under the Republic, the River Macra, in Etruria; but that the limit was
farther south is proved by the fact that Cæsar went to Lucca to take his
winter quarters; this town, therefore, must have been in his command and
made part of Cisalpine Gaul. Under Augustus, the northern frontier of
Italy extended to the Macra.
[163] Speech of Cæsar to the Senate, reported by Sallust. (_Conspiracy
of Catilina_, li.)
[164] This paragraph, expressing with great clearness the policy of the
Roman Senate, is extracted from the excellent _Hist. Romaine_ of M.
Duruy, t. I., c. xi.
[165] As, for example, to put the wife in complete obedience to her
husband; to give the father absolute authority over his children, etc.
[166] In the origin, the municipia were the allied towns preserving
their autonomy, but engaging to render to Rome certain services
(_munus_); whence the name of municipia. (_Aulus Gellius_, XVI. 13.)
[167] To be able to enjoy the right of city, it was necessary to be
domiciliated at Rome, to have left a son in his majority in the
municipium, or to have exercised there a magistracy.
[168] Aul. Gellius, XVI. xiii.--Paulus Diaconus, on the word
_Municipium_, p. 127.
[169] In this category were sometimes found municipia of the third
degree, such as Cære. (See Festus, under the word _Præfecturæ_, p.
233.)--Several of these towns, such as Fundi, Formiæ, and Arpinum,
obtained in the sequel the right of suffrage; they continued, however,
by an ancient usage, to be called by the name of _præfecturæ_, which was
also applied by abuse to the colonies.
[170] _Socius et amicus_ (Titus Livius, XXXI. 11).--Compare Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, VI. 95; X. 21.
[171] With Carthage, for example. (Polybius, III. 22.--Titus Livius,
VII. 27; IX. 19, 43.)
[172] Thus with the Latins. “Ut eosdem quos populus Romanus amicos atque
hostes habeant.” (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 8.)
[173] Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, xvi.
[174] The freedmen were, in fact, either Roman citizens, or Latins, or
ranged in the number of the _dediticii_; slaves who had, while they were
in servitude, undergone a grave chastisement, if they arrived at
freedom, obtained only the assimilation to the _dediticii_. If, on the
contrary, the slave had undergone no punishment, if he was more than
thirty years of age, if, at the same time, he belonged to his master
according to the law of the quirites, and if the formalities of
manumission or affranchisement exacted by the Roman law had been
observed, he was a Roman citizen. He was only Latin if one of these
circumstances failed. (_Institutes_ of Gaius, I. § 12, 13, 15, 16, 17.)
[175] “Valerius sent upon the lands conquered from the Volsci a colony
of a certain number of citizens chosen from among the poor, both to
serve as a garrison against the enemies, and to diminish at Rome the
party of the seditious.” (Year of Rome 260.) (Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, VI. 43.)--This great number of colonies, by clearing the
population of Rome of a multitude of indigent citizens, had maintained
tranquillity (452). (Titus Livius, X. 6.)
[176] Modern authors are not agreed on this point, which would require a
long discussion; but we may consider the question as solved in the sense
of our text by Madvig, _Opuscula_, I. pp. 244-254.
[177] “There the people (_populus_) named their magistrates; the
_duumviri_ performed the functions of consuls or prætors, whose title
they sometimes took (_Corpus Inscriptionum Latin._, _passim_); the
_quinquennales_ corresponded to the censors. Finally, there were
_questors_ and _ediles_. The Senate, as at Rome, was composed of
members, elected for life, to the number of a hundred; the number was
filled up every five years (_lectio senatus_).” (_Tabula Heracleensis_,
cap. x. _et seq._)
[178] A certain number of colonies figure in the list given by Dionysius
of Halicarnassus of the members of the confederacy (V. 61).
[179] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. iv. § 7.
[180] Because it named its magistrates, struck money (Mommsen,
_Münzwesen_, p. 317), privileges refused to the Roman colonies, and
preserved its own peculiar laws according to the principle: “Nulla
populi Romani lege adstricti, nisi in quam populus eorum fundus factus
est.” (Aulus Gellius, XVI. xiii. 6.--Compare Cicero, _Oration for
Balbus_, viii. 21.)
[181] Cicero, _Oration on the Agrarian Law_, ii. 27.
[182] Titus Livius, XXVII. 9.
[183] Florus, I. 16.
[184] Titus Livius, VIII. 13, 14.
[185] Titus Livius, VIII. 14. These towns had the right of city without
suffrage; of this number were Capua (in consideration of its knights,
who had refused to take part in the revolt), Cumæ, Fundi, and Formiæ.
[186] Velleius Paterculus, I. 15.
[187] Titus Livius, VIII. 14.
[188] Titus Livius, VIII. 14, _et seq._--Valerius Maximus, VI. ii. 1.
[189] Florus, I. 16.
[190] Titus Livius, VIII. 26; XXI. 49; XXII. 11.
[191] “Eam solam gentem restare.” (Titus Livius, VIII. 27.)
[192] Cicero, _de Officiis_, iii. 30.
[193] Titus Livius, IX. 24, 28.
[194] Diodorus Siculus, XX. 36.--Titus Livius, IX. 29.
[195] Diodorus Siculus, XIX. 101.
[196] Titus Livius, IX. 31.
[197] Diodorus Siculus, XX. 35.
[198] Now _Lago di Vadimone_ or _Bagnaccio_, situated on the right bank
and three miles from the Tiber, between that river and the Lake
Ciminius, about the latitude of _Narni_.
[199] Titus Livius, IX. 43.--Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, 13.--Festus,
under the word _Præfecturæ_, p. 233.
[200] Titus Livius, IX. 45.--Diodorus Siculus, XX. 101.
[201] Titus Livius, IX. 45; X. 3, 10.
[202] Appian, _Samnite Wars_, § vii., p. 56, edit. Schweighæuser.
[203] Diodorus Siculus, XIX. 10.
[204] Titus Livius, X. 11, _et seq._
[205] Titus Livius, X. 22, _et seq._--Polybius, II. 19.--Florus, I. 17.
[206] Volsiniæ, Perusia, and Arretium. (Titus Livius, X. 37.)
[207] Orosius, III. 22.--Zonaras, VII. 2.--Eutropius, II. 9.
[208] Velleius Paterculus, I. 14.--Festus, under the word _Præfecturæ_,
p. 233.
[209] Dionysius of Halicarnassus, _Excerpta_, p. 2335, edit.
Schweighæuser.
[210] Polybius, II. 19, 24.
[211] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XII., XIII., XIV.--Plutarch, _Pyrrhus, et
seq._--Florus, I. 18.--Eutropius, II. 11, _et seq._--Zonaras, VIII. 2.
[212] Valerius Maximus, III. vii. 10.
[213] Appian (_Samnite Wars_, X. iii., p. 65) says that Pyrrhus advanced
as far as Anagnia.
[214] Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, xxii.
[215] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIV.--Orosius, IV. 3.
[216] Florus, I. 20.
[217] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XV.--_Fasti Capitolini_, an. 487.
[218] ROMAN COLONIES.--Third period: 416-488.
_Antium_ (416). A maritime colony (Volsci). _Torre d’Anzo_ or
_Porto d’Anzo_.
_Terracina_ (425). A maritime colony (Aurunci). (_Via Appia._)
_Terracina._
_Minturnæ_ (459). A maritime colony (Aurunci). (_Via Appia._) Ruins
near _Trajetta_.
_Sinuessa_ (459). A maritime colony (Campania). (_Via Appia._) Near
_Rocca di Mondragone_.
_Sena Gallica_ (465). A maritime colony (Umbria, _in agro
Gallico_). (_Via Valeria._) _Sinigaglia._
_Castrum Novum_ (465). A maritime colony (Picenum). (_Via
Valeria._) _Giulia Nuova._
LATIN COLONIES.
_Cales_ (420). Campania. (_Via Appia._) _Calvi._
_Fregellæ_ (426). Volsci. In the valley of the Liris. _Ceprano_(?).
Destroyed in 629.
_Luceria_ (440). Apulia. _Lucera._
_Suessa Aurunca_ (441). Aurunci. (_Via Appia._) _Sessa._
_Pontiæ_ (441). Island opposite Circeii. _Ponza._
_Saticula_ (441). On the boundary between Samnium and Campania.
_Prestia_, near _Santa Agata de’ Goti_. Disappeared early.
_Interamna_ (Lirinas) (442). Volsci. _Terame._ Not inhabited.
_Sora_ (451). On the boundary between the Volsci and the Samnites.
_Sora._ Already colonised in a previous period.
_Alba Fucensis_ (451). Marsi. (_Via Valeria._) _Alba_, a village
near _Avezzano_.
_Narnia_ (455). Umbria. (_Via Flaminia._) _Narni._ Strengthened in
555.
_Carseoli_ (456). Æqui. (_Via Valeria._) _Cerita_, _Osteria del
Cavaliere_, near _Carsoli_.
_Venusia_ (463). Frontier between Lucania and Apulia. (_Via
Appia._) _Venosa._ Re-fortified in 554.
_Adria_ (or _Hatria_) (465). Picenum. (_Via Valeria_ and
_Salaria_). _Adri._
_Cosa_ (481). Etruria or Campania. _Ansedonia_(?), near
_Orbitello_. Re-fortified in 557.
_Pæstum_ (481). Lucania, _Pesto_. Ruins.
_Ariminum_ (486). Umbria, _in agro Gallico_. (_Via Flaminia._)
_Rimini._
_Beneventum_ (486). Samnium. (_Via Appia._) _Benevento._
[219] Campanians: _Stellatina_. Etruscans: _Tromentina_, _Sabatina_,
_Arniensis_, in 367 (Titus Livius, VI. 5). Latins: _Mœcia_, and
_Scaptia_, in 422 (Titus Livius, VIII. 17). Volsci: _Pomptina_, and
_Publilia_, in 396 (Titus Livius, VII. 15). Ausones: _Ufentina_ and
_Falerna_, in 436 (Titus Livius, IX. 20). Æqui: _Aniensis_ and
_Terentina_, in 455 (Titus Livius, X. 9). Sabines: _Velina_ and
_Quirina_, in 513 (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIX.).
[220] At the beginning of each consular year, the magistrates or
deputies of the towns were obliged to repair to Rome, and the consuls
there fixed the contingent which each of them was to furnish according
to the list of the census. These lists were drawn up by the local
magistrates, who sent them to the Senate, and were renewed every five
years, except in the Latin colonies, where they seem to have taken for a
constant basis the number of primitive colonists.
[221] The country of the Samnites, among others, was completely cut up
by these domains.
[222] Titus Livius places in the mouth of the consul Decius, in 452,
these remarkable words: “Jam ne _nobilitatis_ quidem suæ plebeios
pœnitere” (Titus Livius, X. 7); and later still, towards 538, a tribune
expresses himself thus: “Nam _plebeios nobiles_ jam eisdem initiatos
esse sacris, et contemnere plebem, ex quo contemni desierint a patribus,
cœpisse.” (Titus Livius, XXII. 34.)
[223] Titus Livius, XIV. 48.
[224] We have the proof of this in the condemnation of those who
transgressed the law of Stolo. (Titus Livius, X. 13.)
[225] Valerius Maximus, IV. iii. 5.--Plutarch, _Cato_, iii.
[226] Valerius Maximus, IV. iii. 6.
[227] Valerius Maximus, IV. iii. 9.
[228] Titus Livius, IX. 46.
[229] “The goods of the debtor, not his body, should be responsible for
the debt. Thus all the captured citizens were free, and it was forbidden
for ever to put in bonds a debtor.” (Titus Livius, VIII. 28.)
[230] Ignorance of the calendar, and of the method of fixing the
festivals, left to the pontiffs alone the knowledge of the days when it
was permitted to plead.
[231] “The lawyers, for fear that their services might become useless in
judicial proceedings, invented certain formulæ, in order to make
themselves necessary.” (Cicero, _Pro Murena_, xi.)
[232] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XI.--Pliny, XVI. x. 37.
[233] Cicero, _Brutus_, C. xiv.--Zonaras, _Annales_, VIII. 2.
[234] “You see here all the principal senators who set you the example.
They will partake with you the fatigues and perils of war, although the
laws and their age exempt them from carrying arms.” (_Speech of the
Dictator Postumius to his troops_; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, VI. 9.)
[235] Titus Livius, X., XII. 49.
[236] Valerius Maximus, II. viii. 4, 7.
[237] Plutarch, _Flamininus_, xxviii.
[238] Aur. Victor, _Ill. Men_, xxxvi. and xxvii.
[239] Titus Livius, IX. 10
[240] “A sedition was already rising between the patricians and the
people, and the terror of so sudden a war (with the Tiburtini) stifled
it.” (Titus Livius, VII. 12.)--“Appius Sabinus, to prevent the evils
which are an inevitable consequence of idleness, joined with want,
determined _to occupy the people in external wars, in order that,
gaining their living for themselves_, by finding on the lands of the
enemy abundant provisions which were not to be had in Rome, they might
render at the same time some service to the State, instead of troubling
at an unseasonable moment the senators in the administration of affairs.
He said that a town which, like Rome, disputed empire with all others,
and was hated by them, could not want a decent pretext for making war;
that, if they would judge the future by the past, they would see clearly
that all the seditions which had hitherto torn the Republic _had never
arrived except in time of peace_, when people no longer feared anything
from without.” (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, IX. 43.)
[241] Claudius made war thus in Umbria, and took the town of Camerinum,
the inhabitants of which he sold for slaves. (See Valerius Maximus, VI.
v. § 1.--Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XV.)--Camillus, after the capture of
Veii, caused the free men to be sold by auction. (Titus Livius, V.
22.)--In 365, the prisoners, the greater part Etruscans, were sold in
the same manner. (Titus Livius, VI. 4.)--The auxiliaries of the
Samnites, after the battle of Allifæ (447), were sold as slaves to the
number of 7,000. (Titus Livius, IX. 42.)
[242] “The military port alone contained two hundred and twenty
vessels.” (Appian, _Punic Wars_, VIII. 96, p. 437, ed. Schweighæuser.)
[243] Appian, _Punic Wars_, VIII. 95, p. 436.
[244] Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.
[245] Appian, _Punic Wars_, VIII. 130, p. 490.
[246] 5,820,000 francs [£232,800]. (Appian, _Punic Wars_, CXXVII. 486.)
Following the labours of MM. Letronne, Böckh, Mommsen, &c., we have
admitted for the sums indicated in the course of the present work the
following reckonings:--
The _as_ of copper = 1/10 deniers = 5 centimes.
The _sestertius_ = 0.975 grammes = 19 centimes.
The _denarius_ = 3.898 grammes = 75 centimes.
The _great sestertius_ = 100,000 sestertii = 19,000 francs [£760].
The Attic or Euboic _talent_, of 26 kilogrammes,
196 grammes = 5,821 francs [£232 16s.].
The _mina_, of 436 grammes = 97 francs.
The _drachma_, of 4.37 grammes = 97 centimes.
The _obolus_, of 0.73 grammes = 16 centimes.
The Æginetic talent was equivalent to 8,500 Attic drachmas (37
kilogrammes, 2 gr.) = 8,270 francs [£330 16s.]. The Babylonic silver
talent is of 33 kilogrammes, 42 = 7,426 francs [£297]. (See, for
details, Mommsen, _Römisches Münzwesen_, pp. 24-26, 55. Hultsch,
_Griechische und Römische Metrologie_, pp. 135-137.)
[247] Nearly 700,000 francs [£28,000]. (Athenæus, XII. lviii. 509, ed.
Schweighæuser.)
[248] Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.
[249] Scylax of Caryanda, _Periplus_, p. 51 _et seq._, ed. Hudson.
[250] See the work of Heeren, _Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr, und
den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt_, Part I., Vol. II.,
secs. v. and vi., p. 163 _et seq._, 188 _et seq._ 3rd edit.
[251] Athenæus informs us that Polemon had composed an entire treatise
on the mantles of the divinities of Carthage. (XII. lviii. 541.)
[252] Herodotus, VII. 145.--Polybius, I. 67.--Titus Livius, XXVIII. 41.
[253] Reckoning, after Titus Livius, her troops at the time of the
second Punic War, we find a force of 291,000 foot and 9,500 horse.
(Titus Livius, Books XXI. to XXIX.)
[254] Carthage, under certain circumstances, could make daily a hundred
and forty shields, three hundred swords, five hundred lances, and a
thousand darts for catapults. (Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.)
[255] Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.
[256] In 513, 3,200 Euboic talents (18,627,200 francs [£745,088]); in
516, 1,200 talents (6,985,200 francs [£279,408]); in 552, 10,000 talents
(58,210,000 francs [£2,328,400]). Scipio, the first Africanus, brought,
besides this, 123,000 pounds weight of gold from this town. (Polybius,
I. 62, 63, 88; XV. 18.--Titus Livius, XXX. 37, 45.)
[257] Aristotle, _Politics_, VII. iii. § 5.--Polybius, I. 72.
[258] Diodorus Siculus, XX. 17.
[259] Pliny, _Natural History_, V. iii. 24.
[260] Scylax of Caryanda, _Periplus_, p. 49. edit. Hudson.
[261] Polybius, XII. 3.
[262] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 62.
[263] 58,200 francs (£2,328). (Titus Livius, XXII. 31.)
[264] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, xix.
[265] Pliny, citing this fact, throws doubt upon it. (_Natural History_,
V. i. 8.)--See the _Periplus_ of Hanno, in the collection of the minor
Greek geographers.
[266] Strabo, III. v. § 3.
[267] Strabo, III. ii. § 1.
[268] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. iii. 30.--Strabo, III. ii. § 8.
[269] Strabo, III. ii. § 3.--Pliny, III. i. 3; XXXIII. vii. 40.
[270] Above 25,000 francs [£1,000]. (Strabo, III. ii. § 10.)
[271] 767,695 pounds of silver and 10,918 pounds of gold, without
reckoning what was furnished by certain partial impositions, sometimes
very heavy, such as those of Marcolica, one million of sestertii
(230,000 francs [£9,200]), and of Certima, 2,400,000 sestertii (550,000
francs [£22,000]). (See Books XXVIII. to XLVI. of Titus Livius.) Such
were the resources of Spain, even in the smallest localities, that in
602, C. Marcellus imposed on a little town of the Celtiberians
(_Ocilis_) a contribution of thirty talents of silver (about 174,600
francs [£6,984]); and this contribution was regarded by the neighbouring
cities as most moderate. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, VI. xlviii. 158, ed.
Schweighæuser.) Posidonius, cited by Strabo (III. iv., p. 135), relates
that M. Marcellus extorted from the Celtiberians a tribute of six
hundred talents (about 3,492,600 francs [£139,704]).
[272] A fabulous people, spoken of by Homer. (Athenæus, I. xxviii. 60,
edit. Schweighæuser.)
[273] Diodorus Siculus, V. 34, 35.
[274] Pliny, _Natural History_, XIX. i. 10.
[275] In the time of Hannibal, this town was one of the richest in the
peninsula. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, xii. 113.)
[276] Strabo, III. iv. § 2.
[277] Polybius, XXXIV., _Fragm._, 8.
[278] The medimnus of barley (52 litres) sold for one drachma (97
centimes); the medimnus of wheat, 9 oboli (about 1 franc 45 centimes).
(The medium value of 52 litres in France is 10 francs.) A metretes of
wine (39 litres) was worth one drachma (97 centimes); a hare, one obolus
(16 centimes); a goat, one obolus (16 centimes); a lamb, from 3 to 4
oboli (50 to 60 centimes); a pig of a hundred pounds weight, 5 drachmas
(4 francs 85 centimes); a sheep, 2 drachmas (1 franc 95 centimes); an ox
for drawing, 10 drachmas (9 francs 70 centimes); a calf, 5 drachmas (4
francs 85 centimes); a _talent_ (26 kilogrammes) of figs, 3 oboli (45
centimes).
[279] Strabo, III. ii. § 1.
[280] Appian, _Wars of Spain_, i. 102.--Pompey, in the trophies which he
raised to himself on the coast of Catalonia, affirmed that he had
received the submission of eight hundred and seventy-seven _oppida_.
(Pliny, _Natural History_, III. iii. 18.)--Pliny reckoned two hundred
and ninety-three in Hispania Citerior, and a hundred and seventy-nine in
Bætica. (_Natural History_, III. iii. 18.)--We may, moreover, form an
idea of the number of inhabitants by the amount of troops raised to
resist the Scipios. In adding together the numbers furnished by the
historians, we arrive at the fearful total of 317,700 men killed or made
prisoners. (Titus Livius, XXX. _et. seq._)--In 548, we see two nations
of Spain, the Ilergetes and the Ausetani, joined with some other petty
tribes, put on foot an army of 30,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. (Titus
Livius, XXIX. 1.)--We remark fifteen to twenty others whose forces are
equal or superior. After the battle of Zama, Spain furnished Hasdrubal
with 50,000 footmen and 4,500 horsemen. (Titus Livius, XXVIII. 12,
13.)--Cato has no sooner appeared with his fleet before Emporiæ, than an
army of 40,000 Spaniards, who could only have been collected in the
surrounding country, is ready prepared to resist him. (Appian, _Wars of
Spain_, 40, p. 147.)--In Lusitania itself, a country of which the
population was much less, we see Servius Galba and Lucullus killing
12,500 men. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 58, 59, p. 170 _et.
seq._)--Although laid waste and depopulated by these two generals, the
country, at the end of a few years, furnished again to Viriathus
considerable forces.
[281] Titus Livius, XXII. 20.
[282] Strabo, IV. i. § 11; ii. § 14; iii. § 3.
[283] See what M. Amedée Thierry says, _Hist. des Gaul._, II. 134 _et
seq._ 3d edit.
[284] Pliny, XXI. 31.
[285] Diodorus Siculus, V. 26.--Athenæus, IV. xxxvi. 94.
[286] Demosthenes, _Thirty-second Oration against Zenothemis_, 980,
edit. Bekker.
[287] Strabo, IV. vi. § 2, 3.
[288] Diodorus Siculus, V. xxxix.
[289] See Titus Livius, XXXII. to XLII.
[290] See Strabo, V. i. § 10, 11.
[291] Strabo, V. i. § 12.
[292] Gold was originally very abundant in Gaul; but the mines whence it
was extracted, and the rivers which carried it, must have been soon
exhausted, for the quality of the Gaulish gold coins becomes more and
more abased as the date of their fabrication approaches that of the
Roman conquest.
[293] Strabo, V. i. § 7.--Titus Livius, X. 2.
[294] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. xvi. 119.--Martial, _Epigr._, IV.
xxv.--_Antonine Itinerary_, 126.
[295] Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXVII. iii. § 11.
[296] Small vessels, quick sailers, and rapid in their movements,
excellent for piracy; also called _liburnæ_, from the name of the people
who employed them.
[297] Polybius, II. 5.
[298] Titus Livius, XLI. 2, 4, 11.
[299] Polybius, II. 8.
[300] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 5.
[301] Pliny, XXXV. 60.
[302] Polybius, XXII. 13.
[303] Polybius, XXX. xv. § 5.--Titus Livius, XLV. 34.
[304] Plutarch, _Flamininus_, 2.
[305] Polybius, V. 9.
[306] Aristides, _Panathen._, p. 149.
[307] Pausanias, _Attica_, xxviii.
[308] Plutarch, _Sylla_, 20.
[309] Pausanias, _Laconia_, xi. We must further mention the famous
temple of bronze of Minerva, the two gymnasia, and the Platanistum, a
spacious place where the competitions of the youths took place,
(Pausanias, _Laconia_, xiv.)
[310] Stephanus of Byzantium, under the word Λακεδαἱμων, p. 413.
[311] Pausanias, _Laconia_, xxi.
[312] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 29.
[313] Pausanias, _Arcadia_, xlv.
[314] Pausanias, _Arcadia_, xli. Thirty-six columns out of thirty-eight
are still standing.
[315] Pliny, _Natural History_, XIX. i. 4.
[316] Pausanias, _Elis_, II. 23 and 24.
[317] Pausanias, _Elis_, I. ii.
[318] Strabo, VIII. § 10, 19.
[319] Pausanias, _Corinth_, xxviii. 1.
[320] Pausanias, _Corinth_, xxvii.
[321] “Goods were not obliged to make the circuit by Corinth; a direct
road crossed the isthmus in the narrowest part, and they had even
established there a system of rollers on which vessels of small tonnage
were transported from one sea to the other.” (Strabo, VIII. ii. §
3.--Polybius, IV. 19.)
[322] Pausanias, _Attica_, ii.
[323] Cicero, _De Republica_, II. 4.--Strabo, VIII. vi. § 20.
[324] Strabo, VIII. vi. § 23.--Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXV. x. § 36.
[325] Arrian, _Expedition of Alexander_, I. xvi. 4.--Velleius
Paterculus, I. 40.--Plutarch, _Alexander_, 16.
[326] Athenæus, VI. 272.
[327] Titus Livius, XXXII. 16.
[328] Titus Livius, XLV. 18, 29.
[329] Titus Livius, XLII. 12.
[330] “These were, in money, 100 talents (582,000 francs [£23,280]), and
in wheat, 100,000 artabæ (52,500 hectolitres); and also considerable
quantities of ship-building timber, tar, lead, and iron.” (Polybius, V.
89.)
[331] About 1,164,000 francs [£46,560]. Perseus had promised him twice
as much. (Titus Livius, XLII. 67.)
[332] Titus Livius, XLIV. 42.
[333] Titus Livius, XLIV. 41.
[334] Titus Livius, XLV. 82.
[335] Titus Livius, XLV. 33.
[336] It lasted three days: the first was hardly sufficient to pass in
review the 250 chariots laden with statues and paintings; the second
day, it was the turn of the arms, placed on cars, which were followed by
3,000 warriors carrying 750 urns full of money; each, borne by four men,
contained three talents (the whole amounting to more than 13 millions of
francs [£520,000]). After them came those who carried vessels of silver,
chased and wrought. On the third day appeared in the triumphal
procession those who carried the gold coins, with 77 urns, each of which
contained three talents (the total about 17 millions [£680,000]); next
came a consecrated cup, of the weight of ten talents, and enriched with
precious stones, made by order of the Roman general. All this preceded
the prisoners, Perseus and his household; and, lastly, came the car of
the triumphant general. (Plutarch, _Paulus Æmilius_, 32, 33.)
[337] Titus Livius, XLV. 40.
[338] Polybius, IV. 38, 44, 45.
[339] Aristotle, _Politics_, VI. 4, § 1.--Ælian, _Various Histories_,
III. 14.
[340] Strabo, VII. vi. § 2; XII. iii. § 11.
[341] Cicero, _Oration for the Law Manilia_, vi.
[342] Plutarch, _Sylla_, xxv.
[343] Especially the fish called _pelamydes_, objects of research
throughout Greece. (Strabo, VII. vi. § 2; XII. iii. § 11, § 19.)
[344] Strabo, XII. iii. § 19.
[345] Strabo, XII. iii. § 13. Gadilonitis extended to the south-west of
Amisus (_Samsoun_).
[346] Polybius, V. 44, 55.--Ezekiel xxvii. 13, 14.
[347] Xenophon, _Retreat of the Ten Thousand_, V. v. 34.--Homer,
_Iliad_, II. 857.
[348] Strabo, XII. iii. § 19.
[349] There passed in the procession a statue of gold of the King of
Pontus, six feet high, with his shield set with precious stones, twenty
stands covered with vases of silver, thirty-two others full of vases of
gold, with arms of the same metal, and with gold coinage; these stands
were carried by men followed by eight mules loaded with golden beds, and
after whom came fifty-six others carrying ingots of silver, and a
hundred and seven carrying all the silver money, amounting to 2,700,000
drachmas (2,619,000 francs [£104,760]). (Plutarch, _Lucullus_, xxxvii.)
[350] Plutarch, _Lucullus_, xxiii.
[351] Strabo, XII. iii. § 13, 14.
[352] Appian, _War against Mithridates_, lxxviii.
[353] Plutarch, _Lucullus_, xiv.
[354] See what is reported by Plutarch (_Lucullus_, xxix.) of the riches
and objects of art of every species with which Tigranocerta was crammed.
[355] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, xiii. p. 658; xv. p. 662; xvii. p.
664.
[356] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, xvii. 664. Lesser Armenia furnished
1,000 horsemen. Mithridates had a hundred and thirty chariots armed with
scythes.
[357] Strabo, XII. iv. § 2.--Stephanus Byzantinus, under the word
Νικομἡδειον.--Pliny, _Natural History_, V. xxxii. 149.
[358] Strabo, XII. iii. § 6.
[359] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, xvii.
[360] Strabo, XII. v. § 7.
[361] Strabo (XII. v. § 3) tells us that Pessinus was the greatest mart
of the province.
[362] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 23.
[363] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 26.
[364] Diodorus Siculus, XVIII. 16.
[365] Strabo, XII. ii. § 10.
[366] About 3,500,000 francs [£140,000]. (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 37.)
See Appian, _Wars of Syria_, xlii.--“Demetrius obtained soon afterwards
a thousand talents (5,821,000 francs [£232,840]) from Olophernes for
having established him on the throne of Cappadocia.” (Appian, _Wars of
Syria_, xlvii.)
[367] Strabo, XII. ii. 7, 8.
[368] Falkener, _Ephesus_: London, 1862.
[369] _Natural History_, V. xxx. 126.
[370] It was thence that the fleets of the kings of Pergamus put to sea.
(Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 40; XLIV. 28.)
[371] The name of Pergamus is preserved in our modern languages in the
word “parchment” (_pergamena_), which was used to designate the skin
which was prepared in that town to serve as paper, after the Ptolemies
had prohibited the exportation of Egyptian papyrus.
[372] Attalus I., King of Pergamus, gave to the Sicyonians 11,000
medimni of wheat. (Titus Livius, XXXII. 40.)--Eumenius II. lent 80,000
to the Rhodians. (Polybius, XXXI. xvii. 2.)
[373] Strabo, XII. viii. § 11.
[374] Athenæus, XV. xxxviii. 513, ed. Schweighæuser.
[375] The Sea of Marmora took its name from these quarries of marble.
[376] Κυξικηνοἱ στατἡρες, whence the word _sequins_.
[377] Strabo, XIII. i. § 23.
[378] Strabo, XV. iii. § 22.
[379] Titus Livius, XXXII. 16; XXXVI. 43.
[380] Titus Livius, XXXVII. 8.
[381] The petty king Moagetes, who reigned at Cibyra, in Phrygia, gave a
hundred talents and 10,000 medimni of corn (Polybius, XXII. 17.--Titus
Livius, XXXVIII. 14 and 15); Termessus, fifty talents; Aspendus,
Sagalassus, and all the cities of Pamphylia, paid the same (Polybius,
XXII. 18 and 19); and the towns of this part of Asia contributed, at the
first summons of the Roman general, for about 600 talents (3,500,000
francs [£140,000]); they also delivered to him about 60,000 medimni of
corn.
[382] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 6.
[383] Manlius, although he had been despoiled on his way home of a part
of his immense booty by the mountaineers of Thrace, displayed, at his
triumph, crowns of gold to the weight of 212 pounds, 220,000 pounds of
silver, 2,103 pounds of gold, more than 127,000 Attic tetradrachms,
250,000 cistophori, and 16,320 gold coins of Philip. (Titus Livius,
XXXIX. 7.)
[384] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, lxiii.
[385] Arrian, _Campaigns of Alexander_, I. xx. § 3.--Diodorus, XVII. 23.
[386] Strabo, XIV. ii. 565.
[387] Strabo, XIV. i. § 6.
[388] Pliny, _Natural History_, V. 31.
[389] Strabo, XIV. iii. § 6.
[390] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 39.
[391] Scylax, _Periplus_, 39, ed. Hudson.--Dio Cassius, XLVII. 34.
[392] Herodotus, I. 176.
[393] Pliny, _Natural History_, V. 28.
[394] Strabo, XIV. v. § 2.
[395] Strabo, XIV. v. § 2.
[396] Tarsus had still naval arsenals in the time of Strabo (XIV. v. §
12 _et seq._).
[397] Arrian, _Anabasis_, II. 5.
[398] Polybius, XXII. 7.
[399] Seleucus founded sixteen towns of the name of _Antiochia_, five of
the name of _Laodicea_, nine of the name of _Seleucia_, three of the
name of _Apamea_, one of the name of _Stratonicea_, and a great number
of others which equally received Greek names. (Appian, _Wars of Syria_,
lvii. 622.)--Pliny (_Natural History_, VI. xxvi. 117) informs us that it
was the Seleucides who collected into towns the inhabitants of
Babylonia, who before only inhabited villages (_vici_), and had no other
cities than Nineveh and Babylon.
[400] Pliny (_Natural History_, VI. 26, 119) mentions one of these towns
which was 70 stadia in circuit, and in his time was reduced to a mere
fortress.
[401] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 5.--Pausanias, VI. ii. § 7.
[402] John Malalas, _Chronicle_, VIII. 200 and 202, ed. Dindorf.
[403] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 4.
[404] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 6.
[405] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 10.
[406] It was raised on a terrace a thousand feet long by three hundred
feet broad, and was built with stones 70 feet long.
[407] The empire of Seleucus comprised seventy-two satrapies. (Appian,
_Wars of Syria_, lxii. 630.)
[408] Polybius, X. 27. Ecbatana paid to Antiochus III. a tribute of
4,000 talents (Attic talents = 23,284,000 francs [£931,360]), the
produce of the casting of silver tiles which roofed one of its temples.
Alexander the Great had already carried away those of the roof of the
palace of the kings.
[409] The country of Gerra, among the Arabians, paid 500 talents to
Antiochus (Attic talents = 2,910,500 francs [£116,420]). (Polybius,
XIII. 9.)--There was formerly a great quantity of gold in Arabia. (Job
xxviii. 1, 2.--Diodorus Siculus, II. 50.)
[410] Strabo, XVI. iii. § 3.
[411] Strabo, XI. ii. 426 _et seq._
[412] Pliny, _Natural History_, VI. 11.
[413] Polybius, V. 54. If, as is probable, Babylonian talents are
intended, this would make about 7,426,000 francs [£297,040], Seleucia,
on the Tigris, was very populous. Pliny (_Natural History_, VI. 26)
estimates the number of its inhabitants at 600,000. Strabo (XVI. ii. §
5) tells us that Seleucia was even greater than Antioch. This town,
which had succeeded Babylon, appears to have inherited a part of its
population.
[414] In 565, Antiochus III. gives 15,000 talents (Euboic talents =
87,315,000 francs [£3,492,600]). (Polybius, XXI. 14.--Titus Livius,
XXXVIII. 37.) In the treaty of the following year, the Romans stipulated
for a tribute of 12,000 Attic talents of the purest gold, payable in
twelve years, each talent of 80 pounds Roman (69,852,000 francs
[£2,794,080]). (Polybius, XXII. 26, § 19.) In addition to this, Eumenes
was to receive 359 talents (2,089,739 francs [£83,589]), payable in five
years (Polybius, XXII. 26, § 20).--Titus Livius (XXXVIII. 38) says only
350 talents.
[415] The father of Antiochus, Seleucus Callinicus, sent to the Rhodians
200,000 medimni of wheat (104,000 hectolitres). (Polybius, V. 89.) In
556, Antiochus gave 540,000 measures of wheat to the Romans. (Polybius,
XXII. 26, § 19.)
[416] According to Strabo (XV. 3), wheat and barley produced there a
hundredfold, and even twice as much, which is hardly probable.
[417] Strabo, XVI. 2.
[418] Athenæus, XII. 35, p. 460, ed. Schweighæuser.
[419] Polybius, XXXI. 3.--There were seen in these festivals a thousand
slaves carrying silver vases, the least of which weighed 1,000 drachmas;
a thousand slaves carrying golden vases and a profusion of plate of
extraordinary richness. Antiochus received every day at his table a
crowd of guests whom he allowed to carry away with them in chariots
innumerable provisions of all sorts. (Athenæus, V. 46, p. 311, ed.
Schweighæuser.)
[420] Polybius, V. 79.
[421] Titus Livius, XXXVII. 37.
[422] Strabo, XVI. 2.
[423] Polybius, V. 70.
[424] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 41.--Polybius, V. 59.--Strabo, XVI. 2.
[425] Strabo, XVI. 2.
[426] Strabo, XIV. 5.
[427] In 558, Antiochus sent to sea a hundred covered vessels and two
hundred light ships. (Titus Livius, XXXIII. 19.)--It is the greatest
Syrian fleet mentioned in these wars. At the battle of Myonnesus, the
fleet commanded by Polyxenus was composed of ninety decked ships (574).
(Appian, _Wars of Syria_, 27.)--In 563, before the final struggle
against the Romans, that prince had forty decked vessels, sixty without
decks, and two hundred transport ships. (Titus Livius, XXXV.
43.)--Finally, the next year, a little before the battle of Magnesia,
Antiochus possessed, not including the Phœnician fleet, a hundred
vessels of moderate size, of which seventy had decks. (Titus Livius,
XXXVI. 43; XXXVII. 8.)--This navy was destroyed by the Romans.
[428] Herodotus, II. 177.--Diodorus Siculus, I. 31.
[429] A measure great enough to make thirty loaves. (Franz, _Corpus
Inscript. Græcarum_, III. 303.--Polybius, V. 79.)
[430] Böckh, _Staatshaushaltung der Athener_, I. xiv. 15.
[431] Flavius Josephus, _Jewish Antiquities_, XII. 4.
[432] Athenæus, V. p. 203.
[433] Appian (_Preface_, § 10).--We may, nevertheless, judge from the
following data of the enormity of the sums accumulated in the treasuries
of the kings of Persia. Cyrus had gained, by the conquest of Asia,
34,000 pounds weight of gold coined, and 500,000 of silver. (Pliny,
XXXIII. 15.)--Under Darius, son of Hystaspes, 7,600 Babylonian talents
of silver (the Babylonian talent = 7,426 francs [£297]) were poured
annually into the royal treasury, besides 140 talents devoted to the pay
of the Cilician cavalry, and 360 talents of gold (14,680 talents of
silver), paid by the Indies. (Herodotus, III. 94.)--This king had thus
an annual revenue of 14,500 talents (108 millions of francs
[£4,320,000]). Darius carried with him in campaign two hundred camels
loaded with gold and precious objects. (Demosthenes, _On the Symmories_,
p. 185, xv. p. 622, ed. Müller.)--Thus, according to Strabo, Alexander
the Great found in the four great treasuries of that king (at Susa,
Persia, Pasargades, and Persepolis) 180,000 talents (about 1,337
millions of francs [£53,480,000]).
[434] Polybius, V. 89.
[435] Strabo, XVII. 1.
[436] Strabo, XVII. 1.
[437] Strabo, XVI. 4; XVII.
[438] Strabo, XVII. 1.
[439] Diodorus Siculus, III. 43.
[440] Appian, _Preface_, § 10.--In 537, at Raphia, the Egyptian army
amounted to 70,000 foot, 5,000 cavalry, and 73 elephants. (Polybius, V.
79; see also V. 65.)--Polybius, who gives us these details, adds that
the pay of the officers was one mina (97 francs [£3 17_s._ 7_d._]) a
day. (XIII. ii.)
[441] Theocritus, _Idylls_, XVII. lines 90-102.--Athenæus (V. 36, p.
284) and Appian, _Preface_, § 10, give the details of this
fleet.--Ptolemy IV. Philopator went so far as to construct a ship of
forty ranges of rowers, which was 280 cubits long and 30 broad.
(Athenæus, V. 37, p. 285.)
[442] Herodotus, IV. 199. The plateau of Barca, now desert, was then
cultivated and well watered.
[443] The most important object of commerce of the Cyrenaica was the
_silphium_, a plant the root of which sold for its weight in silver. A
kind of milky gum was extracted from it, which served as a panacea with
the apothecaries and as a seasoning in the kitchen. When, in 658,
Cyrenaica was incorporated with the Roman Republic, the province paid an
annual tribute in silphium. Thirty pounds of this juice, brought to Rome
in 667, were regarded as a miracle; and when Cæsar, at the beginning of
the civil war, seized upon the public treasury, he found in the treasury
chest 1,500 pounds of silphium locked up with the gold and silver.
(Pliny, XIX. 3.)
[444] Diodorus Siculus, III. 49.--Herodotus, IV. 169.--Athenæus, XV. 22,
p. 487; 38, p. 514.--Strabo, XVII. iii. 712.--Pliny, _Natural History_,
XVI. 33; XIX. 3.
[445] Pindar, _Pythian Odes_, IV. 2.--Athenæus, III. 58, p. 392.
[446] Diodorus Siculus, XVII. 49.
[447] Aristotle, _Politics_, VII. 2, § 10.
[448] Josephus, _Jewish Antiquities_, XIII. 12, § 2, 3.
[449] Ælian, _History of Animals_, V. lvi.--Eustathius, _Comment. on
Dionysius Periegetes_, 508, 198, edit. Bernhardy.
[450] Strabo, XIV. 6.--Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXIV. 2.
[451] Virgil, _Æneid_, I. 415.--Statius, _Thebais_, V. 61.
[452] Strabo, X. 4.
[453] Polybius, XIII. 8.
[454] Cretan mercenaries are found in the service of Flamininus in 557
(Titus Livius, XXXIII. 3), in that of Antiochus in 564 (Titus Livius,
XXXVII. 40), in that of Perseus in 583 (Titus Livius, XLII. 51), and in
the service of Rome in 633.
[455] _Iliad_, II. 656.
[456] Polybius, XXX. 7, year of Rome 590.
[457] Strabo, XIV. 2. The town of _Rhoda_ in Spain, establishments in
the Baleares, _Gela_ in Sicily, _Sybaris_ and _Palæopolis_ in Italy,
were Rhodian colonies.
[458] This happened especially at the epoch when the famous Colossus of
Rhodes fell, and when the town was violently shaken by an earthquake.
Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, Ptolemy, king of Egypt, Antigonus Doson, king
of Macedonia, and Seleucus, king of Syria, sent succours to the
Rhodians. (Polybius, V. 88, 89.)
[459] We see, in fact, with what care the Rhodians spared their allies
on the coast of the Pontus Euxinus. (Polybius, XXVII. 6.)
[460] Polybius, IV. 38.
[461] Strabo, VII. 4.
[462] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 18.
[463] During the siege of Rhodes, Demetrius had formed the design of
delivering to the flames all the public buildings, one of which
contained the famous painting of Ialysus, by Protogenes. The Rhodians
sent a deputation to Demetrius to ask him to spare this masterpiece.
After this interview, Demetrius raised the siege, sparing thus at the
same time the town and the picture. (Aulus Gellius, XV. 31.)
[464] In 555, twenty ships; in 556, twenty vessels with decks; in 563,
twenty-five ships with decks, and thirty-six vessels. This last fleet of
thirty-six vessels was destroyed, and yet the Rhodians were able to send
to sea again, the same year, twenty vessels. In 584 they had forty
vessels. (Titus Livius, XXXI. 46; XXXII. 16; XXXVI. 45; XXXVII. 9, 11,
12; XLII. 45.)
[465] Pliny, XXXIV. 17.
[466] Strabo, XIV. 2.
[467] Athenæus, XII. 35, p. 461.
[468] Titus Livius, XXIII. 34.
[469] Titus Livius, XXIII. 40.
[470] Titus Livius, XLI. 12, 17, 28.--The number of 80,000 men whom the
Sardinians lost in the campaign of T. Gracchus, in 578 and 579, was
given by the official inscription which was seen at Rome in the temple
of the goddess Matuta. (Titus Livius, XLI. 28.)
[471] Festus, p. 322, edit. O. Müller.--Titus Livius, XLI. 21.
[472] See Heeren, vol. IV. sect. I. chap. ii.--Polybius, I. 79.--Strabo,
V. ii. 187.--Diodorus Siculus, V. 15.--Titus Livius, XXIX. 36.
[473] Titus Livius, XXX. 38.
[474] Strabo, V. 2.
[475] Diodorus Siculus, V. 14.--The Corsicans having revolted, in 573,
had 2,000 slain. (Titus Livius, XL. 34.)--In 581, they lost 7,000 men,
and had more than 1,700 prisoners. (Titus Livius, XLII. 7.)
[476] Strabo, V. 2.
[477] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. 6.
[478] Diodorus Siculus, V. 13.--In 573, the Corsicans were taxed by the
Romans at 1,000,000 pounds of wax, and at 200,000 in 581. (Titus Livius,
XL. 34; XLII. 7.)
[479] Cicero, _Second Oration against Verres_, II. ii. 74.--The oxen
furnished hides, employed especially for the tents; the sheep, an
excellent wool for clothing.
[480] Cicero, _Second Oration against Verres_, II. III. 70.
[481] Titus Livius, XXV. 31.
[482] Polybius, I. 17, 18.
[483] Polybius, IX. 27.--Strabo, VI. 2.
[484] See what is said by Titus Livius (XXIX. 26) and Polybius (I. 41,
43, 46).--Florus, II. 2.
[485] See the work of the Duke of Serra di Falco, _Antichità della
Sicilia_.
[486] Thus the Jupiter of the Capitol and the Italic Juno, at least in
their official worship, were the protectors of virtuous morals and
punished the wicked, while the Phœnician Moloch and Hercules, worshipped
at Carthage, granted their favours to those who made innocent blood run
upon their altars. (Diodorus Siculus, XX. 14.)--See the remarkable
figures of Moloch holding a gridiron destined for human sacrifices.
(Alb. della Marmora, _Sardinian Antiquities_, pl. 23, 53, tom. ii. 254.)
[487] Polybius, I. 7, 11.
[488] Polybius, I. 16.--Zonaras, VIII. 16 _et seq._
[489] We have seen before that Rome, after the capture of Antium (_Porto
d’Anzo_), had already a navy, but she had no galleys of three ranks or
five ranks of oars. Nothing, therefore, is more probable than the
relation of Titus Livius, who states that the Romans took for a model a
Carthaginian quinquireme wrecked on their coast. In spite of the
advanced state of science, we have not yet obtained a perfect knowledge
of the construction of the ancient galleys, and, even at the present
day, the problem will not be completely solved until chance furnishes us
with a model.
[490] The Romans employed the triremes of Tarentum, Locri, Elea, and
Naples to cross the Strait of Messina. The use of quinquiremes was
entirely unknown in Italy.
[491] Polybius, I. 20, 21.
[492] Each vessel carried 300 rowers and 120 soldiers, or 420 men, which
makes, for the Carthaginian fleet, 147,000 men, and, for the Roman
fleet, 138,600. (Polybius, I. 25 and 26.)
[493] Nearly thirteen millions of francs [£520,000]. (Polybius, I. 62.)
[494] Polybius, I. 36.
[495] Valerius Maximus, V. i. 2.
[496] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIX.
[497] Polybius, III. 10, 27, 28.
[498] The Sardinians owed their civilisation to the Phœnicians; the
Sicilians had received theirs from the Greeks. This difference explains
the attachment of the first for Carthage, and the repulsion of the
others for the Punic rule.
[499] Polybius, II. 4, 5, 10.
[500] Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_.
[501] Florus, II. 5.--Appian, _Wars of Illyria_, 7.
[502] Polybius, II. 11 _et seq._
[503] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XX., year of Rome 533.--Orosius, IV.
xiii.
[504] Polybius, III. 16 _et seq._
[505] A people situated between the Rhone and the Alps. (Polyb., II. 22,
34.)
[506] “It was not Rome alone that the Italians, terrified by the Gaulish
invasion, believed they had thus to defend; they understood that it was
their own safety which was in danger.” (Polybius, II. 23.)
[507] The following, according to Polybius (II. 24), was the number of
the forces of Italy:--
FOOT. HORSE.
Two consular armies, each of two legions,
of 5,200 foot and 300 cavalry 20,800 1,200
Allied troops 30,000 2,000
Sabines and Etruscans 50,000 more than 4,000
Umbrians and Sarsinates, inhabitants of
the Apennines 20,000 --
Cenomani and Veneti 30,000 --
At Rome 20,000 1,500
Allies (of the reserve) 30,000 2,000
Latins 80,000 5,000
Samnites 70,000 7,000
Iapygians and Messapians 50,000 16,000
Lucanians 30,000 3,000
Marsi, Marrucini, Frentani, and Vestini 20,000 4,000
In Sicily and at Tarentum, two legions of
4,200 foot and 200 horse 8,400 400
Roman and Campanian citizens 250,000 23,000
------- ------
699,200 69,100
[508] See the Memoir of Zumpt, _Stand der Bevölkerung im Alterthum_.
Berlin, 1841.
[509] Polybius, III. 30.
[510] Titus Livius, XXI. 7.
[511] Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 10.
[512] Polybius, III. 90.--“The allies had till then remained firm in
their attachment.” (Titus Livius, XXII. 61.)--“This fidelity which they
have preserved towards us in the midst of our reverses.” (_Speech of
Fabius_, Titus Livius, XXII. 39.)
[513] There were among the Roman troops Samnite cavalry. (Titus Livius,
XXVII. 43.)
[514] Titus Livius, XXII. 49; XXIII. 12.--“In the second Punic war, the
use of rings had already become common; otherwise it would have been
impossible for Hannibal to send three _modii_ of rings to Carthage.”
(Pliny, XXXIII. 6.)--We read in Appian: “The tribunes of the soldiers
wear the gold ring, their inferiors have it of ivory.” (_Punic Wars_,
VIII. cv.)
[515] “The Greek towns, inclined to maintain their alliance with Rome.”
(Titus Livius, XXIV. 1.)--Even in Bruttium, the small town of Petelia
defended itself against Hannibal with the greatest energy; the women
fought like the men. (Appian, VII. 29.)
[516] Eutropius, III. 6.
[517] Titus Livius, XXVI. 1.
[518] Titus Livius, XXIV. 14.
[519] “The Oppian law, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius, under the
consulship of Q. Fabius and Tiberius Sempronius (539), in the height of
the second Punic war, forbad the women to have for their use more than
half an ounce of gold, to wear dresses of different colours, &c., to be
driven or carried about Rome, within a radius of seven miles, in a
chariot drawn by horses, except to attend the public sacrifices.” This
law, being only temporary, was revoked, in spite of the opposition of P.
Cato, in 559. (Titus Livius, XXXIV. 1, 6.)
[520] Valerius Maximus, I. i. 15.
[521] “It was in his cavalry that Hannibal placed all his hopes.”
(Polybius, III. 101.)--“Hannibal’s cavalry alone caused the victories of
Carthage and the defeats of Rome.” (Polybius, IX. 3.)--“The loss of 500
Numidians was felt more by Hannibal than any other check, and from that
time he had no longer the superiority in cavalry which had previously
given him so much advantage” (543). (Titus Livius, XXVI. 38.)
[522] “Hannibal remembered how he had failed before Placentia.” (Titus
Livius, XXVII. 39.)
[523] Titus Livius, XXIII. 15 and 18.--Hannibal reduced by famine the
fortresses of Casilinum and Nuceria; as to the citadel of Tarentum, it
resisted five years, and could not be taken by force. (Titus Livius,
XXVII. 25.)
[524] “Hannibal descends towards Naples, having at heart to secure a
maritime place to receive succours from Africa.” (Titus Livius, XXIII.
15.)
[525] Polybius, III. 106.
[526] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 26.
[527] Plutarch, _Marcellus_, 11, 33.
[528] Titus Livius, XXVII. 49.
[529] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 54.
[530] In 536, Rome had at sea 220 quinquiremes and 20 small vessels
(Titus Livius, XXI. 17), with which she protected efficiently the coasts
of Sicily and Italy. (Titus Livius, XXI. 49, 51.)--In 537, Scipio, with
35 vessels, destroyed a Carthaginian fleet at the mouth of the Ebro
(Titus Livius, XXII. 19), and the consul Servilius Geminus effected a
landing in Africa with 120 vessels, in order to prevent Carthage from
sending reinforcements to Hannibal. (Titus Livius, XXII. 31.)--In 538,
the fleet of Sicily is reinforced with 25 ships. (Titus Livius, XXII.
37.)--In 539, Valerius Lævinus had 25 vessels to protect the coast of
the Adriatic, and Fluvius the same number to watch the coast of Ostia
(Titus Livius, XXIII. 32) after which the Adriatic fleet, raised to 55
sails, is sent to act as a check upon Macedonia. (Titus Livius, XXIII.
38.)--The same year, the fleet of Sicily, under Titus Otacilius, defeats
the Carthaginians. (Titus Livius, XXIII. 41.)--In 540 Rome has 150
vessels (Titus Livius, XXIV. 11) this year and the following, the Roman
fleet defends Apollonia, attacked by the King of Macedonia, and lands
troops which ravage the territory of Utica. The effective strength of
the Roman fleet appears not to have varied until 543, the epoch at which
Greece again required the presence of 50 Roman ships and Sicily 100.
(Titus Livius, XXVI. 1.)--In 544, 20 vessels were stationed in the
waters of Rhegium, to secure the passage of provisions between Sicily
and the garrison of Tarentum. (Titus Livius, XXVI. 39.)--In 545, 30
sails are detached from the fleet of Sicily to cruise before that town.
(Titus Livius, XXVII. 22.)--In 546, Carthage was preparing a formidable
fleet of 200 sails (Titus Livius, XXVII. 22); Rome opposes it with 280
ships: 30 defend the coast of Spain, 50 guard Sardinia, 50 the mouths of
the Tiber, 50 Macedonia, 100 are stationed in Sicily, ready to make a
descent in Africa, and the Carthaginian fleet is beaten before Clupea.
(Titus Livius, XXVII. 29.)--Lastly, in 547, a second victory gained by
Valerius Lævinus renders the sea entirely free. (Titus Livius, XXVIII.
4.)
[531] “The Carthaginians, occupied only with the care of maintaining
themselves in Spain, sent no succour to Hannibal, as though he had had
nothing but successes in Italy.” (Titus Livius, XXVIII. 12.)
[532] Titus Livius, XXIII. 13 and 41.
[533] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, liv.
[534] In 540, Rome had on foot eighteen legions; in 541, twenty legions;
in 542 and 543, twenty-three legions; in 544 and 546, twenty-one; in
547, twenty-three; in 551, twenty; in 552, sixteen; in 553, fourteen; in
554, the number is reduced to six. (Titus Livius, XXIV. 11-44; XXV. 3;
XXVI. 1, 28; XXVII. 22, 36; XXX. 2, 27, 41; XXXI. 8.)
[535] “The Romans raised their infantry and cavalry only in Rome and
Latium.” (Titus Livius, XXII. 37.)
[536] Titus Livius, XXIII. 23.
[537] Q. Metellus said “that the invasion of Hannibal had re-awakened
the slumbering virtue of the Roman people.” (Valerius Maximus, VII. ii.
3.)
[538] The Senate demanded of thirty colonies men and money. Eighteen
gave both with eagerness, namely, Signia, Norba, Saticulum, Brundusium,
Fregellæ, Luceria, Venusia, Adria, Firmum, Ariminum, Pontia, Pæstum,
Cosa, Beneventum, Isernia, Spoletum, Placentia, and Cremona. The twelve
colonies which refused to give any succours, pretending that they had
neither men nor money, were: Nepete, Sutrium, Ardea, Cales, Alba,
Carseoli, Cora, Suessa, Setia, Circeii, Narnia, Interamna. (Titus
Livius, XXVII. 9.)
[539] “The quarrels and struggles between the two parties ended in the
second Punic war.” (Sallust, _Fragments_, I. vii.)
[540] “Four tribes referred it to the Senate to grant the right of
suffrage to Formiæ, Fundi, and Arpinum; but they were told in reply that
to the people alone belonged the right of suffrage.” (Titus Livius,
XXXVIII. 36.)
[541] “The annual change of generals was disastrous to the Romans. They
recalled all those who had experience in war, as though they had been
sent not to fight, but only to practice.” (Zonaras, _Annales_, VIII.
16.)
[542] Titus Livius, XXII. 29.
[543] Titus Livius, XXVII. 5, 7.
[544] Titus Livius, XXXII. 28.
[545] Titus Livius, XXXI. 4, 49.
[546] Titus Livius, XXIV. 49.--Polybius, III. 75.
[547] Zonaras, _Annales_, VIII. 16.
[548] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 3.
[549] Plutarch, _Marcellus_, 28.
[550] Titus Livius, XXIII. 30.
[551] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 54.
[552] “Et equites Romanos milites et negociatores.” (Sallust,
_Jugurtha_, 65.)
[553] “In 342, a senator and two knights were charged, during a famine,
with the provisioning of Rome.” (Titus Livius, IV. 3.)
[554] _Seminarium senatus._ (Titus Livius, XLII. 61.)
[555] Titus Livius, XXIII. 49.--Valerius Maximus, V. vi. 8.
[556] Titus Livius, XXI. 63; XXV. 3.
[557] Valerius Maximus, IV. viii. 2.
[558] Valerius Maximus, IV. v. 1.
[559] They had no deliberative voice, because, according to the public
Roman law, no acting magistrate could vote. (See Mommsen, i. 187.)
[560] “Now you have still the comitia by centuries, and the comitia by
tribes. As for the comitia by curiæ, they are observed only for the
auspices.” (Cicero, _Second Oration on the Agrarian Law_, 9.)
[561] The ancient mode of division by curiæ had lost all significance
and ceased to be in use. (Ovid, _Fasti_, II. 1. 531.) So Cicero says,
speaking of them: “The comitia, which are retained only for the sake of
form, and because of the auspices, and which, represented by the thirty
lictors, are but the appearance of what was before. _Ad speciem atque
usurpationem vetustatis._” (_Oration on the Agrarian Law_, II. 12.)--In
the latter times of the Republic, the curiæ, in the election of the
magistrates, had only the inauguration of the flamens, of the king of
the sacrifices (_rex sacrificulus_), and probably the choice of the
grand curion (_curio maximus_). (Titus Livius, XXVII. 8.--Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, V. 1.--Aulus Gellius, XV. 27.--Titus Livius, XXVII. vi.
36.)
[562] “Achaia alone had twelve hundred for her share.” (Titus Livius,
XXXIV. 50.)
[563] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 32.
[564] “The allies exclaimed that the war must be continued, and the
tyrant exterminated, without which the liberty of Greece would be always
in danger. It would have been better not to have taken up arms at all
than to lay them down without having attained the end. The consul
replied, ‘If the siege of Lacedæmon retained the army a long time, what
other troops could Rome oppose to a monarch (Antiochus) so powerful and
so formidable?’” (Titus Livius, XXXIV. 33.)
[565] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 12.
[566] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 58.
[567] “Other peoples of Greece had shown in this way a no less culpable
forgetfulness of the benefits of the Roman people.” (Titus Livius,
XXXVI. 22.)
[568] Titus Livius, XXXVII. 45.
[569] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 43.
[570] Titus Livius, XL. 38; XLII. 22.
[571] Roads from Arezzo to Bologna, from Placentia to Rimini (Titus
Livius, XXXIX. 2), and from Bologna to Aquileia.
[572] ROMAN COLONIES--488-608.
_Æsulum_ (507), or Æsium, according to Mommsen, _Jesi_ in Umbria,
on the River Æsis.
_Alsium_ (507), a maritime colony, Etruria (_Via Aurelia_); _Palo_,
near _Porto_.
_Fregenæ_ (509), a maritime colony, Etruria (_Via Aurelia_); _Torre
Maccarese_.
_Pyrgi_ (before 536), maritime colony, Etruria (_Via Aurelia_);
_Santa Severa_.
_Castrum_ (555), _Pagus_, near Sylaceum; Bruttium, near
_Squillace_; united in 631 to the colony Minerviæ.
_Puteoli_ (560), maritime colony, Campania; _Pozzuoli_; Prefecture.
_Vulturnum_ (560), maritime colony, Campania; _Castelamare_, or
_Castel di Volturno_; Prefecture.
_Liternum_ (560), maritime colony, Campania; _Tor di Patria_, near
the _Lago di Patria_; Prefecture.
_Salernum_ (560), maritime colony, Campania; _Salerno_; decreed
three years before.
_Buxentum_ (560), maritime colony, Lucania; _Policastro_.
_Sipontum_ (560), maritime colony, Apulia; _Santa Maria di
Siponto_; recolonised.
_Tempsa_ (Temesa) (560), maritime colony, Bruttium; perhaps near to
_Torre del Piano del Casale_.
_Croton_ (560), maritime colony, Bruttium; _Cotrone_.
_Potentia_ (570), maritime colony, Picenum; _Porto di Potenza_, or
_di Ricanati_.
_Pisaurum_ (570), maritime colony, Gaulish Umbria (_Via Flaminia_);
_Pesaro_.
_Parma_ (571), Cispadane Gaul (_Via Æmilia_); _Parma_; Prefecture.
_Mutina_ (571), Cispadane Gaul (_Via Æmilia_); _Modena_;
Prefecture.
_Saturnia_ (571), Etruria (centre); _Saturnia_.
_Graviscæ_ (573), maritime colony, Etruria (south) (_Via Aurelia_);
_San Clementino_ or _Le Saline_ (?).
_Luna_ (577), Etruria (north), (_Via Aurelia_); _Luni_, near
_Sarzana_.
_Auximum_ (597), maritime colony, Picenum; _Osimo_.
LATIN COLONIES: 488-608.
_Firmum_ (490), Picenum (_Via Valeria_); _Fermo_.
_Æsernia_ (491), Samnium; _Isernia_.
_Brundisium_ (510), Iapygian Calabria (_Via Egnatia_); _Brindisi_.
_Spoletum_ (513), Umbria (_Via Flaminia_); _Spoleto_.
_Cremona_ (536), Transpadane Gaul; _Cremona_; reinforced in 560.
_Placentia_ (536), Cispadane Gaul (_Via Æmilia_); _Piacenza_.
_Copiæ_ (territory of Thurium) (561), Lucania.
_Vibo_, or _Vibona Valentia_, called also _Hipponium_, Bruttium
(565, or perhaps 515); _Bibona_. _Monte-Leone._
_Bononia_ (565), Cispadane Gaul (_Via Æmilia_); _Bologna_.
_Aquileia_ (573), Transpadane Gaul; _Aquileia_.
_Carteia_ (573), Spain; St. Roque, in the Bay of Gibraltar.
[573] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 26.
[574] Titus Livius, XLI. 19.
[575] Titus Livius, XLI. 22.
[576] Titus Livius, XLII. 62.
[577] Titus Livius, XLI. 5.
[578] Titus Livius, XLV. 21 _et seq._
[579] Titus Livius, XLV. 29.
[580] Titus Livius, XLV. 26.
[581] Titus Livius, XLV. 18.--“The laws given to the Macedonians by
Paulus Æmilius were so wisely framed, that they seemed to have been made
not for vanquished enemies, but for allies whose services it was desired
to reward; and in which, after a long course of years, use, the sole
reformer of laws, showed nothing defective.” (Titus Livius, XLV. 32.)
[582] Polybius, XXX. 10; XXXV. 6.
[583] Titus Livius, XLII. 24.--We see by the following passage in Livy
that Masinissa feared the justice of the Senate as against his own
interest: “If Perseus had had the advantage, and if _Carthage had been
deprived of the Roman protection_, nothing would then have hindered
Masinissa from conquering all Africa.” (Titus Livius, XLII. 29.)
[584] Titus Livius, XLV. 13.
[585] Titus Livius, XLV. 42.
[586] Titus Livius, XLV. 44.
[587] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 45.
[588] Titus Livius, XLI. 7.
[589] Titus Livius, XLIII. 1.
[590] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 3.
[591] “It was commonly said that the masters of the Spanish provinces
themselves opposed the prosecution of noble and powerful persons.”
(Titus Livius, XLIII. 2.)
[592] Valerius Maximus, VI. ix. 10.
[593] Montesquieu, _Grandeur et Décadence des Romains_, ix. 66.
[594] Scipio reproves the people, who wished to make him perpetual
consul and dictator. (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 56.)
[595] Cato used interpreters in speaking to the Athenians, though he
understood Greek perfectly. (Plutarch, _Cato the Censor_, 18.)--It was
an old habit of the Romans, indeed, to address strangers only in Latin.
(Valerius Maximus, II. ii. 2.)
[596] Plutarch, _Cato the Censor_, 8, 25.
[597] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLVIII.--Valerius Maximus, IV. i. 10.
[598] Plutarch, _Cato the Censor_, 34.--Aulus Gellius, VI. 14.
[599] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLIX.
[600] “Cato barked without ceasing at the greatness of Scipio.” (Titus
Livius, XXXVIII. 54.)
[601] “P. Cato had a bitter mind, a sharp and unmeasured tongue.” (Titus
Livius, XXXIX. 40.)
[602] “He declaimed against usurers, and he himself lent out, at high
interest, the money which he got from his estates. He condemned the sale
of young slaves, yet trafficked in the same under an assumed name.”
(Plutarch, _Cato the Censor_, 33.)
[603] Drumann, _Geschichte Roms_, v., p. 148.
[604] “The last act of his political life was to cause the ruin of
Carthage to be determined on.” (Plutarch, _Cato the Censor_, 39.)
[605] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLVIII.
[606] At Carthage, the multitude governed; at Rome, the power of the
Senate was absolute. (Polybius, VI. 51.)
[607] Titus Livius, L. 16.
[608] Appian, _Punic Wars_, 93 _et seq._
[609] Justin, XXXIV. 1.--Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LI.--Polybius, I. 2,
3.
[610] Pausanias, VII. 16.--Justin, XXXIV. 2.
[611] Polybius, XL. 11.
[612] Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 52.
[613] Eutropius, IV. 7.
[614] The town of Garray, in Spain, situated about a league from Soria,
on the Duero, is built on the site of ancient Numantia. (Miñano,
_Diccionario Geográfico de España_.)
[615] Appian, _Civil Wars_, V. iv. 38.
[616] Velleius Paterculus, II. 20.
[617] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 31.
[618] Titus Livius, XLV. 21.
[619] Titus Livius, VII. 43.
[620] In 555, 585, and 639. (Titus Livius, XLV. 15.)--Aurelius Victor,
_Illustrious Men_, lxii.
[621] The tribune Licinius Crassus proposed, in 609, to transfer to the
people the election of the pontiffs, until then nominated by the
sacerdotal college. This proposition was adopted only in 650 by the law
Domitia, and was anew abolished by Sylla.
[622] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LVII.
[623] The expedition against the Scordisci, in 619.
[624] Sallust, _Fragm._, I. 8.
[625] “Corruption especially had increased, because, Macedonia
destroyed, the empire of the world seemed thenceforth assured to Rome.”
(Polybius, XI. 32.)
[626] Sallust, _Fragm._, I. 10.
[627] The Romans expatriated themselves to such a degree that, when
Mithridates began war, and caused all the Roman citizens spread over his
states to be massacred in one day, they amounted to 150,000, according
to Plutarch (_Sylla_, xlviii.); 80,000 according to Memnon (in the
_Bibliotheca_ of Photius, Codex CCXXIV. 31) and Valerius Maximus (IX. 2,
§ 3).--The small town of Cirta, in Africa, could only be defended
against Jugurtha by Italiotes. (Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 26.)
[628] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 35.
[629] “And Rome refused to admit in the number of her citizens the men
by whom she had acquired that greatness of which she was so proud as to
despise the peoples of the same blood and of the same origin.” (Velleius
Paterculus, II. 15).
[630] See the list of Censuses at Note (^4) of page 256.
[631] Mommsen, _Geschichte Roms_, I., p. 785.
[632] The lands taken from the town of Leontium were of the extent of
thirty thousand _jugera_. They were, in 542, farmed out by the censors;
but at the end of some time, there remained only one citizen of the
country among the eighty-four farmers who had installed themselves in
them; all the others belonged to the Roman nobility. (Mommsen, ii.
75.--Cicero, _Second Prosecution of Verres_, III. 46 _et seq._)
[633] Plutarch, _Tiberius Gracchus_, 9.
[634] Diodorus Siculus, _Fragments_, XXXIV. 3.
[635] Diodorus Siculus, _Fragments_, XXXVI., p. 147, ed. Schweighæuser.
[636] Strabo, XIV. v. 570.
[637] “Our ancestors feared always the spirit of slavery, even in the
case where, born in the field and under the roof of his master, the
slave learnt to love him from his birth. But since we count ours by
nations, each of which has its manners and gods, or perhaps has no gods,
no, this vile and confused assemblage will never be kept under but by
fear.” (Tacitus, _Annales_, XIV. 44.)
[638] In 442, the censor Appius Claudius Cæcus causes the freedmen to be
inscribed in all the tribes, and allows their sons the entrance to the
Senate. (Diodorus Siculus, XX. 36.)--In 450 the censor Q. Fabius
Rullianus (Maximus) confines them to the four urban tribes (Titus
Livius, IX. 46); towards 530, other censors opened again all the tribes
to them; in 534, the censors L. Æmilius Papus and C. Flaminius
re-established the order of 450 (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XX.); an
exception is made in favour of those who have a son of the age of more
than five years, or who possess lands of the value of more than 30,000
sestertii (XLV. 15); in 585, the censor Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
expels them from the rustic tribes, where they had been again
introduced, and unites them in one sole urban tribe, the Esquiline.
(Titus Livius, XLV. 15.--Cicero, _De Oratore_, I. ix. 38.)--(639.) “The
Æmilian law permits freedmen to vote in the four urban tribes.”
(Aurelius Victor, _Illustrious Men_, 72.)
[639] Valerius Maximus, VI. 2, § 3.--Velleius Paterculus, II. 4.
[640] “I know Romans who have waited for their elevation to the
consulship to begin reading the history of our ancestors and the
precepts of the Greeks on military art.” (_Speech of Marius_, Sallust,
_Jugurtha_, 85.)
[641] Plutarch, _Tiberius Gracchus_, 8.
[642] “Tiberius Gracchus genere, forma, eloquentia facile princeps.”
(Florus, III. 14.)
[643] Velleius Paterculus, II. 2.--Seneca the Philosopher, _De
Consolatione, ad Marciam_, xvi.
[644] Plutarch, _Parallel between Agis and Tiberius Gracchus_, iv.
[645] “Pure and just in his views.” (Velleius Paterculus, II.
2.)--“Animated by the noblest ambition.” (Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 9.)
[646] Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 9.
[647] “It was at the instigation of the rhetorician Diophanes and the
philosopher Blossius that he took counsel of the citizens of Rome most
distinguished for their reputation and virtues: among others, Crassus,
the grand pontiff; Mucius Scævola, the celebrated lawyer, then consul;
and Appius Claudius, his father-in-law.” (Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 9.)
[648] Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 9.
[649] Aulus Gellius relates two passages from the speech of C. Gracchus,
which we think ought rather to be ascribed to Tib. Sempronius Gracchus.
In one, he has stated the case of a young noble who caused a peasant to
be murdered because he made a joke upon him as he passed in a litter; in
the other, he told the story of a consul who ordered the most
considerable men in the town of Teanum to be beaten with rods, because
the consul’s wife, going to bathe, had found the baths of the town not
clean. (Aulus Gellius, X. 3.)
[650] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 12.
[651] Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 16.
[652] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 13.
[653] Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 12.
[654] Machiavelli, _Discourse on Titus Livius_, I. 37.
[655] Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 16.
[656] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 14.
[657] Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 16, 22.
[658] Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 5.
[659] They interdicted to the magistrates deposed by the people the
exercise of all functions, and authorised criminal proceedings against
the magistrate who had been the author of the illegal banishment of a
citizen. The first of these struck openly at Octavius, whom Tiberius had
deposed; the second at Popilius, who, in his prætorship, had banished
the friends of Tiberius. (Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 8.)
[660] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 21.
[661] “In 556, the curule ediles Fulvius Nobilior and Flaminius
distributed to the people a million of _modii_ of Sicilian wheat, at two
_ases_ the bushel.” (Titus Livius, XXXIII. 42.)
[662] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 21.--Cicero, _Tusculan Disputations_,
III. 20.
[663] Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 7. According to what Polybius says, the
period of service was fixed at ten years, for we read in Plutarch:
“Caius Gracchus said to the censors that, obliged only by the law to ten
campaigns, he had made twelve.” (Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 4.)
[664] FIFTH PERIOD.--ROMAN COLONIES.
_Dertona_ (630). In Liguria, now _Tortona_.
_Fabrateria_ (630). Among the Volsci (_Latium Majus_). Now _Falvaterra_.
A colony of the Gracchi.
_Aquæ Sextiæ_ (631); _Aix_ (Mouths of the Rhone). Cited erroneously as a
colony, was only a _castellum_.
_Minervia_ (Scylacium) (632). In Calabria, now _Squillace_. A colony of
the Gracchi.
_Neptunia_ (Tarentum) (632). In Calabria, now _Taranto_. A colony of
the Gracchi.
_Carthago_ (Junonia). In Africa. A colony of the Gracchi, was only commenced.
_Narbo Martius_ (636). In Narbonnese Gaul, now _Narbonne_. Founded
under the influence of the Gracchi.
_Eporedia_ (654). In Transpadane Gaul, now _Ivrea_.
In this period Rome ceases to found Latin colonies. The allied countries
and the towns of the Latin name began to demand the right of city; the
assimilation of Italy, in respect to language and manners, is indeed so
advanced that it is superfluous, if not dangerous, to found new Latin
cities.
The name of _Colonies of the Gracchi_ is given to those which were
established essentially for the aid of the poor citizens, and no longer,
as formerly, with a strategic view.
Carthage and Narbonne are the first two colonies founded beyond the
limits of Italy, contrary to the rule previously followed. The only
example which could be mentioned as appertaining to the previous period
is that of _Italica_, founded in Spain by Scipio in 548, for those of
his veterans who wished to remain in the country. They received the
right of city, but not the title of colony. The inhabitants of _Aquæ
Sextiæ_ must have been in much the same situation.
[665] Velleius Paterculus, II. 6, 15.--Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 7, 8.
[666] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 19 _et seq._
[667] Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 9.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 23.
[668] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 27.--Cicero, _Oration on the Consular
Provinces_, 2, 15; _Oration for Balbus_, 27.
[669] Cicero, _Oration for Rabirius_, 4.
[670] Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 7, 12.--According to Velleius Paterculus
(II. 6), “he would have extended this right to all the peoples of Italy
as far as the Alps.”
[671] Pseudo-Sallust, _First Letter to Cæsar_, vii.--Titus Livius, XXVI.
22.
[672] “Aut censoria locatio constituta est, ut Asiæ, lege Sempronia.”
Cicero, _Second Prosecution of Verres_, III.--See, on this question,
Mommsen, _Inscriptiones Latinæ Antiquissimæ_, pp. 100, 101.
[673] In the province, the domain of the soil belongs to the Roman
people; the proprietor is reputed to have only the possession or
usufruct. (Gaius, _Institutes_, II. 7.)
[674] The senators were reproached with the recent examples of
prevarication given by Cornelius Cotta, by Salinator, and by Manius
Aquilius, the conqueror of Asia.
[675] Yet the _Epitome_ of Titus Livius (LX.) speaks of 600 knights
instead of 300. (See Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXIII. 7.--Appian,
_Civil Wars_, I. 22.--Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 7.)
[676] Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 12.
[677] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 24.
[678] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 17.
[679] “I am not one of those consuls who think that it is a crime to
praise in the Gracchi, as magistrates whose counsels, wisdom, and laws
carried a salutary reform into many parts of the administration.”
(Cicero, _Second Speech on the Agrarian Law_, 5.)
[680] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 27.
[681] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 31.
[682] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 5.
[683] “Marius had only made his temper more unyielding.” (Plutarch,
_Sylla_, 39.)--“Talent, probity, simplicity, profound knowledge of the
art of war, Marius joined to the same degree the contempt of riches and
pleasures with the love of glory.” (Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 63.)--Marius
was born on the territory of Arpinum, at _Cereatæ_, now Casamari (the
house of Marius).
[684] “Obtained the esteem of both parties.” (Plutarch, _Marius_, 4.)
[685] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 85.
[686] Plutarch, _Marius_, 10.
[687] Plutarch, _Marius_, 19.
[688] Plutarch, _Marius_, 11.
[689] Plutarch, _Marius_, 28.
[690] Plutarch, _Marius_, 29.
[691] Titus Livius, XXIII. 22.
[692] In our opinion, _bellum sociale_, or _sociorum_, has been wrongly
translated by “social war,” an expression which gives a meaning entirely
contrary to the nature of this war.
[693] Velleius Paterculus, II. 15.
[694] LIST OF THE DIFFERENT CENSUSES:--
Year of
Rome Census
187. 80,000. The first census under Servius Tullius. (Titus Livius, I. 44.
--Dionysius of Halicarnassus, IV. 22.--Eutropius, I. 7.)
245. 130,000. (Plutarch, _Publicola_, 14.)
278. 110,000. (Upwards of). (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, IX. 25.)--119,309
according to Eutropius, I. 14; and 120,000 according
to G. Syncellus, 452, ed. Bonn.
280. 190,000. (Rather more than). (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, IX. 36.)
(Towards
286). 8,714. (_sic._) (Titus Livius,
_Epitome_, III., ed. O. Jahn.) Correct it
to 118,714.
295. 117,319. (Titus Livius, III. 24.)--117,219 according
to the _Epitome_.
331. 120,000. (Canon of Eusebius, Olympiad lxxxix. 2; 115,000 according
to another manuscript.) This passage is wanting in the
Armenian translation.
365. 152,573. (Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXIII. 16, ed. Sillig.)
415. 165,000. (Eusebius, Olymp. cx. 1.)
422} (Titus Livius, IX. 19.--G. Syncellus, _Chronographia_,
to } 250,000. 525, has the number 260,000.)
435}
460. 262,321. (Titus Livius, X. 47; the _Epitome_, 272,320.--Eusebius,
Olymp. cxxi. 4, writes 270,000; the Armenian translator,
220,000.)
465. 272,000. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XI.)
474. 287,222. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIII.)
479. 292,334. (Eutropius, II. 10.)--271,234 according to Titus Livius
(_Epitome_, XIV.).
489. 382,234. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XVI.) Correct it to 282,234.
502. 297,797. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XVIII.)
507. 241,212. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIX.)
513. 260,000. (Eusebius, Olymp. cxxxiv. 4.)
534. 270,213. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XX.)
546. 137,108. (Titus Livius, XXII. 36.)--This enormous difference is wrongly
ascribed to the losses experienced in the first five years
of the Second Punic war, and Titus Livius states but a very
small difference, _minor aliquanto numerus quam qui ante
bellum fuerat_, which would give us cause to believe in
an error of the copyist in the number of the census,
so that we should read 237,108.
550. 214,000. (Titus Livius, XXIX. 37; _Fasti Capitolini_.)--The censors, as
is formally stated, had extended their operations to the
armies; in addition to which, many allies and Latins had
come to take their domicile in Rome, and had been included
in the census.
561. 143,704. (Titus Livius, XXXV. 9.) Here, also, there doubtless exists
an error; we must read 243,704. Perhaps, too, the censors
did not include in that number of citizens the soldiers
in campaign.
566. 258,318. (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 36); _Epitome_, 258,310. Many allies
of the Latin name had been included in the census.
576. 288,294. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLI.) The figures of the census of
preceding and following years lead us to adopt this number,
though the manuscripts give only 258,294.
581. 269,015. (Titus Livius, XLII. 10); _Epitome_, 267,231. “The reason
of the inferiority of the census of 581 was,” according to
Titus Livius, “the edict of the Consul Postumius, in virtue
of which those who belonged to the class of the Latin allies
were to return, to be taken for their censuses, in their
respective towns, according to the edict of the Consul
C. Claudius, so that there was not a single person of
the allies who was taken at Rome.” (Titus Livius, XLII. 10.)
586. 312,805. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLV.)
591. 337,022. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLVI.)
595. 328,316. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLVII.)
600. 324,000. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XLVIII.)
608. 334,000. (Eusebius, Olymp. clviii. 3.)
613. 327,442. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LIV.)
618. 317,933. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LVI.)
623. 318,823. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LIX.)
629. 394,726. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LX.)
639. 394,336. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, LXIII.)
667. 463,000. (Eusebius, Olymp. clxxiv. 1.)
684. 900,000. (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XCVIII.)--Dio Cassius (XLIII. 25)
relates that the census ordered by Cæsar after the civil
war had presented a frightful diminution of the number of
the population (δεινἡ ὁλιγανθροπἱα). Appian (II. 102) says
that this number had only reached about the half of the
previous census. According to Plutarch (_Cæsar_, 55), upon
320,000 citizens counted before the war, Cæsar had only
found 150,000. They confounded the registers of the distribution
of wheat with the lists of the census. (See Suetonius,
_Cæsar_, 41.)
Augustus says expressly that between the years 684 and
726 there was no census taken, _post annum alterum et quadragesimum_.
(_Monument of Ancyra_, tab. 2.)--The number
of citizens whom he found at that epoch, 4,063,000, is
about that which Cæsar might have declared. (Photius,
_Biblioth._, cod. xcvii.--_Fragm. Histor._, ed. Müller, III. 606.)
726. 4,063,000. Closing of the lustrum by Augustus on his sixth consulship,
with M. Agrippa for his colleague. (_Monument of Ancyra._)
746. 4,233,000. Second closure of the lustrum by Augustus alone. (_Monument
of Ancyra_.)
767. 4,037,000. According to the _Monument of Ancyra_; 9,300,000 according
to the _Chronicle of Eusebius_; third closure of the lustrum
by Augustus and Tiberius Cæsar, his colleague, under
the consulate of Sex. Pompeius and Sex. Appuleius.
[695] These two words are found on the Italiote medals struck during the
war. A denarius in the Bibliothèque Impériale presents the legend ITALIA
in Latin characters, and, on the reverse, the name of Papius Mutilus in
Oscan characters: [Illustration Oscan symbols], _Gai_, PAAPI + G (_ai
fili_).
[696] This measure satisfied the Etruscans. (Appian, _Civil Wars_, I.
49.)
[697] Velleius Paterculus, II. 20.--Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 49.
[698] See Note (^1) to page 226.
[699] “P. Sulpicius had sought by his rectitude the popular esteem: his
eloquence, his activity, his mental superiority, and his fortune, made
of him a remarkable man.” (Velleius Paterculus, II. 18.)
[700] Plutarch, _Marius_, 36.
[701] Plutarch, _Sylla_, 11.
[702] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 57.
[703] Appian, _Civil Wars_, I. 59. “Populus Romanus, Lucio Sylla
dictatore ferente, comitiis centuriatis, municipiis civitatem ademit.”
(Cicero, _Speech for his House_, 30.)
[704] “In conferring upon the peoples of Italy the right of Roman city,
they had been distributed into eight tribes, in order that the strength
and number of these new citizens might not encroach upon the dignity of
the old ones, and that men admitted to this favour might not become more
powerful than those who had given it to them. But Cinna, following in
the steps of Marius and Sulpicius, announced that he should distribute
them in all the tribes; and, on this promise, they arrived in crowds
from all parts of Italy.” (Velleius Paterculus, II. 20.)
[705] Velleius Paterculus, II. 20.
[706] Plutarch, _Pompeius_, 3.
[707] Plutarch, _Sertorius_, 5.