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FRICTION, LUBRICATION AND THE LUBRICANTS IN HOROLOGY.
by
W. T. LEWIS,
Prest. Philadelphia Horological Society.
Illustrated with Half-Tones and Drawings by the Author.
Chicago:
Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co.
1896.
Copyrighted 1896, by W. T. Lewis.
Copyrighted 1896, by Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co.
CONTENTS.
Page.
INTRODUCTION, 7
CHAPTER I.
Lubricants in Horology--their Source and Methods of Refinement, 9
CHAPTER II.
Elementary Physics Relating to Friction and Lubrication, 21
CHAPTER III.
Friction--its Nature and Theory, 29
CHAPTER IV.
Application of the Laws of Friction and Lubrication in
Horology, 43
CHAPTER V.
The Properties and Relative Values of Lubricants in Horology, 61
INTRODUCTION.
Many books have been written on the various escapements, describing
their action, construction and proportion, and the laws governing the
same; learned writers have contributed much valuable information on
adjusting; excellent attachments for the various lathes have been
invented; and factories have expended fortunes to produce machinery of
wonderful construction to finish all the parts of a watch in the most
approved manner; but all this scientific research, all this painstaking
effort, all this care and labor, are rendered abortive by the maker or
repairer of a time piece if he does not thoroughly understand and apply
the physical laws which govern the science of lubrication.
Many a watch, or chronometer, most excellent in all other respects, has
come to an untimely end by an almost criminal neglect on the part of its
maker to provide against wear in its various parts by such construction
as would retain the oil at the places needed.
How often the repairer--clean he his work as well as he may--replace he
the broken or worn part to put the time piece in as good condition as
new--finds that its rate changes, that is loses time before long, and,
at the end of one year is badly out of repair, solely the result of
lack of knowledge, or negligence, in properly lubricating, or on account
of an oil having been used which was not suitable.
The object of this paper is to present in concise form the best of that
which is furnished by the literature of the profession, together with
that which has been written on friction and lubrication in general (so
far as it may be applicable), by those not connected with this
particular vocation; as well as the result of the practical experience
of the manufacturers of time pieces in this country most of whom have
furnished much useful data in answer to queries on the subject. The
manufacturers of oils have also assisted by contributing valuable
information.
The result of the author's experience, observation and experiments will
also be incorporated; and he will be grateful to any who may read this
work, who will call attention, through the trade papers, to any errors
of omission or commission that they may find therein.
CHAPTER I.
LUBRICANTS IN HOROLOGY--THEIR SOURCE AND METHOD OF REFINEMENT.
~1. As but little~ is to be found on the subject in the literature
accessible to most of the craft, a few remarks concerning the source and
general methods of refining the oils used in horology will, no doubt, be
of interest.
A mechanic who would work intelligently should possess a thorough
knowledge of the materials constantly used, and oil is used on every
horological mechanism. In order that this paper may be of maximum
benefit and interest, the author has spared no pains in procuring useful
data.
~2. Porpoise Jaw Oil and Black Fish Melon Oil~ (64) have become widely
known and justly celebrated in all parts of the world, as they were
found to be better adapted for the purpose of lubricating fine and
delicate machinery than any substance _previously_ used.
~3. Blackfish-Melon Oil~[1] "derives its name from the mass taken from the
top of the head of the animal reaching from the spout hole to the end of
the nose, and from the top of the head down to the upper jaw, from which
it is extracted. When taken off in one piece this mass represents a half
watermelon, weighing about twenty-five pounds ordinarily. When the
knife is put into the center of this melon the oil runs out more freely
than the water does from a very nice watermelon. Porpoise jaw oil and
blackfish melon oil are worth from $5 to $15 per gallon, according to
supply. They are not only used in horology, but by manufacturers of fine
firearms, philosophical apparatus, and in government lighthouses for the
clocks of revolving lights."
~4. The Blubber~, or fat, taken from the jaw of the porpoise or the head
of the blackfish was formerly rendered in iron pots over a fire, but the
modern method of extracting the oil by steam is said to be much
superior. The oil is washed with water by thorough agitation, after
which it is allowed to stand for several days, when it is drawn off and
the last traces of water removed by distillation. The oil is then
subjected to a very cold temperature and pressed through flannel cloths,
by which process the "oleine" is separated from the "stearine," the
resulting oil being more or less limpid as the former or latter
constituent predominates.
~5. John Wing~, of New Bedford, Mass., son-in-law of, and successor to,
the late Ezra Kelley, states in answer to inquiries, that their supply
of oil comes from the porpoise and blackfish taken during the summer
months on the coast of Africa, above the equator; and that they find
that this oil contains less glutinous matter than that obtained in and
about the St. Lawrence river, which fact he attributes to the difference
in the food of the fish, which in turn affects the oil.
~6. D. C. Stull~, of Provincetown, Mass., in answer to inquiries on the
subject, has kindly furnished the following information and series of
views:
[Illustration: _Fig. 1.--Buying a Porpoise from a Fisherman._]
"The supply of porpoise-jaw oil and blackfish-melon oil comes mostly
from Massachusetts Bay, the trap and gill net fishermen bringing them
into Provincetown, sometimes alive, as shown at Fig. 1. The capture of
fifteen hundred blackfish, Fig. 2, by the people of Provincetown, Truro
and Wellsfleet, was one of the most exciting scenes in the annals of
coast fishery. The fish were attracted to these shores by the large
quantity of squid and herring, on which they feed. It is estimated that
the catch was worth $25,000, some of the fish weighing two tons each.
The relative size of a blackfish and a man is shown at Fig. 3. Seafaring
men and whaling captains who catch the porpoise at sea, extract the oil
from the head and jaw only, and bring it to the factories to be
manufactured.
"Fig. 4 is a good view of a modern factory. The fat is cut from the head
and jaw, (Fig. 5,) washed in fresh water and put into covered tin cans,
then into iron retorts, (Fig. 6.) These retorts are then closed, screwed
up tightly, and live steam turned on from the boiler. The fat is cooked
by steam for five hours, with ten pounds pressure, at 230 deg. F. By this
means the crude oil is extracted from the fat."
~7. Sperm Oil~ is the best known of all the lubricants and is, for general
purposes, one of the most excellent.
The large cavity in the head of the sperm whale contains oil and solid
fat, from which the former is separated, without heating, by pressure
and crystalization. As it is not at present used to any great extent in
horology, a more lengthy description of the method of refining will be
omitted. (65.)
~8. Bone Oil~ is made from the fat obtained by boiling the bones of
animals. The finest quality is obtained from the leg bones of recently
killed, healthy, young cattle, and the best method of treatment is given
as follows[2]:
"Fill a bottle one third full of the oil to be purified. Then pour
clarified benzine in small portions upon the oil, close the bottle and
shake until the benzine has disappeared. By again adding benzine and
shaking, a complete solution of the fat is finally effected. That this
has actually taken place is recognized by the contents of the bottle
not separating after long standing. The bottle is then exposed to a low
temperature for several hours, a solid fat deposits on the bottom, and
the lower the temperature the greater is the deposit. Alongside the
bottle containing the oil, place another bottle with a funnel, the lower
end of which is closed by a cotton stopper; after thoroughly shaking the
bottle with oil, pour the contents into the funnel; the fluid portion
runs into the bottle, while the solid portion is retained in the funnel
by the cotton stopper. The clear solution of bone oil in benzine
collected in the bottle is then brought into a small retort which is
connected with a thoroughly cooled receiver. Place the retort in a tin
vessel filled with water and apply heat. The benzine readily distills
off, leaving the purified bone oil in the retort." (66.)
~9. Neat's-foot Oil~ is largely used in the arts, being one of the best of
lubricants. The best oil, viz.: that used for clocks etc., is extracted
by placing the thoroughly cleaned feet of cattle in a covered vessel
near the fire or in the sun. The oil thus obtained is clarified by
standing before bottling. (67.)
It was the practice of many olden time watchmakers to allow a large
bottle of neat's-foot oil to stand in a position exposed to the direct
rays of the sun in summer and to the extreme cold of the winter. Then
after two or three years, on a very cold winter day, to pour off such
oil as still remained fluid which was preserved for use.
~10. Olive Oil~ has been used as a lubricant since the early days of
horology, the older writers giving many methods of treating it. It is
obtained from the fruit of the _Olea Europea_, one of the jasmines,
which grows throughout Southern Europe and Northern Africa and other
tropical countries.
[Illustration: _Fig. 2.--A $25,000 Catch of Blackfish._]
For the preparation of the finest oils, known as "Virgin oil," only the
pulp of olives picked by hand is used. The pulp is packed in strong
linen and the oil is expressed by twisting the linen together. The pulp
sometimes contains as high as 70 per cent of oil.
Its last traces of adhering acid are removed by rigorous and repeated
shaking with one hundredth part of their weight of caustic soda lye.
After the mixture has stood for several days a large quantity of water
is added and the oil floating on the top is poured off.
Though the oil is now free from acid, it still contains coloring matter
and other substances which would prove injurious. It is then mixed with
very strong alcohol, ten parts of the former to two of the latter, and
thoroughly mixed by shaking. The bottle containing the mixture is then
placed in the sun and the mixture shaken several times a day. In the
course of two or three weeks the oil will have become white as water,
when it is withdrawn from the alcohol, on the surface of which it
floats. The purified oil is placed in small bottles, tightly corked, and
kept in a dark, cool place. (68.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 3.--Relative Size of a Blackfish and Man._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 4.--D. C. Stull's Watch Oil Factory, Provincetown,
Mass._]
~11. Mineral Oils~ have of late years taken immense strides in the popular
and merited estimation of consumers, for general lubricating purposes.
Their application in horology will be discussed in another part of this
volume. They are obtained from the residuum of petroleum distillation,
and vary so greatly in their properties that many of them are not
applicable to delicate mechanism; but as the lighter varieties seem to
fulfill all the necessary conditions, the writer will here consider
their source and method of treatment.
~12. Petroleums~ are obtained from many different localities, being fluid,
bituminous oils, all having the same general characteristics and origin.
They are all hydrocarbons, and contain little or no oxygen. As their
origin is thoroughly discussed in many works on that subject, and as
there is such a diversity of opinion regarding it, the reader is
referred to such works.[3]
~13. Paraffine~, both liquid and solid, is obtained by the distillation of
crude petroleum by means of superheated steam. When the heavier
hydrocarbons begin to come over the receiver is changed and the
butyraceous distillate is filtered through a long column of well dried
animal charcoal. The first portion of the percolate is colorless or
nearly so.
The distillate is made water white by some refiners by an acid
treatment, followed by a water-and-alkali washing. On exposing this mass
to a low temperature it becomes thick, somewhat like "cosmoline" but
white. (59.) It is then shoveled into cotton bags of very strong
material and subjected to powerful pressure by means of a hydraulic
press. This operation divides the paraffine into two parts: the solid
paraffine wax from which candles, etc., are made remaining in the bags,
while that which is expressed is paraffine oil. If the operation is
carefully performed the oil will be free from crystaline paraffine at a
very low temperature.
[Illustration: _Fig. 5.--Extracting Oil from the Head of a Porpoise._]
~14. Neutral Oils~[4] "are refined paraffine oils varying in specific
gravity from 0.8641 to 0.8333. For the purpose for which these oils are
employed it is especially necessary that they be thoroughly deodorized.
They are largely used for the purpose of mixing with animal and
vegetable oils. It is said that a mixture of 95 per cent of a good
neutral oil of the right gravity, and 5 per cent of sperm oil, has been
sold for pure sperm. Ordinary inspection as to the odor and general
appearance would fail to detect the adulteration. Having been subjected
to the usual process for the extraction of crystaline paraffine, they
will stand a very low cold test, and having been passed through bone
black cylinders, they are free from odor and have but little color. They
are usually exposed for a few days in open shallow tanks for the purpose
of removing the flurescence of petroleum oils. Unmixed with heavier oils
they are too light in body (especially the lighter varieties) to be
employed as spindle or machinery oils, but when mixed with such oils in
the proper proportions they form admirable lubricating compounds for
general lubricating purposes when very high speed is not required."
(70-71.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 6.--Rendering Room in D. C. Stull's Factory._]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Brannt. Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils.
[2] Brannt. Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils.
[3] Crew; Practical Treatise on Petroleum. Lesquereaux; Transactions
American Philosophical Society. Winchell; Sketches of Creation. Henry;
Early and Later History of Petroleum.
[4] Crew. Practical Treatise on Petroleum.