dauphin Louis went to Lorraine, accompanied by envoys from Henry
VI. of England, and procured a treaty (confirmed at Chalons in 1445), by
which Yolande, René's eldest daughter, married Anthony's son, Ferri of
Vaudemont, and René's second daughter Margaret became the wife of Henry
VI. of England. After his return to Lorraine in 1442, René was seldom in
the duchy. Like his successor John, duke of Calabria, who died in 1470,
he was continually occupied with expeditions in Italy or in Spain.
John's son and successor, Nicholas (d. 1473), who supported the duke of
Burgundy, Charles the Bold, against the king of France, died without
children, and his heir was René, son of Frederick of Vaudemont. The duke
of Burgundy, however, disputed this inheritance, and carried off the
young René and his mother, but on the intervention of Louis XI. had to
set them at liberty. René helped the Swiss during their wars with
Charles the Bold, who invaded Lorraine and was killed under the walls of
Nancy (1477). René's last years were mainly spent in expeditions in
Provence and Italy. He died in 1508, leaving by his second wife three
sons--Anthony, called the Good, who succeeded him; Claude, count (and
afterwards duke) of Guise, the ancestor of the house of Guise; and John
(d. 1550), known as the cardinal of Lorraine. Anthony, who was declared
of age at his father's death by the estates of Lorraine, although his
mother had tried to seize the power as regent, had been brought up from
the age of twelve at the French court, where he became the friend of
Louis XII., whom he accompanied on his Italian expeditions. In 1525 he
had to defend Lorraine against the revolted Alsatian peasants known as
_rustauds_ (boors), whom he defeated at Lupstein and Scherweiler; and he
succeeded in maintaining a neutral position in the struggle between
Francis I. of France and the emperor Charles V. He died on the 14th of
June 1544, and was succeeded by his son Francis I., who died of apoplexy
(August 1545) at the very moment when he was negotiating peace between
the king of France and the emperor.
_Lorraine in Modern Times._--Francis's son Charles III. or II., called
the Great, succeeded under the tutelage of his mother and Nicholas of
Vaudemont, bishop of Metz. Henry II. of France took this opportunity to
invade Lorraine, and in 1552 seized the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul
and Verdun. In the same year the emperor laid siege to Metz, but was
forced to retreat with heavy loss before the energetic resistance of
Duke Francis of Guise. On leaving Lorraine, Henry II. took Charles to
France, brought him up at the court and married him to his daughter
Claude. After the accession of Francis II., the young duke returned to
Lorraine, and, while his cousins the Guises endeavoured to make good the
claims of the house of Lorraine to the crown of France by virtue of its
descent from the Carolingians through Charles, the son of Louis
d'Outremer, he devoted himself mainly to improving the administration of
his duchy. He reconstituted his domain by revoking the alienations
irregularly granted by his predecessors, instructed his _chambre des
comptes_ to institute inquiries on this subject, and endeavoured to
ameliorate the condition of industry and commerce by reorganizing the
working of the mines and saltworks, unifying weights and measures and
promulgating edicts against vagabonds. His duchy suffered considerably
from the passage of German bands on their way to help the Protestants in
France, and also from disturbances caused by the progress of Calvinism,
especially in the neighbourhood of the three bishoprics. To combat
Calvinism Charles had recourse to the Jesuits, whom he established at
Pont-à Mousson, and to whom he gave over the university he had founded
in that town in 1572. To this foundation he soon added chairs of
medicine and law, the first professor of civil law being the _maître des
requêtes_, the Scotsman William Barclay, and the next Gregory of
Toulouse, a pupil of the jurist Cujas. Charles died on the 14th of May
1608, and was succeeded by his eldest son Henry II., called the Good,
who rid Lorraine of the German bands and died in 1624 without issue.
Henry was succeeded by his brother Francis II., who abdicated on the
26th of November 1624 in favour of his son Charles IV. or III. At the
beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. Charles embroiled himself with
France by harbouring French malcontents. Louis entered Lorraine, and by
the treaty of Vic (31st of December 1631) bound over Charles to desist
from supporting the enemies of France, and compelled him to cede the
fortress of Marsal. Charles's breach of this treaty led to a renewal of
hostilities, and the French troops occupied St Mihiel, Bar-le-duc,
Pont-à-Mousson and Nancy, which the duke was forced to cede for four
years (1633). In 1632, by the treaty of Liverdun, he had already had to
abandon the fortresses of Stenay and Clermont in Argonne. On the 19th of
January 1634 he abdicated in favour of his younger brother Francis
Nicholas, cardinal of Lorraine, and withdrew to Germany, the parlement
of Paris declaring him guilty of rebellion and confiscating his estates.
After vain attempts to regain his estates with the help of the emperor,
he decided to negotiate with France; and the treaty of St Germain (29th
of March 1641) re-established him in his duchy on condition that he
should cede Nancy, Stenay and other fortresses until the general peace.
This treaty he soon broke, joining the Imperialists in the Low Countries
and defeating the French at Tuttlingen (December 1643). He was restored,
however, to his estates in 1644, and took part in the wars of the
Fronde. He was arrested at Brussels in 1654, imprisoned at Toledo and
did not recover his liberty until the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. On
the 28th of February 1661 the duchies of Lorraine and Bar were restored
to him by the treaty of Vincennes, on condition that he should demolish
the fortifications of Nancy and cede Clermont, Saarburg and Pfalzburg.
In 1662 Hugues de Lionne negotiated with him the treaty of Montmartre,
by which Charles sold the succession to the duchy to Louis XIV. for a
life-rent; but the Lorrainers, perhaps with the secret assent of their
prince, refused to ratify the treaty. Charles, too, was accused of
intriguing with the Dutch, and was expelled from his estates, Marshal de
Créqui occupying Lorraine. He withdrew to Germany, and in 1673 took an
active part in the coalition of Spain, the Empire and Holland against
France. After an unsuccessful invasion of Franche-Comté he took his
revenge by defeating Créqui at Conzer Brücke (11th of August 1675) and
forcing him to capitulate at Trier. On the 18th of September 1675 died
this adventurous prince, who, as Voltaire said, passed his life in
losing his estates. His brother Francis, in favour of whom he had
abdicated, was a cardinal at the age of nineteen and subsequently bishop
of Toul, although he had never taken orders. He obtained a dispensation
to marry his cousin, Claude of Lorraine, and died in 1670. He had one
son, Charles, who in 1675 took the title of duke of Lorraine and was
recognized by all the powers except France. After an unsuccessful
attempt to seize Lorraine in 1676, Charles vainly solicited the throne
of Poland, took an active part in the wars in Hungary, and married
Eleanor of Austria, sister of the emperor Leopold I., in 1678. At the
treaty of Nijmwegen France proposed to restore his estates on condition
that he should abandon a part of them; but Charles refused, and passed
the rest of his life in Austria, where he took part in the wars against
the Turks, whom he defeated at Mohacz (1687). He died in 1690.
Leopold, Charles's son and successor, was restored to his estates by the
treaty of Ryswick (1697), but had to dismantle all the fortresses in
Lorraine and to disband his army with the exception of his guard. Under
his rule Lorraine flourished. While diminishing the taxes, he succeeded
in augmenting his revenues by wise economy. The population increased
enormously during his reign--that of Nancy, for instance, almost
trebling itself between the years 1699 and 1735. Leopold welcomed French
immigrants, and devoted himself to the development of commerce and
industry, particularly to the manufacture of stuffs and lace, glass and
paper. He was responsible, too, for the compilation of a body of law
which was known as the "Code Léopold." Some time after his death, which
occurred on the 27th of March 1729, his heir Francis III. was betrothed
to Maria Theresa of Austria, the daughter and heiress of the emperor
Charles VI. France, however, could not admit the possibility of a union
of Lorraine with the Empire; and in 1735, at the preliminaries of
Vienna, Louis XV. negotiated an arrangement by which Francis received
the duchy of Tuscany, which was vacant by the death of the last Medici,
in exchange for Lorraine, and Stanislaus Leszczynski, the dethroned king
of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV., obtained Lorraine, which after
his death would pass to his daughter--in other words, to France. These
arrangements were confirmed by the treaty of Vienna (18th of November
1738). In 1736, by a secret agreement, Stanislaus had abandoned the
financial administration of his estates to Louis XV. for a yearly
subsidy. The intendant, Chaumont de la Galaizière, was instructed to
apply the French system of taxation in Lorraine; and in spite of the
severity of the administration Lorraine preserved a grateful memory of
the good king Stanislaus, who held his brilliant little court at
Lunéville, and founded an academy and several libraries and hospitals.
At his death in February 1766 the two duchies of Lorraine and Bar became
definitively incorporated in the kingdom of France. The treaties of 1735
and 1736, however, guaranteed their legislation, the privileges enjoyed
by the three orders, and their common law and customs tariffs, which
they retained until the French Revolution. Lorraine and Barrois formed a
large government corresponding, together with the little government of
the three bishoprics, to the _intendance_ of Lorraine and the
_généralité_ of Metz. For legal purposes, Metz had been the seat of a
parlement since 1633, and the parlement of Nancy was created in 1776.
There was, too, a _chambre des comptes_ at Metz, and another at
Bar-le-duc. (For the later history see Alsace-Lorraine.)
See Dom. A. Calmet, _Histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Lorraine_
(2nd ed., Nancy, 1747-1757); A. Digot, _Histoire de Lorraine_
(1879-1880); E. Huhn, _Geschichte Lothringens_ (Berlin, 1877); R.
Parisot, _Le Royaume de Lorraine sous les Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1899);
Comte D'Haussonville, _Histoire de la réunion de la Lorraine à la
France_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1860); E. Bonvalot, _Histoire du droit et des
institutions de la Lorraine et des Trois-Évêchés_ (Paris, 1895); and
E. Duvernoy, _Les États Généraux des duchés de Lorraine et de Bar
jusqu'à la majorité de Charles III_. (Paris, 1904). (R. Po.)
LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT (1801-1851), German composer, was born at Berlin
on the 23rd of October 1801. Both his parents were actors, and when he
was nineteen the son began to play youthful lover at the theatres of
Düsseldorf and Aachen, sometimes also singing in small tenor or baritone
parts. His first opera _Ali Pascha von Jannina_ appeared in 1824, but
his fame as a musician rests chiefly upon the two operas _Der
Wildschütz_ (1842) and _Czar und Zimmermann_ (1837). The latter,
although now regarded as one of the masterpieces of German comic opera,
was received with little enthusiasm by the public of Leipzig. Subsequent
performance in Berlin, however, provoked such a tempest of applause that
the opera was soon placed on all the stages of Germany. It was
translated into English, French, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Bohemian,
Hungarian and Russian. _Der Wildschütz_ was based on a comedy of
Kotzebue, and was a satire on the unintelligent and exaggerated
admiration for the highest beauty in art expressed by the _bourgeois
gentilhomme_. Of his other operas it is only necessary to note _Der Pole
und sein Kind_, produced shortly after the Polish insurrection of 1831,
and _Undine_ (1845). Lortzing died at Berlin on the 21st of January
1851.
LORY, CHARLES (1823-1889), French geologist, was born at Nantes on the
30th of July 1823. He graduated _D. ès Sc._ in 1847; in 1852 he was
appointed to the chair of geology at the University of Grenoble, and in
1881 to that of the _École Normale Supérieure_ in Paris. He was
distinguished for his researches on the geology of the French Alps,
being engaged on the geological survey of the departments of Isère,
Drôme and the Hautes Alpes, of which he prepared the maps and
explanatory memoirs. He dealt with some of the disturbances in the Savoy
Alps, describing the fan-like structures, and confirming the views of J.
A. Favre with regard to the overthrows, reversals and duplication of the
strata. His contributions to geological literature include also
descriptions of the fossils and stratigraphical divisions of the Lower
Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks of the Jura. He died at Grenoble on the
3rd of May 1889.
LORY (a word of Malayan origin signifying parrot, in general use with
but slight variation of form in many European languages), the name of
certain birds of the order _Psittaci_, mostly from the Moluccas and New
Guinea, remarkable for their bright scarlet or crimson colouring, though
also, and perhaps subsequently, applied to some others in which the
plumage is chiefly green. The lories have been referred to a
considerable number of genera, of which _Lorius_ (the _Domicella_ of
some authors), _Eos_ and _Chalcopsittacus_ may be here particularized,
while under the name of "lorikeets" may be comprehended such genera as
_Trichoglossus_, _Charmosyna_, _Loriculus_ and _Coriphilus_. By most
systematists some of these forms have been placed far apart, even in
different families of _Psittaci_, but A. H. Garrod has shown (_Proc.
Zool. Society_, 1874, pp. 586-598, and 1876, p. 692) the many common
characters they possess, which thus goes some way to justify the
relationship implied by their popular designation. A full account of
these birds is given in the first part of Count T. Salvadori's
_Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche_ (Turin 1880), whilst a
later classification appeared in Salvadori's section of the British
Museum _Catalogue of Birds_, xx., 1891.
Though the name lory has often been used for the species of _Eclectus_,
and some other genera related thereto, modern writers would restrict its
application to the birds of the genera _Lorius_, _Eos_,
_Chalcopsittacus_ and their near allies, which are often placed in a
subfamily, _Loriinae_, belonging to the so-called family of
_Trichoglossidae_ or "brush-tongued" parrots. Garrod in his
investigations on the anatomy of _Psittaci_ was led not to attach much
importance to the structure indicated by the epithet "brush-tongued"
stating (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 597) that it "is only an
excessive development of the papillae which are always found on the
lingual surface." The birds of this group are very characteristic of the
New Guinea subregion,[1] in which occur, according to Count Salvadori,
ten species of _Lorius_, eight of _Eos_ and four of _Chalcopsittacus_;
but none seem here to require any further notice,[2] though among them,
and particularly in the genus _Eos_, are included some of the most
richly-coloured birds in the whole world; nor does it appear that more
need be said of the lorikeets.
The family is the subject of an excellent monograph by St George
Mivart (London, 1896). (A. N.)