[_ca._ 1365-1225 B.C.]
Ye men of Egypt, ye have heard your king!
I go, and I return not. But the will
Of the great Gods is plain: and ye must bring
Ill deeds, ill passions, zealous to fulfil
Their pleasure, to their feet; and reap their praise,
The praise of Gods, rich boon! and length of days.--MATTHEW ARNOLD.
We come now to the period when Egypt reached the apex of its power;
when a series of great conquering monarchs made the name of Egypt
known and feared far beyond the confines of the Nile. Of these great
monarchs the name of one in particular was stamped upon the traditions
of Asiatic peoples and has passed into popular knowledge. This was
Ramses II, known to the Hebrews, and through them to the western world,
as the Pharaoh of the Oppression. Great as this monarch was, little was
known of him beyond the prejudiced recitals of the Hebrews, until our
own time, when the decipherment of the monuments has brought to light
the record of many of his warlike deeds. These records, like all such
narratives, are highly coloured and told from the standpoint of the
conqueror himself; but, with due allowance for exaggeration, they may
no doubt be accepted as accounts of actual events.
A peculiar interest attaches to the name of Ramses II in addition
to the never failing fascination of the great conqueror. We shall
therefore have occasion to review his deeds in detail as told by
the poet laureate of the day, and to consider various authoritative
estimates, both ancient and modern, that have been passed upon this
greatest hero of Egyptian history.[a] First Maspero:
Hor-em-heb, whose origin is unknown [there seems no reason to deny
that he was the famous general whose tomb has been discovered at
Saqqarah], nullified the efforts of Amenhotep and the other heretic
kings to lessen the power of Thebes and its god, for he re-established
the cult of Amen in all its splendour, had the temple of Aten pulled
down, and the materials used to erect one of the triumphal entries,
leading into the sanctuary of Karnak; the names of the heretic kings
were effaced, and their monuments utterly destroyed. The new king had
much to do to repair the disasters of the preceding years; at home all
the governmental machinery was out of order, and abroad, the countries
under the Egyptian yoke had ceased to pay tribute. Hor-em-heb put
down brigandage, he punished untrustworthy employers by death, and he
restored to the temples the properties which had been taken from them.
He imposed a tribute on the distant country of Punt, he made raids on
the tribes of the Upper Nile, and boasted of having subjugated the same
countries as Tehutimes III. We have no exact account of his conquests
except from his monuments, but they were numerous, and his reign seems
to have been glorious, prosperous, and long.
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1365-1355 B.C.]]
It is not known when the sceptre passed into the hand of Ramses I
nor how he was related to his predecessor. [Whether he were the son,
son-in-law, or brother of Hor-em-heb, has never been determined.] He
had, however, been in the service of Ai, one of the last of the heretic
kings, and also of Hor-em-heb, so it was at a somewhat advanced age
that he ascended the throne of the Pharaohs. An expedition in the year
II against Ethiopia, a short campaign against the Kheta [Hittites],
were the chief events of his reign. He died six or seven years after
his accession and left his son Seti (the Sethosis of Greek tradition),
as his successor.
KING SETI
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1355-1345 B.C.]]
Seti at once announced himself abroad as a conqueror in the following
words:
“His Majesty has just heard that the vile tribes of Shasu have
rebelled. The chiefs of their tribes, assembled at one spot, have been
filled with blindness of heart and violence so that each one destroys
his neighbour.”
Seti pushed right away toward the East across the desert, watered here
and there with ponds or springs, each protected by a fortress or at
least a tower--“The fortress of the Lion,” “The tower of Seti I,” “The
well of Seti I,” etc. Wherever the enemy appeared he was easily routed,
his trees destroyed; his harvests pitilessly cut. Going on from station
to station, the Egyptians arrived at the two forts of Ribatha [the
Rehoboth of the Bible] and Canaan. The latter, favourably situated by
a little lake upon one of the last of the Amorite hills, commanded the
entrance of one of the richest ports of southern Syria. It submitted at
the first onslaught, so the whole of the rich valley was pillaged by
the Egyptians.
This first success entailed greater ones; and Seti, going northward,
arrived at the port of Lebanon, where he obliged the people to cut
down their trees and send them to Egypt for the buildings he had
commenced in honour of Amen. From thence he repaired to the valley of
the Orontes, there to attack the Kheta [Hittites]; and a victory gained
over these traditional enemies of Egypt, formed a happy conclusion to
the campaign.[6]
The Pharaoh’s return was one perpetual triumph from the time he
appeared on the frontier, where he was welcomed by the priests, until
he arrived at Thebes and offered his prisoners to Amen. And Egypt
thought that the great days of Tehutimes and Amenhotep had returned.
Unfortunately, however, these triumphs were not so real as they
appeared. Southern Syria, crushed by the passage of armies, had
abandoned all ideas of any native resistance and surrendered almost
without a blow. The Phœnicians considered that a voluntary tribute was
less expensive than a war against the Pharaohs, and they amply consoled
themselves for the diminution of their liberty by getting hold of the
maritime commerce of the Delta.
But on the north the Kheta [Hittites] were more formidable than ever.
Free, during the time of the heretic kings, from the perpetual fear
of an Egyptian invasion, they not only extended their supremacy over
the whole of Naharain, from Carchemish to Kadesh, but they crossed
the Taurus, and penetrated into Asia Minor. It is not known how far
they carried their dominion, but it seems it did not extend beyond the
plain of Cilicia and Catania. Anyhow they entered into direct relations
with the people of the southern and eastern parts of the peninsula,
the Lycians, the Masu, the Dardanians, and the dwellers of Ilion and
Pidasa. Supported by such allies, and sometimes aided by companies
of their soldiers, the Kheta were a military power, quite equal to
withstanding the Egyptians and waging war against them. Seti saw the
position of affairs as soon as he attacked them, and although doubtless
he took Kadesh, and the greater number of the Amorite towns on the
Orontes without much trouble, the tenacity of the Kheta, always ready
to fly to arms in spite of defeats, finally exhausted his patience.
Tired of war, he concluded an alliance with King Maro-sar, son of
Shapalul, which lasted until his death. The dominion of the Pharaohs
did not extend beyond the Orontes. So, being limited to southern Syria
and Phœnicia, it gained in solidarity what it lost in extent. It seems
that Seti I instead of simply exacting a tribute, imposed Egyptian
governors on some of the conquered peoples, and in some places, like
Gaza and Megiddo, stationed permanent garrisons.
The reign of Seti I undeniably marked a brilliant epoch in the history
of Egypt. The treasure looted in Syria contributed to some of the
most perfect Egyptian monuments, such as the mausoleum at Abydos and
the hypostyle hall at Karnak, the tomb of the king. Seti was assisted
in these works by his son Ramses. During his father’s lifetime Seti
had married the princess Tui of the old royal family, probably the
daughter of Hor-em-heb, and granddaughter of Amenhotep III, so that
his son Ramses was, from the hour of his birth, considered by the
loyalist Egyptians as the only legitimate king. His father, therefore,
to prevent a rebellion, was obliged to make him co-regent when he
was quite a little boy, although he was not at first taken much into
account by either Seti or his ministers.
At ten years of age Ramses is said to have made war in Syria, and,
according to Greek tradition, in Arabia. And it was on his return from
these campaigns, that, ripened by age and experience, he began to take
an active part in the internal government of the kingdom and to claim
his royal prerogative. And henceforth we see his increasing personal
valour transform him from an obscure prince into a king, a “master of
the two worlds.”
Seti, now old, and worn out with the exploits of his youth, gradually
conceded all power to his son, and lived in retirement in his palace
for the rest of his days, the object of divine honours.
Certain pictures of the temple of Abydos show him seated on a throne
amid the gods. He holds the club in one hand and in the other a complex
sceptre, combining the different symbols of life and death. Isis is at
his side, and the lesser gods sit behind the all-powerful couple, to
whom Ramses addresses his prayer. It is a premature apotheosis of which
the conception does honour to the regent, but it leaves no doubt of the
real state of the kings in their old age. They were worshipped as gods,
but they did not reign. Seti was no exception to this common rule; he
was worshipped, but he did not reign.
Peace was threatened by an unforeseen danger. The people of Asia Minor
had hitherto been beyond the sphere of action of Egypt; but now several
races, such as the Shardana and Tyrseni, whose names were new to the
ears of the Egyptians, landed on the coast of Africa, and joined with
the Libyans. Ramses II defeated them, and the prisoners that he took
were incorporated in the Royal Guard; and the others returned to Asia
Minor, with such a recollection of their defeat, that Egypt was secure
from their invasion for nearly a century. Peace assured in the North,
Ramses repaired to Ethiopia, where he spent the last years of his
father’s reign in making raids on the nomadic tribes on the banks of
the Upper Nile.
On the news of the death of his father, Ramses left Ethiopia and
entered on his duties as sole king at Thebes. He was then at the height
of his fortune, and had several sons old enough to fight under his
banner. The first years of his reign were not disturbed by any war
of importance: in the year II there was a short expedition against
the Amorites, and in the year IV there was one to the banks of the
Nahr-el-Kelb near Beyrut. The Kheta [Hittites], faithful to the
alliance made with Seti, did not try to excite a rebellion; and the
people of Canaan, kept in check by the Egyptian garrisons, remained
quiet.
RAMSES II, THE GREAT
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1340 B.C.]]
So all went well till the year IV, when a terrible rebellion broke out.
The king of the Kheta (Mau-than-ar, son of Maro-sar) was assassinated
and succeeded by his brother, Kheta-sar, who convoked his vassals and
allies, and broke with Egypt. Naharain, and its capital Carchemish,
Arathu and southern Phœnicia, Kadesh and the country of Amaour, Kati
and the Lycians, joined the coalition, and the hope of pillaging the
Egyptian provinces of Syria, if not Egypt herself, made Ilion, Pidasa,
Kerkesh, the Masu, and Dardanians also join the Kheta against Sesostris
[Ramses].
[Illustration: BUST OF RAMSES II
(Now in the British Museum)]
Trojan bands crossed the whole length of the peninsula and encamped in
the valley of the Orontes, three hundred miles from their country. The
army brought into the field by Ramses shows how easily nations were
displaced at that time, for it was composed of Libyans, Mashauasha of
Libya, Masu and Shardana, the fruit of the victorious repulsion of the
invasion a few years before.
The Pharaoh established the basis of his operations on the frontier of
Egypt and the Arabian Desert in the town he had recently founded under
the name of Pa-Ramessu-Anekhtu (“the city of Ramses, the Conqueror”).
He traversed Canaan, still under his sway, and quickly bore down upon
the southern countries, only stopping at Shabatun, a Syrian village,
rather to the southwest of Kadesh, and in view of the town. During a
halt of some days he surveyed the district, and tried to discover the
position of the enemy, having only vague ideas on the subject. But the
allies, on the contrary, fully informed by their scouts, who mostly
belonged to the nomadic tribes of Shasu, were conversant with all
their movements; and the king of the Kheta, their chief, conceived and
carried out a clever manœuvre, which would have completely destroyed
the Egyptian army, had it not been for the personal bravery of the
Pharaoh.
One day when Ramses had advanced a little to the south of Shabatun, two
Bedouins came and said to him:
“Our brothers who are the chiefs of the tribes, allied with the vile
chief of the Kheta, send us to tell your Majesty that we wish to serve
your Majesty; we are leaving the vile chief of the Kheta, and know that
he is in the district of Khilibu at the north of the town of Tunep,
where he has retreated from fear of the Pharaoh.”
The king was deceived by this report, which bore the trace of truth,
and feeling safe from a surprise by the supposed distance of the enemy
(Khilibu being forty miles to the north of Kadesh), he advanced without
misgiving, at the head of his household chariotry, whilst the bulk of
the army, including the legions of Amen, Ra, Ptah, and Sutekh, followed
him from a distance.
Whilst he was thus dividing his forces, the allies, represented by
the traitors as far off, were secretly assembling on the northeast of
Kadesh and preparing to attack the flank of the Egyptian army on its
march to Khilibu. Their number was considerable to judge from the fact
that, on the day of the battle, the king of Khilibu alone commanded
eighteen thousand picked men; and, besides a well-trained infantry,
they had two thousand five hundred chariots, each carrying three men.
During these operations the scouts brought into the general’s camp
two other spies they had taken; and the king seems then to have had
his suspicions aroused, for he ordered them to be well beaten, so as
to make them confess. They then confessed that they had been sent to
watch the manœuvres of the Egyptian army, and stated that the allies,
assembled at Kadesh, were only waiting for a favourable opportunity
to appear. Ramses then called a council of war, and explained their
critical position. The officers excused themselves on the plea of the
imprudence of the governors of the provinces, who had neglected to
reconnoitre every day the position of the enemy, and they despatched an
express messenger to bring up the body of the army to the aid of its
chief.
Whilst the council was still sitting, the enemy approached, and when
the king of the Kheta brought his forces to the south of Kadesh, he
attacked the Ra legion, and so cut the Egyptian army in two.
The Pharaoh then in person charged at the head of his household
chariotry, and eight times he broke the ranks of the encircling army,
rallied his troops, and sustained the shock the rest of the day.
Toward evening the Kheta, losing the advantage they had gained in the
morning, beat a retreat before the Egyptian army, now in line; and at
the approach of night the battle was suspended until the following day,
when the allies were completely routed.
The equerry of the Kheta prince, Garbatusa, the general of his
infantry and chariots, the chief of the eunuchs, and Khalupsaru, the
writer of the annals of the sovereign for posterity, perished on the
battle-field. Many corps of the Syrian army cast themselves into the
Orontes to try to swim across it. Mazraima, the brother of the (Khetan)
king, succeeded in reaching the other bank, but the lord of the country
of Nison was drowned. The king of Khilibu was dragged half dead from
the water; and pictures of the battle represent him being held head
downward to disgorge the water he had swallowed. The conquered army
would no doubt have been utterly destroyed, had not a sortie of the
garrison of Kadesh arrested the progress of the Egyptians and allowed
the fugitives to return to the town. The following day the Khetan king
asked for and obtained peace.
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1340-1324 B.C.]]
But all hopes that this brilliant victory would terminate the war were
disappointed. For the country of Canaan and the neighbouring provinces
attacked the rear-guard of the victorious army, and the king of the
Kheta, profiting by this diversion, broke the peace. The whole of
Syria, from the banks of the Euphrates to the Nile, rose in arms. And
although there were no more great battles, the next fifteen years were
filled with a series of sieges and attacks; and hostilities broke out
in one place as fast as peace was concluded in another.
The year VIII saw the Egyptian army in Galilee, under the walls
of Merom. In the year XI Askalon was taken in spite of the heroic
resistance of the Canaanites. In another campaign the king penetrated
as far north as the environs of Tunep, and took two towns of the Kheta.
So the war went on from year to year, until the enemies of Ramses were
quite exhausted with their useless efforts, and the king of the Kheta
once more prayed for peace from the Egyptian sovereign, and it was
granted and sealed in the year XXI.
The treaty was originally drawn up in the language of the Kheta, and
it was engraved on a sheet of silver which was solemnly offered to the
Pharaoh in his city. The articles of the treaty were essentially the
same as those drawn up between the kings of Kheta and Ramses I and Seti
I. It was stipulated that the peace between the two countries was to be
eternal:
“If an enemy march into the countries under the sway of the great king
of Egypt and if he send to the king of the Kheta, saying: ‘Come, take
arms against them,’ the great king of Kheta will do as he is asked
by the great king of Egypt: the great king of Kheta will destroy his
enemies. And if the great king of Kheta does not wish to come himself,
he will send the archers and chariots of the country of Kheta to the
great king of Egypt to destroy his enemies.”
And an analogous clause also assures the king of Kheta of the support
of the Egyptian arms. Then come special articles to protect the
commerce and industry of the united nations and to render surer the
course of justice. Every criminal trying to evade these laws by taking
refuge in the neighbouring country will be handed over to the officers
of his nation: every fugitive not a criminal, every subject taken away
by force, every workman who removes from one territory to another to
there take up his abode, will be sent back to his country, without his
expatriation being regarded as a crime. He who is thus expelled is not
to be punished by the destruction of his house, wife, or children, he
is not to be struck in the eyes or on the mouth, or on the feet, as
there is no criminal accusation against him.
Equality and perfect reciprocity between the two countries, extradition
of criminals and refugees, are the principal conditions of this treaty,
which can be considered the most ancient monument of diplomatic science.
The wars of Ramses II terminate with this alliance, but Greek
historians have made the Pharaoh, under the name of Sesostris,
penetrate and subdue the countries of Media, Persia, Bactriana, and
India, as far as the ocean, and even say he penetrated Europe as far as
Thrace, where his course was only checked by want of supplies.
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1307-1285 B.C.]]
From the year XXI to that of Ramses’ death the peace of the country was
not disturbed. The conditions were loyally observed, and the alliance
between the two sovereigns was soon cemented by a family bond, as
Ramses married the eldest daughter of the king of Kheta, and a few
years later invited his father-in-law to visit the valley of the Nile.
The lord of Kheta acquaints the king of Kati with this approaching
journey in these words:
“Be prepared for we are going to Egypt, the word of the king has been
spoken; let us obey Sesostris [Ramses]. He gives the breath of life to
those he loves, so all the world loves him, and Kheta is in future one
with him.”
In the year XXXIII the Syrian prince visited the city of Ramses,
probably Thebes; and he is represented on a stele, engraven for the
occasion, with his daughter and son-in-law.
So Egypt at last found her most bitter enemies transformed into
faithful allies, and “the people of Kamit were henceforth one in heart
with those of Kheta, which had not been the case since the time of the
god Ra.”
As this alliance was concluded, the king could now devote himself to
building monuments. According to the Greek historians, “he had a temple
built in each town to the principal god of the place.”
Ramses was indeed a king of builders. During his long sixty-seven
years’ reign, he had time to complete the work of several generations,
and one can safely say that there is not a ruin in Egypt or Nubia
which does not bear his name. The great “speos” [cave-temple] of
Isambul perpetuated the memory of his campaigns against the negroes and
Syrians, and four colossal monoliths, twenty metres high, adorn the
entrance. At Thebes there was added to the temple of Amenhotep (Luxor)
a court with two pylons and two obelisks of granite, the finest of
which is on the Place de la Concorde in Paris. The temple of Gurnah,
founded by Seti in honour of Ramses I, was finished and consecrated.
The Ramesseum, known to the ancients by the name of Tomb of Osymandias,
gives a sculptured account of the campaign of the year V; and the hand
of Ramses II is seen in the necropolis of Abydos, as well as at Memphis
and Bubastis and in the quarries of Silsilis, as well as in the mines
of Sinai.
The temple of Tanis, neglected by the sovereigns of the XVIIIth
Dynasty, was restored and enlarged; and the town which was in ruins,
was rebuilt. In many places the architects effaced on the statues
and temples the names of their royal builders, and substituted the
cartouches of Ramses II. The decoration of the hypostyle hall of Karnak
is certainly due to this king: Ramses I conceived the plan, Seti
commenced it, and Ramses II decorated it entirely. From the year III,
Ramses was also greatly interested in the working of the gold mines in
Nubia, and established a line of stations with cisterns and wells along
the road leading from the Nile to Gebel Ollaqi. Then he had the network
of canals, which water Lower Egypt, cleared, including the one between
the Nile and the Red Sea on the borders of the desert. He repaired the
walls and fortifications which protected Egypt from the Bedouins; and
as political necessity led him to reside on the west of the Delta, he
founded several towns on the frontier, the most important of which was
Ramses Anekhtu.
The poets of the period have left us pompous descriptions of this city:
“It is situated,” they say, “between Syria and Egypt; it is full of
delicious provisions; it is like unto Hermonthis. Its length is that of
Memphis, the sun rises and sets there. All men leave their towns and
settle on its territory; the rivers of the sea pay homage in eels and
fish, and bring the fruit of their tides. The dwellers in the town are
in holiday attire every day; perfumed oil anoints their heads on new
wigs. They stand at their doors, their hands filled with bouquets, with
green boughs from the town of Pa-Hathor, with garlands from Pahir, at
the entrance gate of Pharaoh. Joy increases and dwells there without
end.”
Poetry, we see, flourished at the time of Ramses, and the manuscripts
of the works have been preserved, but the names of the authors were not
added.
THE WAR-POEM OF PENTAUR
[Illustration: STATUE OF RAMSES II
(British Museum)]
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1340 B.C.]]
The most often quoted and the best-inspired poem is the Poem of
Pentaur, which describes the exploits of Ramses in the year V at the
battle of Kadesh. [Pentaur, or rather Pentauirit, is not the author,
but merely the transcriber of the copy now in the British Museum.
The author is not known.] We know the subject of the poem: the king,
surprised by the prince of the Kheta, is obliged to lead the charge at
the head of his household troops:
“His Majesty now rises like his father Mentu. He seizes his arms, and
buckles on his cuirass like Baal in his time. Great horses bear on his
Majesty--‘Victory to Thebes’ was their name as they left the stables
of King Ramses, beloved of Amen. The king, having started, broke the
ranks of the vile Kheta. He was alone, nobody with him. Having advanced
in sight of those behind him, he was surrounded by two thousand five
hundred chariots; cut off from retreat by all the warriors of the
vile Kheta and by the numerous people with him from Arathu, Masa, and
Pidasa. Each of their chariots carried three men, and they were all
massed together. “‘No prince with me, no general, no officer of the
archers, no archers, or chariots. My soldiers have forsaken me, my
horsemen have fled, and not one remains to fight with me.’ Then his
Majesty said:
“‘Where art thou, my father Amen? Does a father forget his son? Have
I done anything without thee? Have I not marched and halted according
to thy word? I have in no way disobeyed thy orders. He is very great,
the lord of Egypt who overthrows the barbarians on his way! What
are these Asiatics to thee? Amen enervates the impious. Have I not
presented thee with numberless gifts? I have filled thy sacred dwelling
with prisoners; I have built thee a temple which will last a million
years; I have given all my goods for thy stores; I have offered thee
the entire world to enrich thy domains. Truly a miserable fate is
reserved to those who oppose thy designs, and happiness to him who
knows thee, for thy acts come from a heart full of love. I invoke thee,
my father Amen! Here I am in the midst of a great and strange company,
all the nations are leagued against me, and I am alone, with no other
but thee. My numerous soldiers have abandoned me, none of my horsemen
regarded me when I called to them, they did not hearken to my voice.
But I believe that Amen is more to me than a million horsemen, than a
myriad brothers, or young sons all assembled together. The work of men
is naught. Amen will overrule them. I have accomplished these things
by the counsel of thy mouth, O Amen! and I have not transgressed thy
counsels: here I have given glory to thee to the ends of the earth.’”
[Illustration: STATUES OF RAMSES II AT ABU-SIMBEL]
The king is here represented alone, surrounded by the enemy and in
great danger, but his first impulse is to God; and before rushing into
the mêlée, he makes this long address to Amen, and help came to him:
“The voice resounded to Hermonthis. Amen answers my cry; he gives me
his hand, I utter a cry of joy, he speaks behind me:
“‘I hasten to thee, to thee Ramses Meri-Amen, I am with thee. It is I,
thy father; my hand is with thee and I am of more avail than hundreds
of thousands. I am the lord of strength, a lover of courage, I have
recognised a courageous heart and am satisfied my will will be done.’
“Like Mentu, I then cast my arrows to the right, I overthrew my
enemies. I am like Baal before them. The two thousand five hundred
chariots which surround me are dashed to pieces by my horsemen. Not
one of them has a hand to fight with, their hearts fail them, and fear
enfeebles their members. They cannot draw their arrows, nor have they
strength to wield their lances. I precipitate them into the water as
you would a crocodile, they are cast down on the top of each other.
I do not wish one to look behind nor to turn back. He who falls will
never regain his feet.”
The effect produced by this outburst about God was very great,
especially on the Kheta, who seemed arrested by an invisible power when
on the point of victory, and hesitated in terror. Then they commanded
the chiefs in their cars, and the men versed in war to advance, so
that the company of the kings of Arathu, of Ilion, of Lycia, Dardania,
Carchemish, Kerkesh, Khilibu, numbering three thousand chariots,
proceed forward.
“But all their efforts are useless. I dashed on them like Mentu, my
hands destroyed them in the space of an instant, I cut and I killed
amongst them, so that they said one to another:
“‘This is not a man amongst us, it is Sutekh, the great warrior. It
is Baal in person. These are not the actions of a man that he does.
Alone, all alone, he repulses hundreds of thousands without chiefs,
and without soldiers. Let us hasten to fly before him, let us save our
lives, let us breathe again.’
“All who came to fight found their hands weakened, they could no longer
hold bows, or lance. Seeing that he had arrived at cross-roads the king
pursued them like a griffin.”
It was only when the enemy is in retreat that he summons his soldiers,
not so much for their aid as to let them witness his valour:
“Be firm, keep up your heart, O my soldiers! You see my victory and I
was alone. It is Amen who gave me strength; his hand is with me.”
He encourages his shield-bearer Menna who is full of fear at the number
of the enemy, and rushes into the mêlée.
“Six times I charged the enemy!”
At last his army arrives toward evening and helps him. He assembles his
generals and overwhelms them with reproaches.
“What will the whole world say, when it learns that you left me quite
alone? That not a charioteer nor any archers joined with me? I have
fought, I have repulsed millions of people alone. ‘Victory of Thebes,’
and ‘Mut is satisfied’ were my glorious horses. It was with them that
I was alone amid terrifying enemies. I will see them fed myself every
day, when I am in my palace, for I had them when I was in the midst
of my enemies with the chief Menna, my shield bearer, and with the
officers of my horse who accompanied me, and are witnesses of the
battle; they were with me. I have returned after a victorious battle
and I have struck the assembled multitudes with my blade.”
The skirmish of the first day was only the preliminary to a more
important engagement, and with what success to the Egyptians, and what
loss to the Asiatics, has already been told. The poet does not give
any details of this second affair. He describes it in a few lines
dedicated entirely to praise of the king. The subject, in fact, is not
the victory at Kadesh and the defeat of the Syrian armies, important
as these may be to the historian; but the poet sings the indomitable
courage of Ramses, his faith in the aid of the gods, the irresistible
strength of his arm. He wished to portray him surprised, abandoned, and
compensating for the faults of the generals by his bravery. All the
facts which could lessen the general impression or diminish the glory
of the royal bravery are put in the background. The household troops
are mentioned only once; of the second day of the battle there is but
an insufficient description. The king of the Kheta implores peace,
Ramses grants it, and returns in triumph to Thebes.
“Come, our beloved son, O Ramses Meri-Amen! The gods have given him
infinite periods of eternity upon the double throne of his father Tmu,
and all the nations are put under his feet.”[b]
THE KINGDOM OF THE KHETA AND THE NINETEENTH DYNASTY
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1345-1285 B.C.]]
After the preceding eulogy by Maspero, it is well to read Eduard
Meyer’s more cynical account of the reign of the great Ramses. It will
enable us the better to preserve a mental balance. It should not,
however, lead us to forget that we are in the presence of one of the
great epochs of civilisation; for all such great epochs have had their
iconoclasts as well as their adulators.[a]
Ramses II exaggerated his own praises in inscriptions, saying that,
already in the womb, he had been acknowledged king and that his father
had handed him over the government when he was yet a child. This is
correct in so far as he was solemnly proclaimed successor to the throne
in his early youth, and probably raised to be co-regent by Seti toward
the end of his reign; as crown-prince he accompanied his father in the
wars against the Libyans.
In the fifth year the king directed his second campaign against the
Kheta. The king of Kheta had summoned all his allies and tribes
dependent on him, and a formidable army was gathered together in the
neighbourhood of Kadesh. He almost succeeded in destroying, in an
ambush, the advance-guard, in which Ramses was present. The mass of
the army which had been called together in haste did not reach the
battle-field in time, and it was only the personal courage of the king,
who boasts of having fought against thousands alone when all deserted
him, that gained the victory for the Egyptians. The enemy were driven
into the Orontes, and suffered heavy losses; the king of Khilibu was
almost drowned. Ramses II boasts again and again of this victory; he
had the fight represented and poetically extolled in Luxor, in Karnak,
in the Ramesseum built in the west town for the worship of the dead,
and in Nubia in the temple of Abu Simbel. Nevertheless, it was only a
brave personal feat and no great military success.
We hear nothing of the conquest of Kadesh, and when Ramses asserts
“that the king of Kheta turned his hands to worship him,” this refers
to passing negotiations or to an armistice, for we see that the war
continued uninterruptedly.
We have only very incomplete information concerning the continuance of
the war. Only once more do we find the king penetrating far toward the
north: in the province of Tunep in the land of Naharain he personally
fought against the Kheta. How he arrived so far north, we do not know.
It is clear that the Egyptians were being more and more driven back,
and finally completely lamed. Doubtless the king of Kheta could boast
of numerous victories. On the other hand, it was only boasting when
Ramses gave long lists of conquered people and towns in his temple
inscriptions, in which, so as to equal Tehutimes III, he had to
include the names of Asshur and Sangara, Mannus and Karak (Cilicia),
with which the king scarcely came into contact. It can at once be seen
that it is no historical document.
When and on what conditions peace was concluded is not known, and
tradition does not relate what part of Syria the Egyptians maintained.
At any rate Palestine remained essentially Egyptian. It would appear
that it was agreed that South Syria should be relinquished to Egypt,
and that the Kheta should retain a free hand in the North.
[Illustration: BRINGING TRIBUTE TO RAMSES II]
By this agreement, there was maintained between the two states
a lasting peace which soon ripened into a close union. In the
twenty-first year of Ramses II King Kheta-sar proposed one of those
everlasting treaties to the Pharaoh, in which both states guaranteed
their own integrity, formed an alliance for protection against every
outside enemy, and mutually bound themselves to watch over all exiles
who might seek refuge with them, and to surrender all deserters and
emigrants. The treaty held good for a long time; thirteen years later
Kheta-sar visited the ruler of Egypt and gave him his daughter to wife.
Then took place what, as the god Ptah says to Ramses, “was unheard of
even from the days of Ra until thine own.” It is evident that under
such circumstances the relations of culture between Egypt and Syria
must have been active and manifold.
The powerful influence which Egypt had exercised over the East has
already been depicted in connection with this; and, for example, when
we find that the characteristics of an Egyptian legend recorded under
the successor of Ramses are taken up by the Hebrews and transferred to
the hero of their race, Joseph, this is only one feature more added to
the many we know.
But in Egypt we also find the worship of Syrian divinities spreading
more and more--at the same time Set-Sutekh, the powerful patron god of
the stranger who gave the enemy victory, was greatly respected.
Syrian names are considerably met with, and, above all, the language
is most strikingly influenced by the Canaanite. In many documents
Semitic words were almost used to the same extent as French in German
literature of the eighteenth century.
After having concluded the treaty with Kheta-sar, Ramses II ruled over
Egypt for forty-six years more in peace.
This epoch, the time of Seti I and Ramses II, has rightly been called
the prime of the New Theban Kingdom. The martial successes in its first
half, the peaceful and well-ordered relations of the ensuing time,
made the universal development of the land’s resources feasible to the
government, and assured the subjects a comfortable enjoyment of life,
such as the Egyptians of old loved.
Of no other period of Egypt do we possess so many monuments--temples,
tombs, dedications, and inscriptions concerning victories--and so many
literary remains. But nowhere does the typical character which adheres
to the new Egyptian appear more prominently than here.
The type is supreme over all, and there is no question of individuality
anywhere. It is in vain that we seek for a new thought or an original
turn in the temple inscriptions, in the hymns on the king written
on the face of the rocks or on papyrus, and in the appeals to the
divinities. Frequently all tangible import is wanting. Everything is
a copy and is carefully worked out from a fixed model; it has often
been remarked how greatly the historical value of the reports has
suffered through this. In value they are far below those of the time of
Tehutimes III.
The administration of the land in the new kingdom does not differ much
from that of the former one. The king appears to us surrounded by the
entire fulness of divine glory; in the official reports his counsellors
are only assembled so as to marvel at his superhuman wisdom, or else to
be reproached for their want of foresight.
The further we advance into the history of Egypt, the more does the
self-conceit and absurdity of the glorification of the king increase;
under the reign of Ramses II one often gets the impression that he
considered himself a superhuman being standing in direct communication
with the gods. Like Amenhotep III, we often find him in the Nubian
temples too, worshipping his own person, which is seated between Amen
and Mut, or Khnem and Anuqat. The intention may have been to raise the
reigning king--as formerly Usertsen III--to be territorial god of the
subjected Cushites.
The residence of Ramses II was generally at Tanis, which he had newly
constructed and adorned with numerous monuments, and which now received
the name of “the town of Ramses.” The writers of the time are never
tired of praising the glories of this city, which was a seaport as well
as an important emporium. On account of its numerous relations with
Syria, it is only natural that the centre of gravity of the kingdom
should have been transferred here, and that many new foundations should
have originated on the eastern frontier of Egypt. The frontier defences
of Egypt proper against the tribes of the desert, were always kept up
and sharply watched. As formerly, Thebes remained the real capital
of the land; next to it, Memphis asserted its long-inherited right
as the oldest residence and as dwelling-place of Ptah, the Father of
the Divinities. The numerous private monuments bear witness to the
well-being of the land more than the buildings, as also, to a certain
degree, do the rhetorical descriptions of the writers.
Numerous admirable experiments in sculpture have come down to us,
above all the likeness of Ramses II preserved in Turin. The marvellous
and careful work of the relief in the temple of Seti I at Abydos has
already been mentioned; a certain grandeur must not be denied to the
composition of the great war picture which represents the events of the
Kheta war in the year V of Ramses II,--the mustering of the troops, the
life in camp, the advance of the enemy, and the battle of Kadesh. The
king had the picture carried out in coloured relief three times, in
the Ramesseum, in Luxor, and in Abu Simbel. Besides these, there are
also numerous examples of every kind of art-work, even to the simplest
steles, often very roughly worked.
Some things have come to us of the literature of the times; chiefly
the poem which Ramses II had composed and written on the walls of the
temples to commemorate his battle with the Kheta. It is a work which,
in spite of its official character, is not wanting in life and poetry.
There are also many narratives, such as the celebrated tale of the two
brothers, written under Meneptah. Above all, there are the numerous
epistles, rhetorical studies, descriptions of the power of the king
and his works, the praise of learning, hymns, moral exhortations, also
unmeaning letters which evidently served as models for real letters
and reports. Besides these collections, we have also many authentic
letters, reports, acts, etc., which give us much information concerning
the life and doings of the Egyptians in the thirteenth century B.C.
If we cast an eye on the religious life, we clearly recognise that
we are here dealing with an epoch in which heretic endeavours are
completely suppressed, and orthodoxy asserts its unconditional sway.
The religious literature of the time became characterised fairly early.
At every turn we meet with the formulas of the victorious esoteric
doctrine. The numerous temples show the increase of the power of the
priests. All natural relations were restrained and stifled by religion.
War was carried on by order, and in the name of, Amen, so as to
increase his subjects and to bring him in rich booty. The inscriptions
relate very little concerning the actions of the kings, but a great
deal concerning the conversations which they had with the deities, and
how they “cast all lands at their feet.” The eldest son of Ramses II,
Khamuas, became high priest of Ptah in Memphis, and carefully looked
after the worship of the sacred Apis: he caused the celebrated tombs of
Apis, the Serapeum of Memphis, to be built. By those who came after, he
was looked on as a great philosopher and magician.
It is known to us that, as a long established custom, the officials
as a rule held one or more priesthoods besides their state office;
naturally, higher education and, above all, instruction in writing and
learning, were entirely in the hands of the priests. We meet with the
enervating effects of these conditions throughout the whole course of
Egyptian history.
When the intellectual life becomes torpid, physical strength also
disappears. Since everything that constitutes nationality is converted
into outer forms, a nation loses even the vitality and power necessary
to maintain an independent existence.[c]
DEATH OF RAMSES II
Thus, somewhat frigidly, Eduard Meyer has summed up the achievements of
the great Ramses. The words of Brugsch make a good epilogue.
[Sidenote: [_ca._ 1285 B.C.]]
Ramses II enjoyed a long reign. The monuments expressly testify to
a reign of sixty-seven years’ duration, of which, apparently, more
than half should be reckoned to his rule conjointly with his father.
The jubilee celebration of his thirtieth year as (sole?) Pharaoh gave
occasion for great festivities throughout the country, of which the
inscriptions in Silsilis, El-Kab, Biggeh, Sehel, and even on several
scarabs, make frequent mention. The prince and high priest of Memphis,
Khamuas, journeyed through the chief cities of the country in this
connection, that he might have the great and joyful festival in honour
of his father prepared in a worthy fashion by the different governors.
The anniversary of the festival was calculated according to a fixed
cycle, and apparently fell when the lunar and solar years coincided at
short intervals of three or four years. It was observed as a solemn
feast.
Great in the field, active in works of peace, Ramses appears to
have also tasted heaven’s richest blessings in his family life. The
outer surface of the front of the temple of Abydos reveals to us the
portraits and the names, now only partially preserved, of 119 children
(59 sons and 60 daughters), which besides the lawful consorts known
to us, the favourite wife Isinefer, mother of Khamaus, the queens
Nefert-ari, Meri-mut, and the daughter of the king of Kheta, implies a
large number of inferior wives.
It is scarcely probable that the great Ramses departed this life
leaving his earthly kingdom in a peaceful condition. Already in his old
age a numerous progeny of sons and grandsons were disputing over their
father’s inheritance. The seed of periods of storm and unrest was laid.
According to historical tradition these bearings were confirmed in the
most striking manner by subsequent events.
The body of Pharaoh was consigned to its death chamber in the rocky
valley of Biban-el-Moluk. In spite of the large number of his children,
Seti’s grateful son had left no offspring behind him who would have
prepared a tomb for his father worthy of his deeds and of his name; a
tomb which might if only in some degree have approached the dignity of
Seti’s noble funeral vaults. The tomb of Ramses is an insignificant,
rather tasteless erection, seldom visited by travellers to the Nile
Valley, who probably scarcely suspect that the great Sesostris of Greek
story has found his last resting-place in this modest place. This
Pharaoh might have repeated of himself at his death, as formerly in his
struggle against the Kheta he said, “I stood alone; none other was with
me.”[d]
FOOTNOTES
[6] [The Hittites, now identified with the Kheta, are treated more
fully in a special chapter in Vol. II.]