THE CIRCASSIANS AND THE COSSACKS
It is seventy-two hours by the fastest train from Vladikavkas to
Odessa, which is a practical realization of the size of the Russian
Empire, but the fastest trains are very slow when measured by the
American standard. The government, which owns and operates all the
railways in Russia, charges for extra speed on express trains, and then
runs them at twenty miles an hour, with long waits at every station.
It seemed unnecessary and unreasonable to delay a train for ten or
fifteen minutes every time it stopped, but I thought there must be some
reason for it, and I tried to gratify my curiosity by an investigation.
Inquiry disclosed the caution of the railway managers. When a train
arrives at a station the conductor notifies the man in charge of the
station ahead, and also the chief despatcher wherever he may be. He
then waits for orders. The telegraph operator at the next station
reports to the train despatcher that the track is clear, and the latter
then, and not until then, gives orders for the waiting train to move.
They take no chances. On a single track road one train only is given
the right of way, regardless of side tracks, and everything else is
held up until it is reported at the next station.
[Illustration: Type of the old fashioned Circassian]
The track traverses the great granary of Russia, which corresponds
to Minnesota and the Dakotas in the United States. The land is held
in large estates, partly cultivated by tenant farmers, and also
by a well organized system under the direction of administrators or
stewards, as they call them. Absentee landlordism is the curse of
this country, as it was in Ireland, and the profits of the crops are
wasted in St. Petersburg and Paris, in gambling and high living, and in
all possible forms of extravagance. Very little of the money is left
in the country; very little is used to improve the property or the
conditions of the tenants, although there are commendable exceptions.
Every village is an index to the character of the man who owns it.
The peasant farmers and the employés of an estate dwell and govern
themselves in communes or mirs, as they are called, and each has a
little tract of land for his own use, which he can cultivate at odd
times when his services are not needed on the farm. The landlord is
supposed to keep the houses of his tenants and employés in order, and
is expected to contribute to the support of the poor and afflicted,
to build a church and keep it in order, and to exercise a patriarchal
protection over everybody who lives on his estates, but this is only
theoretical in too many cases. The practice of a majority of the
landlords is to squeeze every cent they can get out of their tenants
and squander it in pleasure and dissipation.
The Russians are inveterate and reckless gamblers, and in the play of a
single night often lose enough money to make their tenants comfortable
for a generation. We were told of a Russian landlord of Daghestan who
lost $400,000 in a game at the Jockey Club in Vienna in one night.
These big estates, however, are being broken up, under a law passed
since Russia has a constitution, and are being divided into small
farms among the families who actually till them.
Large towns are few and far between, but the villages are numerous.
There are three or four cities of 25,000 or 30,000 inhabitants, markets
for the grain and other produce of the country, in a thousand miles,
but people there are accustomed to long distances. Rostov is the scene
of the commercial transactions of the population for 300 miles or more
on both sides of it.
One of the most prosperous towns is called Ekaterinodar, which means
“Catherine’s Gift,” and there is a story connected with it. The site
was presented to a colony of Cossacks by Catherine the Great as a
reward for their loyalty in 1792, and, with the reckless generosity
that characterized all the acts of that extraordinary woman, she built
their houses and shops and churches for them. It is now a thriving city
of 60,000 inhabitants, with a large trade in horses, cattle, sheep, and
grain.
At Piatigorski one can get the best view of Elburz, the highest
mountain in Europe, which lifts its proud head 18,526 feet above
the sea and looks even loftier than it actually is because it rises
almost directly from the plains. It is buttressed with other peaks
10,000 feet or more in height, but rises above the rest of the range
fully 7,000 feet like a block of Parian marble, pure and spotless and
without a flaw, one of the noblest pieces of sculpture ever carved by
the Creator’s hands. The native poets have called it the “Snow King’s
Citadel,” and it is the abode of Osching Padishah, “Emperor of the
Air.” His diadem of snow is eternal. Dikhtau, 16,924 feet in height,
Ikhara, 17,278 feet, Koshantan, 17,196 feet, and Kasbek, 16,546, make
the finest and grandest group of mountains this side of the Himalayas.
On a tablet imbedded in the walls of the public library at Piatigorski
is inscribed a record of the various attempts to ascend Elburz, and
a Circassian named Killar is credited as being the first to reach
the summit. Killar’s achievement is disputed, however, and the first
authentic ascent was made by two Englishmen, D. W. Freshfield of
Birmingham and a companion, with Swiss alpine guides, in 1868. These
gentlemen climbed Kasbek the same summer, and were probably the first
to do so.
The Circassians are a superstitious and a poetic people, and like
the North American Indians, have a legend attached to every freak of
nature and a story to explain every mystery. Their imaginations are as
fertile and as full of poetic conceits as the “Children of the Mist”
on the coast of Ireland. It is unfortunate that somebody has not taken
the trouble to translate their traditions and folk-lore into English.
The Circassians really have no literature, although their poets have
written many charming lines and there are two or three local histories
of merit.
They call Kasbek by many names, the “Ice Mountain,” the “Mountain
of Christ,” and the “Mountain of Bethlehem,” and among the ignorant
Ossets--one of the largest of the Circassian tribes--the belief exists
that the tent of Abraham and the manger in which Jesus was born are
preserved in a cavern under the eternal snow.
About one hundred years ago an aged priest organized an expedition to
ascend the mountain for the recovery of the sacred relics, but the old
man died from fatigue and the rest of the party were driven back by
storms. Several were so badly frozen that they were crippled for life.
Their sufferings and their failure were accepted as a decree of fate
and the sacred relics still lie in the cavern concealed by the snow.
All the territory west of Vladikavkas to the end of the mountain range
is known as Circassia. The inhabitants are divided into several tribes
of the same race but of distinct organization. They are descended
from the ancient Iranians and have occupied their country for about
2,600 years, so far as known. The Circassians are the most reckless,
irresponsible, and superstitious of all the people in that part of the
world. They are proverbially handsome, of perfect physical proportions,
active, brave, and temperate in their habits, but heartless, cruel,
relentless, and always unreliable. Few of them are industrious or
thrifty, or saving, they have no morals and for centuries have sold
their daughters to replenish the harems of wealthy Turks.
It is said that the name Caucasian was adopted for one of the main
ethnological divisions of the human race because Professor Blumenbach
found the most perfect types of skulls in Circassia.
The physical perfection of the women, and their vivacity, their
cheerfulness, their affectionate dispositions, and their adaptability
to any conditions in which they may be placed, made “Circassian
Beauties” the most desirable recruits for the harems, and the low
esteem in which the feminine sex is held by the Circassians made it
easy for them to sell their daughters into slavery. In ancient times
no Turk of any prominence or pride was without at least one Circassian
houri in his harem. The mother of Abdul Hamid, the late sultan of
Turkey, was a Circassian. But the sale and export of this class of
produce has been stopped by the Russian authorities, and the changing
conditions in Turkey have diminished the demand for Circassian beauties.
[Illustration: Type of the Circassian beauty]
[Illustration: A Circassian gentleman]
You have doubtless seen them in the side shows of circuses, and in
the dime museums throughout the world are hundreds of Circassian
girls leased by their parents for exhibition purposes. While they
are among the proudest of human beings, and, as I have already said,
are celebrated for their affectionate and generous disposition, the
Circassians are the only people in modern times who have ever sold
their daughters into slavery.
Among other national characteristics, which, however, is confined to
the Lhesian tribe, is bushy hair, similar to that worn by Paderewski,
the pianist. It is not universal. It is a tribal fad, and is cultivated
for the same reason that the German emperor has spent so much time in
the training of his moustache. Long hair is usually associated with
cranks, artists, and musicians, but in Circassia business men and even
farmers train their kinky locks to stand out from their skulls until
they have heads as big as a bushel basket. We see them on the street,
at the railway stations, and other public places.
The Circassians are almost always in rebellion against the Russian
government. They are not susceptible to discipline; they will not obey
the laws and they dislike to pay taxes. Although they profess the
most intense love of country, in 1858 nearly one half the population
of Circassia emigrated to Asia Minor, Bulgaria, and other provinces
of Turkey, carrying with them their insubordinate dispositions and
reckless habits rather than submit to a code of regulations introduced
by the Russian authorities.
One of the tribes, known as the Swannys, still practise the Mosaic
doctrine of atonement. When an injury is suffered or an offence is
committed they do not appeal to the courts, but impose the penalty in
person upon the cattle or the horses, or the crops or other property,
or upon the person of the offender. It is called “the Code of Blood,”
and the present code was prepared by Prince Royal Vakhtang in 1703. In
this code the life of a noble, an archbishop or a general is estimated
at 15,000 rubles ($7,500), and each social grade has its value, down to
the peasant, whose life is estimated at 6,000 rubles. If the offender
has no cash there is a clause authorizing that “cattle may be given in
lieu of coin.” A horse is estimated at sixty rubles and a bullock at
twenty in such settlements. If the offender refuses to settle for money
the price is paid in blood.
Only a few years ago a Circassian of wealth and influence, of education
and refinement, told a friend of mine in Odessa that he intended to
kill one of his neighbours at the first opportunity because the man
was odious to him and was making love to his daughter. He was afraid
the girl would yield to his blandishments and therefore thought it
judicious to kill him. He had come to Odessa in advance of committing
the crime for the purpose of borrowing funds to pay the blood money.
Rostov-on-the-Don, the capital of the Cossacks, is a live city, with
an enterprising and prosperous population of 160,000 or more; wide
streets, fine business blocks, handsome homes, attractive parks,
splendid churches, and all the modern improvements. It is one of the
greatest grain shipping ports in the world, being favourably situated
at the mouth of the river Don, and at the head of the Sea of Azov,
but that body of water is so shallow that most of the grain barges
that come down the river are towed on to Taganrog, the next port,
about thirty miles below, where there is enough water to accommodate
a 2,500-ton steamer. The channel at Rostov is only twelve feet. The
Sea of Azov is very shallow over its entire area, and has flat, sandy
shores, which slope so gently that a bather can wade two or three miles
into the water without wetting his ears. The Russian government has
promised to dredge a deeper channel and probably will do so one of
these days.
The valley of the Don is a famous wheat field, stretching back for
a hundred miles or more on both sides of its banks, and producing
large crops. The land is mostly owned by the Cossacks. They are very
progressive and seek the most efficient means of multiplying their
labour. Hence Rostov has an enormous trade in agricultural machinery
and implements. Several American companies have agencies there. The
Cossacks buy a great deal of machinery and implements, mostly Russian
ploughs, American harvesters, hay rakes, spreaders, etc., and English
threshing machines.
The valley of the Don is owned by the Cossacks. The entire province
belongs to the tribe collectively and is allotted in parcels of various
sizes to the different families, who occupy and cultivate it generation
after generation, although the title remains in the tribe. The
fisheries in the river and the Sea of Azov, the timber on the slopes
of the mountains, and everything else in the way of real property
belongs to the tribe in common. Some of the Cossacks have individual
wealth, none are poor. Those who save money and let it accumulate by
fortunate investments, however, are comparatively few. The majority are
spendthrifts. They know they will be taken care of by their tribe,
and that takes away the incentive to economy. The individual wealth
consists of horses, cattle, securities, household furniture, ornaments,
and investments of various sorts. Every Cossack, therefore, when he is
born is immediately a land owner.
The name Cossack was originally spelled “Kasak,” and is a Tartar word
meaning vagabond. This indicates the origin of this famous clan.
The original Cossacks were adventurers and outlaws from Circassia,
Daghestan, Georgia, and other parts of the Caucasus, whose restless
disposition drove them away from the homes of their fathers. They
joined the Russians living along the banks of the river and made up
that portion of the czar’s subjects known as the “Cossacks of the Don.”
Although they consider themselves the most essential part of the
Russian Empire, the Cossacks have always insisted upon maintaining
their independence and are actually a state within a state. They
were always wild and irresponsible and made guerrilla raids upon the
adjoining provinces. In 1770 they supported a pretender to the Russian
throne, who gave himself the title of Peter III. His followers ravaged
the valley of the Volga and threatened Moscow, but in 1775 were beaten
in battle with terrible loss. Pugatcheff, the pretender, was captured
and executed. After a time the Cossacks were granted amnesty and made
a treaty with the government of Catherine II, under which they were
given a vast tract of land on both sides of the river Don, and were
made practically independent. In return for these privileges they
agreed to furnish the czar a certain number of soldiers for his army,
without pay. That is the reason the Cossacks, the most important corps
in the Russian service, receive no compensation or rations or other
supplies. They provide their own horses and uniforms, their own guns
and ammunition, their own camp equipage, and receive no money whatever
from the public treasury.
Every Cossack is a soldier for life, subject to instant orders, and
always keeps a horse saddled and a rifle loaded ready for service.
A certain number are always in the army. Every Cossack is expected
to serve fifteen years consecutively and be ready to answer every
call that is made. The only exemption is made in favour of the sons
of dependent mothers, bread winners of families dependent upon them,
fathers who already have three sons in the service, priests and
teachers, and one out of four brothers. A rich Cossack can hire a
substitute if he pleases, and many of them do so.
Although the Cossacks are Tartars and come from Mohammedan stock, most
of them belong to what is known as the “Old Believers,” a sect of the
Russian Greek Church which condemns the splendour and extravagance
displayed in the houses of worship, the ritual, and in the ceremonies
of the Church, and advocates a return to the simple forms of worship
practised by the Saviour and His disciples. A small number of the
Cossacks still remain Mohammedans.
The beautiful black horses which the Cossacks ride and which are
admired by every one who visits Russia come chiefly from the province
of Tamboff, southeast of Moscow, northeast of Odessa, northwest of
Rostov and adjoining the Cossack province. This stock was introduced
from Arabia by Prince Orloff, the famous favourite of the Empress
Catherine II, and were scattered by him among the stock growers in
different parts of European Russia. Tamboff became the centre of the
breeding business because conditions are most favourable there. It may
be called the Kentucky of Russia. Nearly all the farmers have breeding
studs. There are several estates with thousands of mares that drop a
colt each annually. They are all dead black, without a blemish, with
long tails, beautiful thick manes, gentle dispositions, great speed
and endurance. The breeder never sells a mare; you never see a mare
working in harness--always a stallion, and they cost on the farm from
two hundred and fifty dollars up.
The farmers of southern Russia are quite contented with present
conditions. They have always been loyal to the czar, but they
applauded the constitution and unanimously approve of the legislative
government. They are also very generally in favour of the platform
of the constitutional democrats, which advocates making the ministry
responsible to the duma, instead of the czar, and thus having a
parliamentary party like that of Great Britain.
The government has established a string of land banks in order to loan
money to the farmers to buy land and to improve their holdings. When a
large estate is offered for sale the land is divided into small farms
by government appraisers, who fix the value and make out the deeds to
the purchasers. The land bank advances the money and takes a mortgage
on the property for thirty-five years at 3¼ per cent., 2½ per cent.
being considered as interest and ¼ per cent. being placed in a sinking
fund to redeem the bonds that are issued to raise the purchase money.
The farmer pays his annual interest into the bank in four quarterly
instalments. I was told that the sale of the lands belonging to
the crown and to the church is practically a humbug. A large area
belonging to both has been sold, but it was of comparatively little
value. The best quality and the largest proportion of both church and
crown lands have been reserved and will not be sold until some future
revolution compels the government to dispose of them.
The revolution of 1906 is practically forgotten. As soon as the farmers
of southern Russia got a law passed allowing them to buy farms of their
own they accepted the situation in good faith and have relied upon
the government to carry out its part of the agreement honestly. As
soon as they have land that they can call their own they are perfectly
contented.
Most of these peasant farmers are descended from serfs, who were
emancipated by Alexander II and they continue to live upon the soil
which their fathers worked as slaves, and they recognize the sons of
the men who owned their ancestors as their “patrons.”
The average Russian peasant is honest and industrious; he pays his
taxes and gives one fifth of all his income to the church, but he has
a terrible appetite for strong drink, and vodka, the Russian brandy,
made of potatoes, is his curse. The government, however, has done a
great deal to promote temperance. It has a monopoly of the liquor
business, both in manufacture and sale, and its policy to prohibit
the sale of liquor in agricultural villages has been strictly applied
to a considerable section in southern Russia, where no strong drink
of any kind can be obtained. Some of the country districts, generally
speaking, are strictly prohibition, but the sale of liquor as a
beverage is still permitted in the cities and the larger towns, and at
first-class restaurants, hotels, and eating houses.
A benevolent society, of which the duke of Orenburg, a brother-in-law
of the czar, is president, is doing a great deal of good in supplying
substitutes for saloons--temperance resorts and loafing places, where
the peasants can spend the long winter evenings amusing themselves,
without getting drunk. Non-alcoholic drinks are sold at these places,
with a sufficient profit to maintain them, and they are now found in
almost every village.
The greatest drawback among the peasant class in southern Russia is the
lack of schools. If the church would spend less money for gilded domes
and resplendent decorations in its houses of worship, and more for
school-houses, it would be a great benefit to the people. But whenever
you criticise the absence of school-houses, the loyal Russian always
attributes it to the lack of teachers. If you discuss the subject with
school boards and other educational authorities, they will tell you
that it is impossible to obtain competent teachers. The chief reason
is the low wages offered by the government. The peasants have been
making money for several years. They are saving it, and many of them
are using every means within their reach, except education, to improve
their condition. They have better homes and furniture than they ever
had before; they are breeding up their horses, sheep and cattle; they
are buying labour-saving machinery and the best seed in the market, and
still have money in the bank.