THE SALE AND RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES
The timber, the pasture, the water and mineral resources and the land
in the National Forests are for the use of the people, and they may
be obtained for legitimate use from the local Forest officers without
delay. In fact, the Forest Service is doing all it can to encourage all
kinds of business which depends upon National Forest resources.
THE SALE AND DISPOSAL OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER
There has been a steady increase in the amount and value of the
timber cut on the National Forests. During the fiscal year 1917 over
700,000,000 feet of timber, valued at almost $1,500,000, was cut, while
almost three times as much was sold. Most of this was cut in the States
of Montana, Oregon, Idaho, Washington, California and Arizona.
All mature timber on the National Forests which may be cut with benefit
and in accordance with certain well-established forestry principles, is
for sale and is advertised and offered as demand arises. The outstanding
feature of government timber sales is the fact that only the stumpage is
sold, the title of the land remaining with the Government. The timber
is sold in any quantity, so long as the sale is in accordance with
well-established policy. Large sales require a large initial investment
for constructing a railroad or other means for taking out the timber,
and may even require the construction of a common carrier from the
market to comparatively inaccessible regions.
_Government Timber Sale Policy._ The National Forest timber sale policy,
first of all, aims to prevent the loss of this valuable public property
through forest fires. This phase of the policy, however, is covered
under the chapter on protection. Next, it aims to utilize the ripe
timber which can be marketed and to cut it in such a way as to insure
the restocking of the land with young timber and the continuance of
forest production. The price at which timber is sold represents, as
required by statute, the appraised market value and a proper return to
the public which owns it. It is disposed of in such a way as to prevent
its speculative acquisition and holding, and to prevent monopoly.
National Forest timber has found its way into both the general,
far distant market, and the local market. But it is the aim of the
Forest Service to first of all provide for the requirements of local
communities and industries, including the free use and sale at cost to
settlers as authorized by statute. It is also the aim of the Forest
Service policy to make timberlands of agricultural value available for
settlement under conditions which prevent speculative acquisition but
encourage permanent and genuine farming. According to this policy, land
which at the present time is covered with a good stand of timber and
which has been shown to have a greater value for agricultural purposes
is cleared as soon as a bona fide sale can be consummated. And, lastly,
it is the aim of this policy to return as soon as possible the cost of
protection and administration of the National Forests, and to yield a
revenue to the States, since these are entitled by statute to 25 per
cent. of all gross receipts as an offset to the loss of local taxes
through the government ownership of the forests.
[Illustration: Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters of
Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground National Forest lands lie at
the headwaters of practically every large western river. This means that
the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water
power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction.
View taken on the Rainier National Forest.]
_Annual Yield and Cut._ Each year the amount of timber which can be
cut from each National Forest, according to sound forestry principles,
is authorized by the Secretary of Agriculture. This cut is based upon
the best available data as to the amount of mature and over-mature
timber needing removal, and the amount of annual growth on each Forest.
At the present time only a small percentage of the authorized annual cut
of the Forests is taken. Most Forests cut a very small part of their
annual allotment, but a few Forests cut their full annual yield, or
nearly so. On some Forests, the entire annual yield is used by local
industries and no timber can be sent to the general market; on others
a very small part of the annual yield is used by local needs and most
of the cut can be sent to the general market. On the Cascade National
Forest, in Oregon, for instance, the annual production is estimated at
about 200,000,000 feet, while the present local needs can be supplied
by approximately 1,000,000 feet. From such a Forest a large annual cut
can be made for the general market. On the Deerlodge National Forest, in
Montana, on the other hand, the annual yield is estimated to be about
40,000,000 feet, all of which is needed to supply the large copper mines
near Butte. From Forests like this, no sales for the general market can
be made.
Although the National Forests contain about six hundred billions of
board feet of timber, or about one-fifth of the standing timber in the
United States, only a small fraction of the available timber is actually
disposed of. This is due to the comparative inaccessibility of this
timber and the presence of large bodies of privately owned timber which
lie between it and the market. The result of this condition is that the
bulk of the salable timber on the Forests will be automatically saved
until such a time when most of the privately owned timber has been cut.
In this way, future generations will benefit and the public will receive
a much better price for it years hence than they could possibly obtain
now.
_Timber Reconnoissance._ Before any timber can be sold to advantage,
however, it is necessary to take an inventory of the timber resources.
In other words, it is necessary to know where the timber is, how much
there is, and what can be done with it. This timber estimate, or timber
reconnoissance, as it is called, is also needed to settle questions of
title arising from the presence of patented lands or valid claims; to
determine if cutting is advisable on a given area, and, if so, under
what stipulations; and to fix the minimum price at which stumpage is to
be sold. The annual yield, or the amount of timber grown or produced
annually upon an area, must be the ultimate basis of the annual cut, and
this yield can only be computed after an inventory of the timber has
been made.
Timber reconnoissance (valuation survey or valuation strips) involves an
estimate of the standing timber by small legal or natural subdivisions
of land, with the necessary land surveys, the preparation of an accurate
topographic and forest type map, and the compilation of detailed
descriptive notes. These notes deal with the condition and character
of the timber, the most practical methods of exploitation, the extent
and character of the young growth, and many other factors which affect
the management of timber lands. These data are secured at a cost of
from 3 to 10 cents per acre, depending upon the accessibility and the
topography of the region and the density of the timber. This work is
carried on both in the summer and in the winter. Up to date, about
21,000,000 acres have been covered by intensive reconnoissance and about
48,000,000 acres by extensive methods.
_Logging the Timber._ In order that my reader may better understand
various matters connected with the disposal of National Forest timber,
it will be necessary to give a brief outline of how timber and other
forest products are taken from the woods, and the different steps
necessary before a green tree in the woods becomes a board or a railroad
tie.
The methods of logging used in the National Forests are essentially
the same as those used on private lands, with the exception of certain
details, such as the protection of young growth, the cutting of snags,
and the disposal of the brush. The methods used, of course, vary with
the locality; they are different for the Pacific Coast, where donkey
engines are used, than for the Rocky Mountains, where horses are largely
employed. They vary with the climate, the topography, the size of the
timber, and the kind of product to be harvested. But a typical logging
operation, as carried on in the Sierras of California, will give an idea
of how logs are taken from the forest.
[Illustration: Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the
ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National
Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by
Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 feet. Battlement
National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.]
In the particular operation which I have in mind the timber was
located on the western slope of the mountains between 3,500 and 5,000
feet in elevation. The slopes were of medium steepness and much of
the timber was on level benches. The large sawmill was located at the
lower edge of the timber and the logging camp was in the woods near
the cutting. The felling of the trees, which were from 3 to 6 feet in
diameter, was done by two men with a two-man saw. These men are the
"fallers." Two men then cut the tree into logs and still other men
called "swampers" cut the brush and fallen trees away so that the newly
cut timber can be "skidded" to the railroad. This "skidding" is done by
a powerful, steam-driven stationary donkey-engine, which is fitted up
with a long cable and a drum. After the log is attached to the cable
out in the woods by means of a "choker," the man in the woods gives the
signal and the engine starts, revolving the drum and winding up the
cable at the same time pulling the log towards the engine. Just beside
this engine is a platform from which the logs are loaded directly on
flat cars. When six or eight flat cars are loaded in this manner a
locomotive hauls them to the sawmill where they are sawed into boards.
In this case as soon as the boards were cut they were placed in a flume
in which there was a strong stream of water. In this they floated about
40 miles to a town in the valley below directly into the company's
lumber yard.
In the Rocky Mountains one of the main forest products derived from the
National Forests is railroad ties. On the particular operation with
which the writer is familiar the Government had sold to a tie operator
about 3,000,000 railroad ties under a long term contract. This tie
operator had a large contract with a railroad company. The area of the
sale, several thousand acres, was divided or surveyed into long strips
each 100 to 150 feet wide and from one to one and a half miles long. A
large camp and commissary was established on the area. There were about
100 tie choppers and each man was assigned to a strip. On these strips
the trees to be cut were marked by a Forest officer. Trees too small to
make ties were left as a basis for a future tie operation in from forty
to fifty years.
The tie choppers usually worked alone. They first felled the tree with
a saw, cut the lower limbs off, and marked off the ties on the bark to
see how many ties could be cut from the tree. The tree was then "scored"
with an ax on both sides in order to start making the two flat faces of
the tie. These sides were then chipped with a "broad ax," thus making
two smooth faces. The bark was then peeled from the other two faces and
the tree was then cut into finished ties. After the ties were made the
top of the tree was lopped, that is, the branches were cut from the
trunk. In this operation these branches were scattered evenly over the
ground. The tie chopper then cleared a road through the middle of his
strip and "parked" his ties on the road. He then stamped his private
mark on each tie. In the winter the ties were "hauled" on large sleds to
the river bank. Each tie chopper's ties were put in a separate pile so
that the company's scaler could count them and credit them to the man
that made them. In the spring, when the river's banks were full, the
ties were "driven" down the river to the shipping point, usually a town
on a railroad line.
A Forest officer is detailed to an operation of this kind to inspect
the choppers' work and count and stamp the ties. He sees to it that
all trees that have been marked for cutting are cut, that no trees not
marked have been cut, that young growth is not unnecessarily injured,
that the stumps are not left too high, that the tops are fully
utilized, that the slashing or brush is disposed of according to the
contract, and that the operator is keeping all his agreements in the
contract.
_The First Step in Purchasing Government Timber._ After the desired
body of timber has been located, the first step for any one desiring
to purchase government timber is to communicate with an officer of the
National Forest in which the timber is located. If only a small amount
is desired--less than $50 in value--the local Ranger can arrange to make
the sale without delay. Amounts valued at more than this can be sold
only by the higher officials of the Service, that is the Supervisor,
District Forester, or the Forester, according to the size of the sale.
The Supervisor can sell up to two million feet; larger sales are made
by the District Forester or the Forester. All sales exceeding $100 in
amount must be advertised, except those made to homestead settlers and
farmers in a private sale. Sales are advertised in order to secure the
largest number of bidders possible and thus prevent the monopoly of
large bodies of timber by large timber operators.
[Illustration: Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains of
California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir are the principal trees.
Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California
Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital
importance. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.]
_Procedure in an Advertised Sale._ After the applicant has selected
the body of timber he wishes to purchase, he is furnished by the
Supervisor with a sample application stating the area, estimated amount,
minimum stumpage price, period allowed for cutting and removing the
timber, and other conditions to be complied with, following as closely
as possible the form of the final sale agreement. Usually, also, the
purchaser is interested in the amount of timber which he may cut per
acre. For this reason he visits sample areas on which the trees have
been marked for cutting. A notice of the sale of the timber is then
published, the choice of mediums and number of insertions depending
upon whether the sale is of local, regional, or general interest. This
notice describes the timber, gives the minimum stumpage prices that
will be accepted, and specifies the date upon which sealed bids will
be received. The period of advertising is at least 30 days, and in
large sales from 3 to 6 months. Forms for bidding are furnished to the
original applicant and others who signify their intention to bid. A
deposit is required with all bids to show the good faith of the bidder.
In large transactions this deposit is usually from 3 to 5 per cent. of
the purchase price. On the date specified in the advertisement the
Supervisor (or District Forester) opens all bids received and awards
the sale to the highest bidder. The sale contract is then prepared and
executed by the purchaser.
A specific statement of financial ability is required in all sales of
ten million feet or more, and in smaller sales in the discretion of the
approving officer. Such a statement may be required before the approval
of the sale application, either formal or tentative, and in any event
before the timber is awarded to the successful bidder. The contract must
be supported by a suitable bond given by two responsible sureties or by
a surety company authorized to do business with the United States.
[Illustration: Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain
peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest
lands. Photo by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp.
These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber
resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the author.]
_Timber Sale Contract Clauses._ The sale contract contains in full all
the conditions under which the cutting is to be done. In all sales of
National Forest stumpage the contract provides that no timber shall be
cut until it has been paid for, and that it shall not be removed until
it has been scaled by a Forest officer. All live timber is marked or
otherwise designated before cutting, and any merchantable timber used
for logging improvements, such as houses, bridges, stables, etc., must
be scaled and paid for. In order to secure full utilization of the
timber the maximum stump height is ordinarily fixed at 18 inches,
and merchantable timber must be used to a specified diameter in the
tops, which is adjusted for each species in accordance with local
manufacturing and market conditions. The officer in charge of the sale
is authorized to vary the stump height and top diameter in individual
cases when those specified in the contract are not practicable. The
tops must be trimmed up and, as a rule, brush must be piled and burned,
or burned without piling under the direction of Forest officers.
Merchantable timber which is not cut and removed and unmarked trees
which are cut must be paid for at double the specified stumpage rates.
This extra charge serves as a penalty.
All camps, buildings, railroads, and other improvements necessary in
logging and manufacturing the timber may be constructed upon National
Forest land without charge. Railroads which open up inaccessible regions
may be required to be made common carriers or to transport logs and
lumber for other purchasers or for the Government at reasonable rates.
Since fire protection is one of the most important duties of the
Forest Service, provision is made in all contracts that the purchaser
must place himself and employees, as well as the employees of his
contractors, at the disposal of authorized Forest officers for fighting
fires. Reimbursement is made for such services at the wages in vogue
for fighting fires on the National Forest in question, unless the fire
threatens the timber of the purchaser or property of the operator, or
is started in connection with the operation. Under these conditions
the purchaser is expected to furnish his available employees to assist
the Government in fire fighting without charge. Efficient spark
arresters are required on wood and coal burning boilers or locomotives.
Inflammable material must be cleaned up in the vicinity of logging
engines, and other precautions taken to insure against fire spreading
from this source. Snags and diseased trees upon the sale area must
usually be felled, whether merchantable or not, in order to remove fire
menace and to check the spread of timber infestations and pests.
[Illustration: Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged in
winter reconnaissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on
"Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 60. A winter reconnaissance camp showing
snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the
webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by
the author.]
_Special Contract Clauses._ Special clauses are inserted in contracts
to meet peculiar and unusual conditions. These deal with the number
of men the company is to furnish for brush burning; the time of the
year this work is to be done; the construction of fire lines; the
manner of scaling timber; the manner of piling and the location of
piles of material to be scaled; the definition of a merchantable log;
the utilization of tops; the manner or method of logging to be used;
the location of improvements; the use of timber for the construction of
improvements; the disposal of improvements at the termination of the
contract; where cutting is to begin and how fast it is to proceed; the
percentage of merchantable timber to be reserved in marking; and other
special clauses recommended by the Bureau of Entomology for the sale of
insect infested timber.
That the Forest Service timber sale policy and the various timber sale
clauses have met with the approval of the lumbermen and the timber
buyers of the Western States is attested by the fact that in the last
ten years (from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1917) there have been nearly
75,000 purchasers of National Forest timber and that between these two
dates the annual number of timber sales has increased from 5,062 in the
fiscal year 1908 to 11,608 in the fiscal year 1917. No better evidence
could be cited of the confidence which the lumbermen have in the Forest
Service method of doing business.
_When the Operation May Begin._ As soon as the contract has been
executed and the first payment has been made a portion of the timber
is marked for cutting and the purchaser may begin operations at once.
Sometimes cutting in advance of the execution of the contract is allowed
to prevent serious hardship and unnecessary delay and expense on the
part of the purchaser.
[Illustration: Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz County,
California]
_Marking the Timber for Cutting._ In order to insure a proper restocking
of the ground, all live trees must be marked or otherwise designated
by a Forest officer before cutting can commence. Usually from 1/10 to
1/3 of the stand is reserved, either scattered over the entire tract
or distributed in groups. These trees are left for various reasons,
depending upon circumstances. The most important consideration is, of
course, to leave enough seed trees to restock the cut-over area. On
steep slopes a certain number of trees must be left to protect the
watershed and to prevent the erosion of the soil. Many species of trees
are subject to windthrow when the stand is thinned out. To counteract
this tendency a sufficient number of trees must be left to prevent the
wind from getting an unobstructed sweep. In many semi-arid portions
of the West additional trees must be left standing to protect the forest
from excessive drying and to prevent the ground from being occupied by
useless tree weeds and brush. Often, especially along highways, trees
are left for their scenic effect. From an economic standpoint it is
important sometimes to leave trees in order to make a second cut worth
while.
Where only dead timber is purchased, and no living trees are cut, or
where patches of forest are to be cut clean, Forest officers, instead
of marking every tree to be removed, blaze and mark a boundary of the
cutting area or patch and instruct the purchaser accordingly. Where
individual trees are marked they are blazed and stamped "U. S." next to
the ground on the lowest side of the stump. Additional blazes may be
made several feet above the ground whenever desired by the purchaser
for the convenience of his "fallers" or where deep snow may conceal the
lower mark from the "fallers." Where both kinds of blazes are used, one
man, in fairly dense pine timber, can mark from 500 to 1,000 trees in a
day. Under no condition may unmarked or undesignated trees be cut by the
purchaser.
The system of marking and the proportion of the timber to be cut is
explained to purchasers by marking sample areas before the contract is
executed. The cost of logging under the methods of marking adopted is
compensated fully in the stumpage appraisal.
_Scaling, Measuring, and Stamping._ Unless timber is sold by estimate,
it must be scaled, counted, or measured before it is removed from the
cutting area or place agreed upon for this purpose. In addition it must
be stamped by a Forest officer with a regulation marking ax or similar
instrument. Payment is made upon the actual scale, count or measure,
with due allowance for defect.
All National Forest timber is sold under specifications which are in
accordance with those in commercial use, such as logs by the thousand
board feet, ties by the piece, poles by length and top diameter, shingle
bolts by the cord, and mining timbers by the linear foot. All logs are
scaled at the small end.
[Illustration: Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in
diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in California. Photo
by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California.
These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200
feet high. Note the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring the tree at
the left. Photo by the author.]
All saw timber is scaled by the Scribner Decimal C log rule. In order to
permit scaling at reasonable cost to the Forest Service, purchasers may
be required, where the cost of logging may not be unduly increased,
to skid and pile the logs for scaling. Piles and skidways must be
constructed so as to permit economical scaling and when necessary and
practicable the purchaser is required to mark the small ends of the logs
to avoid misunderstanding when they are scaled on the pile.
Logs or other material that has been scaled or measured are designated
by a "US" stamp impressed in the wood so that the material may not be
scaled again by mistake. Each merchantable log scaled is stamped on at
least one end and unmerchantable or defective logs are stamped "US" in a
circle. Material other than saw logs, such as mine timber, ties, posts,
poles, or piling, after scaling, is stamped on at least one end. Cord
wood is stamped at both the top and bottom of each rick.
On all National Forests except those in Alaska and west of the summit
of the Cascades in Washington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet are scaled
as two or more logs as far as practicable in lengths of not less than
12 feet. In Alaska and parts of Oregon and Washington logs up to and
including 32 feet in length are scaled as one log; logs from 32 to 64
feet inclusive are scaled as two logs as nearly equal in length as
possible in even feet. All diameters are measured inside the bark at
the top end of the log and diameters are rounded off to the nearest inch
above or below the actual diameter.
In the case of logs each one is numbered and the number entered in a
scale book with the corresponding board foot scale of the log. In the
case of ties, posts, poles, mining timbers, etc., each pile or skidway
is numbered and the count or scale entered opposite the corresponding
number in the scale book.
_Disposal of Slash._ One of the most important features in National
Forest timber sales is the disposal of the brush or slash after logging.
On account of the great diversity of conditions which obtain on the
Forests, the best way to dispose of brush is not everywhere the same.
Piling and burning is required where the fire risk is great; otherwise
the method promising the best silvicultural results is used.
[Illustration: Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam engines
pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars.
Photo by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where
the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 1917
timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treasury
almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author.]
When piling and burning is necessary, all tops and débris, including
large chips made from hewing ties, are piled at a safe distance from
standing trees. The piles are not allowed to be made in groups of
seedlings or young growth, against dead snags, near living trees, or on
stumps, large tops or logs, but wherever possible in openings. The
piles are adapted to the size of the opening in which they are made and
must be made sufficiently compact to kindle easily and burn cleanly. The
ideal pile is of medium size, conical in shape, compact, from 5 to 7
feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet high. Brush piling and
burning is an art which can only be acquired after long experience.
Brush is scattered whenever this method promises the best silvicultural
results, unless there is serious danger from fire on account of dense
timber and reproduction. The scattered brush is intended to afford
protection to seedlings from excessive transpiration and from trampling
by stock and to protect the soil from erosion.
Ground burning may be advisable where clean cutting has been employed,
to expose the loose mineral soil for better seed germination. When this
method is used the purchaser is required to clear a fire line around the
area to be burned and to furnish adequate help to the Forest officer who
supervises the burning.
Frequently brush is burned as the cutting progresses. Fires are started
at convenient points and the brush is thrown on them as it is lopped.
Where brush burning is necessary it is not advisable, ordinarily, to
burn over an entire sale area. It is frequently possible to burn the
brush so as to form broad fire lines, particularly along railroads or
wagon roads. The best times for brush burning are after a light fall
of snow or rain, early in the spring before the snow has melted or the
dry season has begun or during or immediately after summer rains. Brush
disposal must always keep pace with logging except when the depth of
snow or other reasons make proper disposal impossible. Often the brush
must lay in piles at least one season before it becomes dry enough to
burn.
_Payment for Timber._ Payment must be made for all timber in advance of
cutting. This, however, does not imply that one advance payment must be
made to cover the stumpage value of all the timber included in the sale.
Frequent installments are allowed sufficient usually to cover the cut of
one or two months.
[Illustration: Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing
a telephone line through the Flathead National Forest.]
[Illustration: Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman,
marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino
National Forest, Arizona.]
This arrangement makes it possible to secure large tracts of National
Forest timber at a very slight initial outlay and to hold them with
almost no interest charges. The other usual carrying charges, namely,
taxes and fire protection, are eliminated. The timber is protected
from fire by the United States throughout the life of the contract. The
money deposited to secure cutting in advance of the execution of the
contract may be credited towards the amount to accompany the bid.
_Stumpage Rates._ The minimum stumpage rates applicable in each
proposed sale are determined by a careful study of the conditions in
the particular case. Stumpage rates are the actual market value of
the timber. They are based upon the quality of the timber and the
character of its commercial products; the estimated cost of logging,
transportation, and manufacture; the investment required on the part
of the operator; the selling value of the product; and a fair profit
to the purchaser. The estimated profit depends upon the size and the
permanency of the operation and the degree of risk involved. The cost of
brush disposal, protection of young growth, logging only marked timber
and other requirements of the Forest Service is fully considered in
appraising stumpage rates.
Timber is ordinarily appraised at the rates indicated for the most
valuable products to which it is suited and for which an established
market exists. Merchantable dead timber is appraised at the same rate
as green timber of the same species unless it is clearly shown that
the products manufactured from it command a lower market price or that
logging costs are higher.
_Cutting Period._ Ordinarily the cutting period allowed in each sale
is only sufficient to permit the removal of the timber at a reasonable
rate, approximately equivalent to the working capacity of the plant.
Sales of accessible timber usually do not exceed 5 years in length.
However, in the case of inaccessible tracts requiring a large investment
for transportation facilities an exception is made and periods of from
15 to 20 years may be granted.
_Readjustment of Stumpage Rates._ In all sales exceeding 5 years in
length provision is made to have the stumpage rates readjusted by the
Forester at the end of three or five year intervals to meet changing
market and manufacturing conditions.
[Illustration: Figure 68. An excellent illustration showing the
difference between unrestricted logging as practised by lumbermen,
and conservative logging as practised by the Forest Service. In the
foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every
stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the Forest
Service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future
supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana.]
_Refunds._ Deposits to cover or secure advance cutting or to accompany
bids apply on the first payment if a sale is awarded to the depositor;
otherwise they will be refunded. Refunds are also made to the purchaser
if the last payment is in excess of the value of the timber that is
cut.
THE DISPOSAL OF TIMBER TO HOMESTEAD SETTLERS AND UNDER FREE USE
Besides selling the timber and other forest products outright, as has
just been described, some timber is sold to settlers at cost and much
timber is given away to the local people under the free use policy.
_Sales to Homestead Settlers and Farmers._ Sales to homestead settlers
and farmers are made without advertisement in any amount desired, at
the price fixed annually for each National Forest region of similar
conditions by the Secretary, as equivalent to the actual cost of making
and administering such sales. Only material to be used by the purchaser
for domestic purposes exclusively on homesteads or farms is sold in this
way. Such uses include the construction or repair of farm buildings,
fences, and other improvements and fuel. Such sales are restricted to
mature dead and down timber which may be cut without injury to the
forest.
_Free Use._ Free use of timber is granted primarily to aid in the
protection and silvicultural improvement of the Forests. Hence the
material taken is, except in unusual cases, restricted to dead,
insect infested and diseased timber, and thinnings. Green material may
be taken in exceptional cases where its refusal would clearly cause
unwarranted hardship. The use of such material is granted freely: (1)
To bona fide settlers, miners, residents, prospectors, for fire wood,
fencing, building, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes;
and to any one in case its removal is necessary for the welfare of the
Forest; (2) for the construction of telephone lines when necessary for
the protection of forests from fire; (3) to certain branches of the
Federal Government. Free use is not granted for commercial purposes or
of use in any business, including sawmills, hotels, stores, companies or
corporations. Such persons are required to purchase their timber.
[Illustration: Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of
piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights
are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico.]
[Illustration: Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National Forest.
These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted
by Forest rangers. From this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks
of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming.]
The aggregate amount of free use material granted annually to any user
must not exceed $20 in value, except in cases of unusual need or of dead
or insect infested timber, the removal of which would be a benefit to
the forest, or in the case of any timber which should be removed and
whose sale under contract cannot be effected. In these cases the amount
may be extended to $100. Supervisors have authority to grant free use
permits up to $100, District Foresters up to $500, and larger amounts
must have the approval of the Forester.
Free use material is appraised in the same manner and in accordance
with the same principles as timber purchased under sale agreements. The
valuation of such material is at the same rate as that prevailing for
similar grades of stumpage in current sales in the same locality.
The magnitude of the free use business may be appreciated from the
fact that during the fiscal year 1917 there were 41,427 individuals or
companies who received timber under this policy. The total amount thus
given away was 113,073,000 board feet valued at over $150,000.
Permits for this use are required for green material, but dead timber
may be taken without a permit. Supervisors designate as free-use areas
certain portions or all of any National Forest and settlers, miners,
residents, and prospectors may cut and remove from such areas free of
charge under Forest Service regulations any timber needed for their own
use for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting, or other
domestic purposes.
Material cut under free-use regulations must not be removed from the
cutting area until scaled or measured by a Forest officer. In some
cases this requirement is waived when by it the needs of the users are
met with greater dispatch and the cost of administration is thereby
reduced. The free-use applicant is required to utilize the trees cut
in accordance with local Forest Service practice and he is required to
avoid unnecessary damage to young growth and standing timber.
TIMBER SETTLEMENT AND ADMINISTRATIVE USE
When timber on National Forest land is cut, damaged, killed, or
destroyed in connection with the enjoyment of a right-of-way or other
special use, it is not necessary to advertise it for sale, but payment
therefor is required at not less than the minimum rate established by
the Secretary of Agriculture. Timber removed in this way is usually
scaled, measured, or counted and the procedure is identical with that of
a timber sale. But where timber is destroyed or where it is not worked
up in measurable form or where the cutting is done in such a way that
scaling is impracticable, settlement is required on the basis of an
estimate.
[Illustration: Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before burning.
Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that
forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. Bitterroot
National Forest, Montana.]
[Illustration: Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least
danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula National Forest,
Montana.]
In 1912 a new branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad was built across
a portion of the Lassen National Forest in California. The company
was going to use some of the timber, but most of it was to be destroyed
or disposed of in the easiest manner. Scaling was impossible, so the
company paid for the timber--about $10,000--on the basis of a careful
estimate made by the writer, then Forest Examiner.
The charge for all such timber is made on the basis of the current
stumpage rates for timber of like quality and accessibility included in
sales for all classes of material which have to be cut or destroyed and
which are commonly salable on the Forest.
Timber is often used by the Forest Service itself in the administration
of the National Forests. The Forester, District Foresters, and the
Supervisors are authorized to sell or dispose of under free use or
otherwise, within the amount each one is authorized to sell, any timber
upon the National Forests when such removal is actually necessary to
protect the Forest from ravages or destruction, or when the use or
removal of the timber is necessary in the construction of roads, trails,
cabins, and other improvements on the National Forests or in experiments
conducted by the Forest Service.
THE RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RANGE LANDS
The forage crop on the National Forests is for the use of the sheep and
cattle of the western stockmen and it is procured by means of grazing
permits which are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis. The
primary objects of the administration of government grazing lands are:
the protection and conservative use of all National Forest land adapted
to grazing; the permanent good of the live stock industry through the
proper care and use of grazing lands; and the protection of the settler
and home builder against unfair competition in the use of the range.
_Importance of the Live Stock Industry._ The grazing business, more than
any other feature of National Forest management, is immensely practical,
because it is immediately concerned with human interests. This industry
furnishes not only meat, but leather, wool, and many by-products.
That the National Forests play a big part in the maintenance of this
industry there can be little doubt, for it has been estimated recently
that 30 per cent. of the sheep and 20 per cent. of the cattle of the far
Western States are grazed in the National Forests. The Forests contain
by far the largest part of the summer range lands in the far Western
States and hence are of paramount importance. The winter grazing lands
in the West are so much greater in area than the summer lands, that for
this reason also National Forest range lands are in great demand.
_Permits Issued in 1917._ During the fiscal year 1917 more than 31,000
permits to graze cattle, hogs, or horses, and over 5,500 permits to
graze sheep or goats were issued. These permits provided for 2,054,384
cattle, 7,586,034 sheep, about 100,000 horses, about 50,000 goats, and
about 3,000 hogs. The total receipts for 1917 were over $1,500,000. The
gross receipts to the owners of the stock probably exceeded $50,000,000
and the capital invested in the stock no doubt amounted to over
$200,000,000.
An idea of the growth of the grazing business may be gotten from the
Forest Service statistics for the fiscal years 1908 and 1917. The
increase in the number of permits and the volume of the business is
due primarily to a better administration and better regulation of
grazing interests and more specifically to the increase in the carrying
capacity of government lands by wise and restricted use. Between these
two fiscal years there was no appreciable increase in the total area
of the Forests which would account for the increased business. In 1908
there were issued 19,845 permits for 1,382,221 cattle, horses and hogs;
in 1917 there were issued 31,136 permits for 2,054,384 animals. In 1908
there were issued 4,282 permits for 7,087,111 sheep and goats; in 1917
5,502 permits were issued for 7,586,034 sheep and goats. The number of
cattle and horses grazed has increased therefore by 50 per cent. and
the number of sheep and goats by 7 per cent. The total receipts have
increased from $962,829.40 in 1908 to $1,549,794.76 in 1917.
_Kinds of Range, Grazing Seasons, and Methods of Handling Stock._ For
the proper understanding of the grazing business on the National Forests
it is necessary to know something about the different kinds of range,
the length of grazing seasons, and the methods of handling different
classes of stock. Sheep and goat range differs materially from cattle
and horse range and the proper distribution of stock over a National
Forest cannot be effected unless this difference is recognized. Sheep
and goat range usually consists of low shrubs or brush and is known
collectively as "browse"; cattle and horses subsist mainly upon grass,
flowering plants and herbs. Sheep feel more at home on high mountain
slopes, while cattle and horses range usually on the lower slopes and
in the valleys, and especially in the broad meadows, around lakes and
along streams. Sheep are more apt to find feed in the forests, that is
under the trees; cattle prefer the open; they usually avoid the forest,
preferring to keep out on the open meadows and grassy slopes.
Naturally some ranges have feed at some seasons of the year and other
ranges at other seasons. Some of the National Forests in California
extend from an elevation of a few hundred feet in the foothills of the
great valleys to an elevation of more than 10,000 feet at the crest
of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The lower foothills afford excellent
feed soon after the beginning of the fall rains in November and, due
to the very mild winter which this region enjoys, there is excellent
feed in February and March. This is known as winter range. The medium
high slopes of the mountains have a later growing season and the sheep
and cattle reach there about June and stay until August or September.
Still higher up the forage matures later and the grazing season extends
from August until November. At these elevations the snowbanks usually
lie until July and the growing season is very short, for the new snow
usually buries the vegetation about the first of November. Thus stockmen
have what they call "winter range," "summer range," and "fall range,"
depending upon what seasons of the year the forage crop can be utilized.
The National Forests on the whole contain very little winter range,
hence stockmen must move their stock in the fall to private lands at
lower elevations either where the climate is considerably warmer or
where there is very little snowfall. A large part of the western winter
grazing lands are in regions of light snowfall, such as at the lower
elevations in Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado. Here the stock feeds
on dry grass. Stockmen who cannot get winter range lands must feed their
stock at ranches.
The characteristic habits of sheep and cattle require that they be
handled differently on the range. Sheep are herded in bands while
cattle are handled in scattered groups. The new and approved method of
handling sheep called the "burro system" calls for a burro with the
sheep to pack the herder's blankets and provisions. The herder camps
where night overtakes him. The herder and his band keep moving over the
allotted range from one camp to another until he has covered the whole
range. After leaving his last camp he is ready to begin all over again,
since the feed near the camp where he began has had two to three weeks'
time to grow a new crop. Cattle usually run loose singly or in groups
on their allotted range. Usually a range rider is camped on the range
to keep the cattle from straying to other ranges. He salts the cattle
to keep them on their own range, takes care of cattle that have gotten
sick, and takes care of the stock in other ways.
_Grazing Districts and Grazing Units._ The Secretary of Agriculture not
only has the authority to regulate grazing and prescribe the schedule of
grazing fees to be charged but he also regulates the number and class of
stock which are allowed to graze on each National Forest annually.
The ranges within the National Forests are used by the kind of stock for
which they are best adapted except when this would not be consistent
with the welfare of local residents or the proper protection of the
Forests. For convenience in administration Forests are divided into
grazing districts. A typical Forest is divided into from 4 to 6
districts which may be natural grazing units, natural administrative
units (coinciding with the Ranger districts), or parts of the Forest
used by different classes of stock or parts of the Forest having
different lengths of grazing seasons. Each grazing district is also
subdivided into smaller divisions, units, or allotments. These are
usually natural divisions defined by topographic boundaries, such as
ridges, mountains, streams, etc., or more or less artificial divisions
determined by the class of stock which uses them. For example, cattle
and horses ordinarily graze in the valleys along the streams, while
sheep and goats graze the crests of ridges and the slopes of mountains
and will cross none but shallow streams. Each range division or unit
is usually given a well-known local name, such as "Duck Lake Unit" or
"Clover Valley Unit." One or more stockmen may be allotted to such a
unit, depending upon the size of the unit and the number of animals
it can feed. If only one stockman uses it, it becomes an individual
allotment. Usually a sheep owner with several large bands of sheep is
allotted one large unit adapted to sheep grazing, while a large unit
adapted to cattle and horses may be allotted to one large cattle owner
or to two or more smaller owners. The manner in which sheep and goats
are handled makes individual allotments both practicable and desirable.
The boundaries of range allotments are usually well defined. In the
case of sheep they are marked with cloth posters. In most Forests range
allotments are fairly well settled. Each stockman gets with his permit
each spring a small map showing his own range and the surrounding ranges.
_Who Are Entitled to Grazing Privileges._ The Secretary of Agriculture
has the authority to permit, regulate, or prohibit grazing on the
National Forests. Under his direction the Forest Service allows the use
of the forage crop as fully as the proper care and protection of the
National Forests and the water supply permit. The grazing use of the
National Forest lands is therefore only a personal and non-transferable
privilege. This privilege is a temporary one, allowable under the law
only when it does not interfere with the purposes for which the National
Forests were created. It is non-transferable because it is based upon
the possession of certain qualifications peculiar to the permittee. To
understand these qualifications it is necessary to briefly look into the
history of the grazing of live stock on the western grazing lands.
[Illustration: Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. Sheep
and cattle are pastured on National Forests at so many cents per head,
hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. Wasatch
National Forest, Utah.]
[Illustration: Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe
National Forest, New Mexico.]
By long use of the public lands of the United States for grazing
purposes, long before the National Forests were created, stock owners
have been allowed to graze their stock upon such lands under certain
conditions of occupancy, residence, and ownership of improved lands and
water rights. This use, continuing through a long period of years, has,
in the absence of congressional legislation, been commonly accepted
in many communities, even receiving the recognition of certain of the
courts. It was allowed under "unwritten law," as it were, only by the
passive consent of the United States, but by force of the presidential
proclamation creating National Forests, such passive consent ceased,
being superseded by definite regulations by the Secretary of Agriculture
prescribed under the authority of Congress. Therefore grazing stock on
the Forests, as it was done before the Forests were created, is trespass
against the United States. Due to the fact that local stockmen have used
certain public ranges year after year by the passive consent of the
United States, these stockmen are recognized in these localities as
having preference rights or equities in the use of range lands. These
equities form the basis upon which grazing privileges are allowed.
Grazing permits are issued only to persons entitled to share in the
use of the range within the National Forests by reason of their
fulfilling certain conditions or requirements. Prior use and occupancy
of National Forest lands for grazing purposes is the first and foremost
requirement. Local residence and ownership of improved ranch property
within or near the Forest and dependence upon government range are
also conditions that may entitle a stockman to grazing privileges. The
Forest Service also recognizes those stockmen who have acquired by
purchase or inheritance stock grazed upon National Forest lands under
permit and improved ranch property used in connection with the stock,
provided circumstances warrant the renewal of the permit issued to the
former owner. The regular use of a range during its open season for
several successive years before the creation of the National Forest
and under grazing permit thereafter is what is meant by "prior use"
or "regular occupancy." The longer the period or use the greater the
preference right. No one can acquire this right to the use of National
Forest range, nor can it be bought or sold, but stockmen may acquire a
preference in the allotment of grazing privileges. This preference right
does not entitle him to continued use of a certain part of a Forest, but
only to preference over other applicants less entitled to consideration
in the use of the ranges open to the class of stock which he wishes to
graze. Certain stockmen may be given preference in ranges secured by
prior use and occupancy supplemented by heavy investments in improved
property and water rights.
Citizens of the United States are given preference in the use of the
National Forests, but persons who are not citizens may be allowed
grazing permits provided they are bona fide residents and owners of
improved ranch property either within or adjacent to a National Forest.
Regular occupants of the range who own and reside upon improved ranch
property in or near National Forests are given first consideration, but
will be limited to a number which will not exclude regular occupants
who reside or whose stock are wintered at a greater distance from the
National Forests. With this provision applicants for grazing permits
are given preference in the following order:
Class A. Persons owning and residing upon improved ranch
property within or near a National Forest who are dependent
upon National Forests for range and who do not own more
than a limited number of stock (known as the protective
limit).
Class B. Regular users of National Forests range who do not own
improved ranch property within or near a National Forest,
and persons owning such ranch property but who own numbers
of stock in excess of the established limit.
Class C. Persons who are not regular users of the National
Forest range and who do not own improved ranch property
within or near a National Forest. Such persons are not
granted permits upon Forests which are fully occupied by
classes A and B. Classes B and C are not allowed to increase
the number of stock grazed under permit except by the
purchase of other permitted stock.
From this classification it is very evident that the small local
stockmen who own approximately from 30 to 300 head of cattle and from
500 to 2,000 head of sheep and who own and reside upon the ranches
near the Forests are given the preference in the allotment of grazing
privileges.
_Grazing Permits._ Various kinds of grazing permits are required each
year on the National Forests. These are known as ordinary grazing
permits, on-and-off permits, private land permits, and crossing permits.
All persons must secure permits before grazing any stock on a National
Forest except for the few head in actual use by prospectors, campers,
ranchers, stockmen, and travelers who use saddle, pack and work animals,
and milch cows in connection with permitted operations on the National
Forests. Under these conditions 10 head are allowed to graze without
permit.
Persons owning stock which regularly graze on ranges partially included
within a National Forest, or upon range which includes private land may
be granted permits for such portions of their stock as the circumstances
appear to justify. This regulation provides for cases where only a
part of a natural range unit is National Forest land, and where the
economical use of the entire unit can be secured only by the utilization
of the Forest land in connection with the other land. The regulation
contemplates a movement of the stock governed by natural conditions,
between the Forest range and the adjoining outside range, or between
Forest land and intermingled private land. This is called an on-and-off
permit.
Permits on account of private lands are issued to persons who own, or
who have leased from the owners, unfenced lands within any National
Forest which are so situated and of such a character that they may
be used by other permitted stock to an extent rendering the exchange
advantageous to the Government. The permits allow the permittees to
graze upon National Forest land, free of charge, the number of stock
which the private lands will support, by waiving the right to the
exclusive use of the private land and allowing it to remain open to
other stock grazed on National Forest land under permit.
The regular grazing permit carries with it the privilege of driving the
permitted stock over National Forest lands to and from the allotted
ranges at the beginning and end of the grazing season and from the
range to the most accessible shearing, dipping, and shipping points
during the term of the permit. But crossing permits are necessary for
crossing stock over National Forest lands to points beyond the National
Forest, for crossing stock to private lands within a National Forest,
or for crossing stock to reach dipping vats or railroad shipping
points. Rangers sometimes are detailed to accompany the stock and see
that there is no delay or trespassing. No charge is made for crossing
permits, but it is absolutely necessary that persons crossing stock
comply with the regulations governing the National Forests and with the
quarantine regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture and
the state authorities.
_Grazing Fees._ The full grazing fee is charged on all animals under 6
months of age which are not the natural increase of stock upon which the
fees are paid. Animals under 6 months which are the natural increase of
permitted stock are not charged for. A reasonable fee is charged for
grazing all kinds of live stock on National Forests. The rates are based
upon the yearlong rate for cattle, which is from 60 cents to $1.50 per
head, depending upon conditions on the Forest. The yearlong rates for
horses are 25 per cent. more and the yearlong rate for swine 25 per
cent. less than the rate for cattle. The rate for sheep is 25 per cent.
of the yearlong rate for cattle. The rates for all kinds of stock for
periods shorter than yearlong are computed in proportion to the length
of the season during which the stock use National Forest lands. All
grazing fees are payable in advance.
When notice of the grazing allowance, periods, and rates for the year
has been received by the Supervisor he gives public notice of a date on
or before which all applications for grazing must be presented to him.
These public notices are posted in conspicuous places, usually in the
post offices. Applications for grazing permits are submitted on blank
forms furnished by the Supervisor. As soon as an applicant for a grazing
permit is notified by the Supervisor that his application has been
approved, he must remit the amount due for grazing fees to the District
Fiscal Agent and upon receipt of notice by the Supervisor that payment
has been made a permit is issued allowing the stock to enter the Forest
and remain during the period specified. All grazing fees are payable in
advance and the stock is not allowed to enter the National Forest unless
payment has been made.
_Stock Associations._ The thirty or more grazing regulations effective
on the National Forests are for the primary purpose of making the
National Forest range lands as useful as possible to the people
consistent with their protection and perpetuation. It is clearly
impossible to meet the wishes and needs of each individual user, but
it is often entirely possible to meet the wishes of the majority of
users if made known through an organization. The organization of stock
associations is encouraged by the Forest Service and the opinions and
wishes of their advisory boards are recognized when they represent
general rather than individual or personal interests. It is often
possible through these organizations to construct range improvements
such as corrals, drift fences, roads, trails, and sources of water
supply for the common good of the members of the organization and paid
for by them.
_Protective and Maximum Limits._ In order to secure an equitable
distribution of grazing privileges, the District Forester establishes
protective limits covering the number of stock for which the permits of
Class A owners will be exempt from reduction in the renewal of their
permits. Permits for numbers in excess of the protective limits will be
subject to necessary reductions and will not be subject to increase in
number except through purchase of stock or ranches of other permittees.
[Illustration: Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National Forest
at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats
grazed on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1917.]
[Illustration: Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in
Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000
cattle, horses, and swine on the National Forests.]
Protective limits are established to protect permittees from reduction
in the number of stock which they are allowed to graze under permit
below a point where the business becomes too small to be handled at
a profit or to contribute its proper share toward the maintenance of a
home. The average number of stock which a settler must graze in order
to utilize the products of his farm and derive a reasonable profit is
determined upon each Forest or, if necessary, upon each grazing district
thereof, and serves as the basis for the protective limit. Protective
limits have been established for various Forests running from 25 to 300
head of cattle and from 500 to 2,000 head of sheep and goats.
Increases above the protective limit are allowed only to purchasers
of stock and ranches of permit holders and any such increase must not
exceed the maximum limit. Class A permittees owning a less number of
stock than the protective limit are allowed to increase their number
gradually. Whenever it is found necessary to reduce the number of stock
allowed in any National Forest, Class C stock is excluded before the
other classes are reduced. The reduction on a sliding scale is then
applied to Class B owners. Class A owners are exempt from reduction.
When new stock owners are allowed the use of National Forest range upon
a Forest already fully stocked, reductions in the number of permitted
stock of Class B and C owners is made in order to make room for the new
man. Thus it is seen that the matter of protective limits is actually a
protection to the small stock owner; he is protected from the monopoly
of the range by big corporations.
When necessary to prevent monopoly of the range by large stock owners,
the District Forester establishes maximum limits in the number of stock
for which a permit may be issued to any one person, firm or corporation.
_Prohibition of Grazing._ It often becomes necessary to prohibit all
grazing on an area within a National Forest or at least to materially
reduce the amount of stock which is allowed to graze on a given area.
Sheep may be excluded from a timber-sale area for a certain number
of years after cutting or until the reproduction has become well
established. Where planting operations are being carried on it is
usually necessary to exclude all classes of stock. If investigations
show that grazing is responsible for the lack of reproduction over
a considerable area, the area or a portion of it may be withdrawn
from range use until young growth has become established again. The
watersheds of streams supplying water for irrigation, municipal
or domestic purposes may be closed to grazing of any or all kinds
of domestic stock when necessary to prevent erosion and floods
or diminution in water supply. Camping grounds required for the
accommodation of the public may be closed to the grazing of permitted
stock. Limited areas which are the natural breeding or feeding grounds
of game animals or birds may be closed to grazing. Areas within National
Forests infested seriously by poisonous plants may be closed to grazing.
_Protection of Grazing Interests._ The protection of National Forest
grazing interests is secured by the prevention of overgrazing, by the
prevention of damage to roads, trails, or water sources, by the proper
bedding of sheep and goats, by the proper disposition of carcasses, by
salting the stock and by the proper observation of the national and
state live stock and quarantine laws.
When an owner, who has a permit, is ready to drive in his stock upon the
National Forest he must notify the nearest Forest officer concerning
the number to be driven in. If called upon to do so he must provide
for having his stock counted before entering a National Forest. Each
permittee must repair all damage to roads or trails caused by the
presence of his stock. Sheep and goats are not allowed to be bedded
more than three nights in succession in the same place (except during
the lambing season) and must not be bedded within 300 yards of any
running or living spring. The carcasses of all animals which die on the
National Forests from contagious or infectious diseases must be burned
and are not permitted to lie in the close vicinity of water. In order to
facilitate the handling of stock and prevent their straying off their
range, they must be salted at regular intervals and at regular places.
In order to facilitate the moving of stock by stockmen from their home
ranches to their grazing allotments and to minimize the damage of
grazing animals to the Forests, stock driveways are established over
regular routes of travel.
SPECIAL USES
All uses of National Forest lands and resources permitted by the
Secretary of Agriculture, except those specifically provided for in
the regulations covering water power, timber sales, timber settlement,
the free use of timber, and grazing, are designated "special uses."
Among these are the use or occupancy of lands for residences, farms,
apiaries, dairies, schools, churches, stores, mills, factories, hotels,
sanitariums, summer resorts, telephone and telegraph lines, roads and
railways; the occupancy of lands for dams, reservoirs and conduits not
used for power purposes; and the use of stone, sand, and gravel. No
charge is made for a large number of these permits, some of which are
the following: (1) agricultural use by applicants having preference
rights under the Act of June 11, 1906; (2) schools, churches, and
cemeteries; (3) cabins for the use of miners, prospectors, trappers,
and stockmen in connection with grazing permits; (4) saw mills sawing
principally National Forest timber; (5) conduits, and reservoirs for
irrigation or mining or for municipal water supply; (6) roads and trails
(which must be free public highways); (7) telephone lines and telegraph
lines with free use of poles and connections for the Forest Service.
The occupancy and use of National Forest land or resources under a
special use permit (except those given free of charge) are conditioned
upon the payment of a charge and are based upon certain rates.
Agricultural use of land is given to permittees at a charge of from
25 cents to $1.00 an acre. Not over 160 acres are allowed to any one
permittee. Cabins cost from $3.00 to $5.00; hay cutting from 20 to 50
cents an acre; hotels and roadhouses from $10.00 to $50.00; pastures
from 4 to 25 cents per acre; residences covering from one to three acres
cost from $5.00 to $25.00; resorts from $10.00 to $50.00; stores from
$5.00 to $50.00 for two acres or less; and other uses in proportion.
Perhaps the use that is purchased most of all on the National Forests is
that for residences and summer homes. On many of the Forests they are
already in great demand. A large proportion of the population of the
far Western States seek the cool and invigorating air of the mountains
in the early summer because the heat of the valleys, especially in
California, is almost unbearable.
There are many desirable pieces of land on the National Forests
that are being reserved by the Forest Service especially for this
purpose for the people of the neighboring towns. For example, on
the Angeles National Forest in California the Supervisor had about
250 suitable sites surveyed in one picturesque canyon and in six
months 226 of them were under special use permits as summer homes.
A large reservoir--Huntington Lake--was constructed on the Sierra
National Forest in California as the result of a dam constructed by a
hydro-electric power company. Immediately there was a keen demand among
the residents of San Joaquin Valley for summer homes on the shores of
the lake. In a few years it is expected there will be a permanent summer
colony of from 2,000 to 3,000 people. The Forest Service has already
authorized an expenditure of $1,500 in order to furnish an adequate
supply of domestic water for the colony.
CLAIMS AND SETTLEMENT
Claims can be initiated upon National Forest lands under (1) the Act
of June 11, 1906, (2) under the mining laws, and (3) under the coal
land laws. In connection with these claims it is the duty of the Forest
Service to examine them, but the determination of questions involving
title is within the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior.
It is the purpose of the Forest Service to protect the lands of the
United States within the National Forests from acquisition by those
who do not seek them for purposes recognized by law. When it is
apparent that an entry or a claim is not initiated in good faith and
in compliance with the spirit of the law under which it was asserted,
but is believed from the facts to be a subterfuge to acquire title to
timber land, or to control range privileges, water, a water-power site,
or rights of way; or if it otherwise interferes with the interests
of the National Forests in any way, the Forest Service recommends a
contest, even if the technical requirements of the law appear to have
been fulfilled. It is bad faith, for instance, to hold a mining or
agricultural claim primarily for the timber thereon or to acquire a site
valuable for water power development.
_The National Forest Homestead Act._ At the present time there is very
little, if any, fraud connected with the Forest Homestead Act because
the land is classified before it is opened to entry. The greater part of
the work dealing with fraudulent claims is a relic of the old régime.
Before the Forests were established many Homestead and Timber and
Stone entries were made for the purpose of securing valuable timber.
A large number of persons resorted to settlement in order to secure
the preference right. It was the common custom in those days for land
cruisers to locate men on heavily timbered land either before or
immediately after survey and before the filing of the plats and the
opening of the land to entry. A cabin would be built upon the land and
some unsubstantial improvements made. When the National Forests were
created they contained great numbers of these squatters' cabins. Many
were abandoned but others attempted to secure title. Under the old
Timber and Stone Act timber could be secured for $2.50 per acre, but the
National Forests are not subject to entry under this act. So as a last
resort the squatters tried to prove up on the land under the Homestead
law. When the Forests were created the Service found a great many of
these fraudulent claims on their books, many of which were being brought
up annually for patent. Between December, 1908, and June 30, 1913, a
total of 498 entries for National Forest land were canceled in a single
administrative district. These entries represented fraudulent efforts
to secure title to 85,906 acres of National Forest land for speculative
purposes, involving nearly a billion feet of merchantable timber. During
the fiscal year 1913 alone 300,000,000 board feet of merchantable timber
in one district was retained in public ownership primarily because the
Forest officers brought out the facts. The lands in all cases were
covered with heavy stands of timber, very small portions of the land had
been cleared, the claimant's residence on the land was not in compliance
with the law, seldom was any crop raised on the land, and the claimant
in other ways did not carry out the intent of the law.
The Act of June 11, 1906, known as the National Forest Homestead Act,
provides for the acquisition by qualified entrymen of agricultural
lands within National Forests. The Act is in effect an extension of
the general provisions of the Homestead laws to the agricultural lands
within the National Forests, with the essential difference that the land
must be classified by the Secretary of Agriculture as chiefly valuable
for agriculture.
This Act authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture in his discretion to
examine and ascertain, upon application or otherwise, the location and
extent of lands both surveyed and unsurveyed in the National Forests,
chiefly valuable for agriculture, which may be occupied for agricultural
purposes without injury to the National Forests or public interests. He
is authorized to list and describe such lands by metes and bounds or
otherwise and to file such lists and descriptions with the Secretary of
the Interior for opening to entry in accordance with the provisions of
the Act. Agricultural lands listed by the Secretary of Agriculture are
opened by the Secretary of the Interior to homestead entry in tracts
not exceeding 160 acres at the expiration of 60 days from the filing of
the lists in the local Land Office. Notice of the filing of the list
is posted in the local Land Office and is published for a period of
not less than four weeks in a local newspaper. The Act provides that
the person upon whose application the land is examined and listed, if
a qualified entryman, shall have the preference right of entry. To
exercise this preference right, application to enter must be filed in
the local Land Office within 60 days after the filing of the list in
that office. The entryman can perfect his title to the land within a
certain period of years by fulfilling certain conditions of residence
and cultivation.
By the Act of June 6, 1912, known as the "Three Year Homestead Act," the
period of residence necessary to be shown in order to entitle a person
to patent under the Homestead laws is reduced from 5 to 3 years and
the period within which a homestead entry may be completed is reduced
from 7 to 5 years. The new law requires the claimant to cultivate not
less than 1/16 of the area of his entry beginning with the second year
of entry and not less than 1/8 beginning with the third year and until
final proof, except that in the case of the enlarged Homestead laws,
double the areas given are required. On a 160-acre claim, therefore, it
is required that 1/8 or 20 acres be under cultivation. A mere breaking
of the soil does not meet the requirements of the statute, but such
breaking of the soil must be accompanied by planting and sowing of seed
and tillage for a crop other than native grasses. The period within
which the cultivation should be made is reckoned from the date of the
entry. The Secretary of the Interior, however, is authorized upon a
satisfactory showing therefor to reduce the required area of cultivation
on account of financial disabilities or misfortunes of the entryman
or on account of special physical and climatic conditions of the land
which make cultivation difficult. The entryman must establish an actual
residence upon the land entered, 6 months after the date of the entry.
After the establishment of residence the entryman is permitted to be
absent from the land for one continuous period of not more than 5 months
in each year following. He must also file at the local Land Office
notice of the beginning of such intended absence.
_The Mining Laws._ Mineral deposits within National Forests are open to
development exactly as on unreserved public land. A prospector can go
anywhere he chooses and stake a claim wherever he finds any evidences of
valuable minerals. The only restriction is that mining claims must be
bona fide ones and not taken up for the purpose of acquiring valuable
timber or a town or a water power site, or to monopolize the water
supply of a stock range. Prospectors may obtain a certain amount of
National Forest timber free of charge to be used in developing their
claims. More than 500 mining claims are patented within the National
Forests every fiscal year.
A good example of mining claims located for fraudulent purposes were
those located on the rim and sides of the Grand Canyon in Arizona to
prevent the people from gaining free access to the canyon and make them
pay to enter it. These claims were shown to be fraudulent since no
deposits of any kind were ever found on them. They were canceled by the
higher courts and the land reverted to the people.
_Coal-Land Laws._ Coal lands are mineral lands and as such are subject
to entry the same as other mineral lands in the National Forests.
ADMINISTRATIVE USE OF NATIONAL FOREST LANDS
Lands within National Forests may be selected for administrative
uses such as Supervisor's and Ranger's headquarters, gardens,
pastures, corrals, planting or nursery sites or rights-of-way. These
administrative sites are necessary for the present and probable
future requirements of the Forest Service for fire protection and the
transaction of business on the National Forests.
WATER POWER, TELEPHONE, TELEGRAPH, AND POWER TRANSMISSION LINES
Along the streams within the National Forests are many sites suitable
for power development. These are open to occupancy for such purposes and
have the advantage of being on streams whose headwaters are protected.
The aggregate capacity of the water power sites on the National Forests
is estimated at 12,000,000 horsepower.
[Illustration: Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande National
Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain about one-third of all
the potential water-power resources of the United States.]
[Illustration: Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power Company,
on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado. Every fiscal
year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the
National Forests.]
The Government does not permit the monopolization of power in any region
or allow sites to be held for speculative purposes. The objects of
the regulations are to secure prompt and full development and to obtain
a reasonable compensation for the use of the land occupied and the
beneficial protection given the watershed.
Permits for power development on the National Forests usually run for a
term of 50 years and may be renewed at their expiration upon compliance
with the regulations then existing. Such permits, while granting liberal
terms to applicants, contain ample provision for the protection of the
public interests.
Applications for power permits are filed with the District Forester
of the Forest Service District in which the desired site is located.
Preliminary permits are issued to protect an applicant's priority
against subsequent applicants until he has had an opportunity to study
the proper location and design of the project and to obtain the data
necessary for the final application. Operation is allowed under the
final permit only. The permittee is required to pay an annual rental
charge under the preliminary and final power permits and definite
periods are specified for the filing of the final application, beginning
of construction and of operation. The rental charges are nominal in
amount, the maximum being about 1/16 of a cent per kilowatt hour. The
amount of annual payment for transmission lines is $5.00 for each mile
or fraction thereof if National Forest land is crossed by the line. No
rental charges are made for small power projects (under 100 horsepower
capacity), or for transmission lines used in connection therewith, or
for transmission lines which are part of a power project under permit
or for any power project in which power is to be used by a municipal
corporation for municipal purposes.
The Secretary of Agriculture has authority to permit the use of
rights-of-way through the National Forests for conduits, reservoirs,
power plants, telephone and telegraph lines to be used for irrigation,
mining, and domestic purposes and for the production and transmission
of electric power. No rental charges are made for the telephone and
telegraph rights-of-way, but the applicant must agree to furnish such
facilities to Forest officers and to permit such reasonable use of its
poles or lines as may be determined or agreed upon between the applicant
and the District Forester.
[Illustration: Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of streams
in the National Forests of the West capable of generating electric
power. It has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water power
resources of the western states are included in the National Forests.
Photo by the author.]
[Illustration: Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San
Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend absolutely upon
irrigation. The watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in
the National Forests and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of
the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards
valued at $10,000,000.]
APPENDIX
TABLE OF LAND AREAS WITHIN THE NATIONAL FOREST BOUNDARIES
June 30, 1917
Key: DN=District Number
-------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
| Headquarters | National | Patented | Total
State and | of | Forest | and other | area
Forest | Forest | Land | lands | (acres)
DN | Supervisor | (acres) | (acres) |
-------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
ALASKA | | | |
Chugach 6 |Ketchikan | 5,418,753 | 113,682 | 5,532,435
Tongass 6 |Ketchikan |15,451,716 | 29,284 | 15,481,000
ARIZONA | | | |
Apache 3 |Springerville | 1,182,782 | 93,618 | 1,276,400
Chiricahua[1] 3 |Tucson | 348,157 | 10,691 | 358,848
Coconino 3 |Flagstaff | 1,601,598 | 161,799 | 1,763,397
Coronado 3 |Tucson | 959,304 | 39,676 | 998,980
Crook 3 |Safford | 870,130 | 14,870 | 885,000
Dixie[1] 4 |St. George, | | |
| Utah | 17,680 | | 17,680
Kaibab 4 |Kanab, Utah | 1,072,375 | 525 | 1,072,900
Manzano[1] 3 |Albuquerque, | | |
| N. M. | 27,708 | 29,724 | 57,432
Prescott 3 |Prescott | 1,433,366 | 186,589 | 1,619,955
Sitgreaves 3 |Snowflake | 659,337 | 234,883 | 893,720
Tonto 3 |Roosevelt | 1,994,239 | 39,521 | 2,033,760
Tusayan 3 |Williams | 1,602,750 | 186,068 | 1,788,818
ARKANSAS | | | |
Arkansas 7 |Hot Springs | 626,746 | 331,544 | 958,290
Ozark 7 |Harrison | 291,840 | 237,338 | 529,178
CALIFORNIA | | | |
Angeles 5 |Los Angeles | 820,980 | 240,723 | 1,061,703
California 5 |Oriental | 807,444 | 255,178 | 1,062,622
Cleveland 5 |Escondido | 547,981 | 265,635 | 813,616
Crater[1] 6 |Medford, Ore. | 46,977 | 10,045 | 57,022
Eldorado[1] 5 |Placerville | 549,392 | 286,408 | 835,800
Inyo[1] 5 |Bishop | 1,269,980 | 67,800 | 1,337,780
Klamath[1] 5 |Yreka | 1,470,841 | 263,824 | 1,734,665
Lassen 5 |Red Bluff | 936,877 | 384,466 | 1,321,343
Modoc 5 |Alturas | 1,182,986 | 399,873 | 1,532,859
Mono[1] 5 |Gardnerville, | | |
| Nev. | 784,620 | 90,241 | 874,861
Monterey 5 |King City | 316,058 | 44,436 | 360,494
Plumas 5 |Quincy | 1,144,835 | 288,025 | 1,432,860
Santa Barbara 5 |Santa Barbara | 1,688,571 | 239,723 | 1,928,294
Sequoia 5 |Bakersfield | 2,194,926 | 274,344 | 2,469,270
Shasta 5 |Sisson | 803,448 | 783,432 | 1,586,880
Sierra 5 |Northfork | 1,489,934 | 172,626 | 1,662,560
Siskiyou[1] 6 |Grants Pass, | | |
| Ore. | 349,069 | 52,726 | 401,795
Stanislaus 5 |Sonora | 810,399 | 294,013 | 1,104,412
Tahoe 5 |Nevada City | 542,226 | 666,851 | 1,209,077
Trinity 5 |Weaverville | 1,430,547 | 315,600 | 1,746,147
COLORADO | | | |
Arapaho 2 |Hot Sulphur | | |
| Springs | 634,903 | 46,371 | 681,274
Battlement 2 |Collbran | 651,227 | 26,113 | 677,340
Cochetopa 2 |Saguache | 905,723 | 24,497 | 930,220
Colorado 2 |Fort Collins | 847,328 | 302,266 | 1,149,594
Durango 2 |Durango | 614,129 | 89,871 | 704,000
Gunnison 2 |Gunnison | 908,055 | 43,255 | 951,310
Hayden[1] 2 |Encampment, | | |
| Wyo. | 65,598 | 6,402 | 72,000
Holy Cross 2 |Glenwood | | |
| Springs | 576,905 | 28,795 | 605,700
La Sal[1] 4 |Moab, Utah | 27,444 | 176 | 27,620
Leadville 2 |Leadville | 934,017 | 122,503 | 1,056,520
Montezuma 2 |Mancos | 700,082 | 112,018 | 812,100
Pike 2 |Denver | 1,080,381 | 175,731 | 1,256,112
Rio Grande 2 |Monte Vista | 1,136,884 | 84,256 | 1,221,140
Routt 2 |Steamboat | | |
| Springs | 833,459 | 86,487 | 919,946
San Isabel 2 |Westcliffe | 598,912 | 52,288 | 651,200
San Juan 2 |Pagosa Spgs. | 617,995 | 127,005 | 745,000
Sopris 2 |Aspen | 596,986 | 59,014 | 656,000
Uncampahgre 2 |Delta | 790,349 | 77,511 | 867,860
White River 2 |Meeker | 848,018 | 23,012 | 871,030
FLORIDA | | | |
Florida 7 |Pensacola | 308,268 | 367,152 | 675,420
IDAHO | | | |
Boise 4 |Boise | 1,058,941 | 59,173 | 1,118,114
Cache[1] 4 |Logan, Utah | 513,617 | 31,447 | 545,064
Caribou[1] 4 |Montpelier | 681,540 | 30,090 | 711,630
Challis 4 |Challis | 1,259,237 | 10,753 | 1,269,990
Clearwater 1 |Orofino | 785,103 | 122,743 | 907,846
Coeur d'Alene | | | |
d'Alene 1 |Coeur d'Alene | 662,611 | 127,623 | 790,234
Idaho 4 |McCall | 1,193,439 | 15,841 | 1,209,280
Kaniksu[1] 1 |Newport, | | |
| Wash. | 198,757 | 260,220 | 458,977
Lemhi 4 |Mackay | 1,095,924 | 4,638 | 1,100,562
Minidoka[1] 4 |Oakley | 509,536 | 21,584 | 531,120
Nezperce 1 |Grangeville | 1,624,582 | 41,497 | 1,666,079
Palisade[1] 4 |St. Anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315
Payette 4 |Emmett | 831,926 | 31,748 | 863,674
Pend Oreille 1 |Sandpoint | 676,014 | 198,724 | 874,738
St. Joe 1 |St. Maries | 493,925 | 481,743 | 975,668
Salmon 4 |Salmon | 1,621,707 | 21,653 | 1,643,360
Sawtooth 4 |Hailey | 1,203,387 | 16,743 | 1,220,130
Selway 1 |Kooskia | 1,693,711 | 108,289 | 1,802,000
Targhee[1] 4 |St. Anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315
Weiser 4 |Weiser | 562,609 | 98,291 | 660,900
MICHIGAN | | | |
Michigan 2 |East Tawas | 89,466 | 74,412 | 163,878
MINNESOTA | | | |
Minnesota 2 |Cass Lake | 190,602 | 121,874 | 312,476
Superior 2 |Ely | 857,255 | 411,283 | 1,268,538
MONTANA | | | |
Absaroka 1 |Livingston | 842,467 | 145,243 | 987,710
Beartooth 1 |Billings | 662,537 | 19,393 | 681,930
Beaverhead 1 |Dillon | 1,337,223 | 27,777 | 1,365,000
Bitterroot 1 |Missoula | 1,047,012 | 108,856 | 1,155,868
Blackfeet 1 |Kalispell | 865,077 | 202,013 | 1,067,090
Cabinet 1 |Thompson | | |
| Falls | 830,676 | 195,874 | 1,026,550
Custer 1 |Miles City | 428,922 | 83,888 | 512,810
Deerlodge 1 |Anaconda | 833,178 | 130,822 | 964,000
Flathead 1 |Kalispell | 1,802,905 | 285,815 | 2,088,720
Gallatin 1 |Bozeman | 564,855 | 344,575 | 909,430
Helena 1 |Helena | 687,983 | 232,497 | 920,480
Jefferson 1 |Great Falls | 1,039,766 | 135,919 | 1,175,685
Kootenai 1 |Libby | 1,336,061 | 287,279 | 1,623,340
Lewis and | | | |
Clark 1 |Chouteau | 811,161 | 15,199 | 826,360
Lolo 1 |Missoula | 850,677 | 330,341 | 1,181,018
Madison 1 |Sheridan | 958,691 | 77,169 | 1,035,860
Missoula 1 |Missoula | 1,031,529 | 336,662 | 1,368,191
Sioux[1] 1 |Camp Crook, | | |
| S. D. | 96,743 | 17,798 | 114,541
NEBRASKA | | | |
Nebraska 2 |Halsey | 206,074 | 11,744 | 217,818
NEVADA | | | |
Dixie[1] 4 |St. George, | | |
| Utah | 282,543 | 7,807 | 290,350
Eldorado[1] 5 |Placerville, | | |
| Cal. | 400 | | 400
Humboldt 4 |Elko | 690,562 | 35,978 | 726,546
Inyo[1] 5 |Bishop, Cal. | 72,817 | 2,513 | 75,330
Mono[1] 5 |Gardnerville | 464,315 | 19,204 | 483,519
Nevada 4 |Ely | 1,220,929 | 39,871 | 1,260,800
Ruby 4 |Elko | 342,405 | 91,165 | 433,570
Santa Rosa 4 |Elko | 269,658 | 30,302 | 299,960
Tahoe[1] 5 |Nevada City, | | |
| Cal. | 14,853 | 47,274 | 62,127
Toiyabe 4 |Austin | 1,907,286 | 17,514 | 1,924,800
NEW MEXICO | | | |
Alamo 3 |Alamogordo | 603,779 | 269,877 | 866,656
Carson 3 |Taos | 856,647 | 68,654 | 925,301
Chiricahua[1] 3 |Tucson, Ariz. | 126,478 | 2,674 | 129,152
Datil 3 |Magdalena | 2,670,412 | 270,790 | 2,941,202
Gila 3 |Silver City | 1,463,708 | 136,292 | 1,600,000
Lincoln 3 |Alamogordo | 551,427 | 81,540 | 632,967
Manzano[1] 3 |Albuquerque | 754,772 | 488,007 | 1,242,779
Santa Fé 3 |Santa Fe | 1,354,545 | 122,148 | 1,476,693
NORTH DAKOTA | | | |
Dakota 1 |Camp Crook, | | |
| S. D. | 6,054 | 7,866 | 13,920
OKLAHOMA | | | |
Wichita 7 |Cache | 61,480 | 160 | 61,640
OREGON | | | |
Cascade 6 |Eugene | 1,021,461 | 73,024 | 1,094,485
Crater[1] 6 |Medford | 793,044 | 286,281 | 1,079,325
Deschutes 6 |Bend | 1,292,423 | 217,437 | 1,509,860
Fremont 6 |Lakeview | 884,494 | 86,782 | 971,366
Klamath[1] 5 |Yreka, Cal. | 4,401 | 4,492 | 8,893
Malheur 6 |John Day | 1,057,682 | 205,158 | 1,262,840
Minam 6 |Baker | 430,757 | 49,056 | 479,813
Ochoco 6 |Prineville | 716,564 | 102,466 | 819,030
Oregon 6 |Portland | 1,031,926 | 108,994 | 1,140,920
Santiam 6 |Albany | 607,099 | 112,884 | 719,983
Siskiyou[1] 6 |Grants Pass | 998,044 | 257,206 | 1,255,250
Siuslaw 6 |Eugene | 544,178 | 289,263 | 833,441
Umatilla 6 |Pendleton | 485,786 | 79,199 | 564,985
Umpqua 6 |Roseburg | 1,011,097 | 210,294 | 1,221,391
Wallowa 6 |Wallowa | 964,601 | 104,810 | 1,069,411
Wenaha 6 |Walla Walla, | | |
| Wash. | 425,504 | 36,540 | 461,954
Whitman 6 |Sumpter | 884,485 | 115,008 | 999,493
PORTO RICO | | | |
Luquillo 7 |None | 12,443 | 53,507 | 65,950
SOUTH DAKOTA | | | |
Black Hills[1] 2 |Deadwood | 483,403 | 118,608 | 602,011
Harney 2 |Custer | 548,854 | 79,093 | 627,947
Sioux[1] 1 |Camp Crook | 75,524 | 7,744 | 83,268
UTAH | | | |
Ashley[1] 4 |Vernal | 982,493 | 9,607 | 992,100
Cache[1] 4 |Logan | 265,594 | 53,987 | 319,581
Dixie[1] 4 |St. George | 432,784 | 26,106 | 458,890
Fillmore 4 |Ritchfield | 699,579 | 79,711 | 779,290
Fishlake 4 |Salina | 661,245 | 62,145 | 723,390
La Sal[1] 4 |Moab | 519,384 | 16,286 | 535,670
Manti 4 |Ephraim | 781,800 | 65,070 | 846,870
Minidoka[1] 4 |Oakley, Idaho | 72,123 | 20,157 | 92,280
Powell 4 |Escalante | 689,927 | 14,773 | 704,700
Sevier 4 |Panguitch | 729,061 | 73,599 | 802,660
Uinta 4 |Provo | 988,602 | 54,533 | 1,043,135
Wasatch 4 |Salt Lake City| 607,492 | 56,913 | 664,405
WASHINGTON | | | |
Chelan 6 |Chelan | 677,429 | 46,681 | 724,110
Columbia 6 |Portland, Ore.| 784,498 | 157,702 | 942,200
Colville 6 |Republic | 754,886 | 61,114 | 816,000
Kaniksu[1] 1 |Newport | 257,859 | 118,904 | 376,763
Okanogan 6 |Okanogan | 1,486,325 | 54,675 | 1,541,000
Olympic 1 |Olympia | 1,534,689 | 117,311 | 1,652,000
Rainier 6 |Tacoma | 1,315,891 | 245,579 | 1,561,470
Snoqualmie 6 |Seattle | 698,043 | 343,957 | 1,042,000
Washington 6 |Bellingham | 1,454,214 | 35,786 | 1,490,000
Wenaha[1] 6 |Walla Walla | 313,434 | 8,397 | 321,831
Wenatchee 6 |Leavenworth | 665,276 | 491,724 | 1,157,000
WYOMING | | | |
Ashley[1] 4|Vernal, Utah | 5,987 | 73 | 6,060
Bighorn 2|Sheridan | 1,119,725 | 16,475 | 1,136,200
Black Hills[1] 2|Deadwood, S.D.| 144,759 | 34,362 | 179,121
Bridger 2|Pinedale | 710,570 | 7,407 | 717,977
Caribou[1] 4|Montpelier, | | |
| Idaho | 6,547 | 813 | 7,360
Hayden[1] 2|Encampment | 322,175 | 43,445 | 365,620
Medicine Bow 2|Laramie | 469,786 | 41,596 | 511,382
Palisade[1] 4|St. Anthony, | | |
| Idaho | 250,501 | 3,119 | 253,620
Shoshone 2|Cody | 1,576,043 | 32,957 | 1,609,000
Targhee[1] 4|St. Anthony, | | |
| Idaho | 84,970 | 480 | 85,450
Teton 4|Jackson | 1,922,947 | 48,245 | 1,971,192
Washakie 2|Lander | 852,653 | 12,220 | 864,873
Wyoming 4|Afton | 899,980 | 12,020 | 912,000
| | |
Aggregate for the 147 National | | |
Forests |155,166,619|21,085,541 |176,252,160
----------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
[1] Area of National Forest in more than one State.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
* * * * *
Transcriber's Notes:
Simple typographical errors were corrected.
Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
This text uses both 'Uncampahgre' and 'Uncompahgre'; the latter
currently is the preferred spelling.
Page 55 "sunlight; without it is useless." Probably should be "sunlight;
without it, it is useless."
End of Project Gutenberg's Our National Forests, by Richard H. Douai Boerker