M136 The spring and harvest customs of Europe are parts of a primitive
heathen ritual.
M137 Marks of a primitive ritual.
_ 559 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 220 _sqq._
M138 Reasons for regarding the spring and harvest customs of modern
Europe as a primitive ritual.
560 Above, p. 146. The common custom of wetting the last sheaf and its
bearer is no doubt also a rain-charm; indeed the intention to
procure rain or make the corn grow is sometimes avowed. See above,
pp. 134, 137, 143, 144, 145; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 195-197.
561 Above, pp. 135 _sq._, 138, 139, 152.
562 Above, p. 134.
563 Above, pp. 134, 155, 158, 161.
M139 The Corn-mother in many lands.
M140 The Maize-mother among the Peruvian Indians.
564 Above, pp. 136, 138, 140, 143, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158: W.
Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, pp. 7, 26.
565 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch.
28, vol. ii. p. 374 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). In quoting the
passage I have modernised the spelling. The original Spanish text of
Acosta’s work was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894.
See vol. ii. p. 117 of that edition.
M141 The Maize-mother, the Quinoa-mother, the Coca-mother, and the
Potato-mother among the Peruvian Indians.
566 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 342 _sq._ Mannhardt’s
authority is a Spanish tract (_Carta pastorale de exortacion e
instruccion contra las idolatrias de los Indios del arçobispado de
Lima_) by Pedro de Villagomez, Archbishop of Lima, published at Lima
in 1649, and communicated to Mannhardt by J. J. v. Tschudi. The
_Carta Pastorale_ itself seems to be partly based on an earlier
work, the _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru. Dirigido al Rey
N.S. en Su real conseio de Indias, por el Padre Pablo Joseph de
Arriaga de la Compañia de Jesus_ (Lima, 1621). A copy of this work
is possessed by the British Museum, where I consulted it. The writer
explains (p. 16) that the Maize-mothers (_Zaramamas_) are of three
sorts, namely (1) those which are made of maize stalks, dressed up
like women, (2) those which are carved of stone in the likeness of
cobs of maize, and (3) those which consist simply of fruitful stalks
of maize or of two maize-cobs naturally joined together. These last,
the writer tells us, were the principal _Zaramamas_, and were
revered by the natives as Mothers of the Maize. Similarly, when two
potatoes were found growing together the Indians called them
Potato-mothers (_Axomamas_) and kept them in order to get a good
crop of potatoes. As Arriaga’s work is rare, it may be well to give
his account of the Maize-mothers, Coca-mothers, and Potato-mothers
in his own words. He says (p. 16): “_Zaramamas, son de tres maneras,
y son las que se quentan entre las cosas halladas en los pueblos. La
primera es una como muñeca hecha de cañas de maiz, vestida como
muger con su anaco, y llicilla, y sus topos de plata, y entienden,
que como madre tiene virtud de engendrar, y parir mucho maiz. A este
modo tienen tambien Cocamamas para augmento de la coca. Otras son de
piedra labradas como choclos, o mazorcas de maiz, con sus granos
relevados, y de estas suelen tener muchas en lugar de Conopas_
[household gods]. _Otras son algunas cañas fertiles de maiz, que con
la fertilidad de la tierra dieron muchas maçorcas, y grandes, o
quando salen dos maçorcas juntas, y estas son las principales,
Zaramamas, y assi las reverencian como a madres del maiz, a estas
llaman tambien Huantayzara, o Ayrihuayzara. A este tercer genero no
le dan la adoracion que a Huaca, ni Conopa, sino que le tienen
supersticiosamente como una cosa sagrada, y colgando estas cañas con
muchos choclos de unos ramos de sauce bailen con ellas el bayle, que
llaman Ayrihua, y acabado el bayle, las queman, y sacrifican a
Libiac para que les de buena cosecha. Con la misma supersticion
guardan las mazorcas del maiz, que salen muy pintadas, que llaman
Micsazara, o Mantayzara, o Caullazara, y otros que llaman Piruazara,
que son otras maçorcas en que van subiendo los granos no derechos
sino haziendo caracol. Estas Micsazara, o Piruazara, ponen
supersticiosamente en los montones de maiz, y en las Piruas (que son
donde guardan el maiz) paraque se las guarde, y el dia de las
exhibiciones se junta tanto de estas maçorcas, que tienen bien que
comer las mulas. La misma supersticion tienen con las que llaman
Axomamas, que son quando salen algunas papas juntas, y las guardan
para tener buena cosecha de papas._” The _exhibiciones_ here
referred to are the occasions when the Indians brought forth their
idols and other relics of superstition and delivered them to the
ecclesiastical visitors. At Tarija in Bolivia, down to the present
time, a cross is set up at harvest in the maize-fields, and on it
all maize-spadices growing as twins are hung. They are called
Pachamamas (Earth-mothers) and are thought to bring good harvests.
See Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and
Argentina,” _The Geographical Journal_, xxi. (1903) pp. 517, 518.
Compare E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_
(Oxford, 1892), i. 414 _sq._
M142 Customs of the ancient Mexicans at the maize-harvest.
567 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris 1857-1859), iii. 40 _sqq._ Compare
_id._, iii. 505 _sq._; E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called
America_, i. 419 _sq._
M143 Sahagun’s account of the ancient Mexican religion.
M144 Sahagun’s description of the Mexican Maize-goddess and her festival.
568 E. Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,” _Veröffentlichungen aus
dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. (Berlin, 1899) 2/4
Heft, pp. 67 _sqq._ Another chapter of Sahagun’s work, describing
the costumes of the Mexican gods, has been edited and translated
into German by Professor E. Seler in the same series of publications
(“Altmexikanische Studien,” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen
Museum für Völkerkunde_, i. 4 (Berlin, 1890) pp. 117 _sqq._).
Sahagun’s work as a whole is known to me only in the excellent
French translation of Messrs. D. Jourdanet and R. Simeon (_Histoire
Générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne par le R. P. Fray
Bernardino de Sahagun_, Paris, 1880). As to the life and character
of Sahagun see M. R. Simeon’s introduction to the translation, pp.
vii. _sqq._
569 B. de Sahagun, Aztec text of book ii., translated by Professor E.
Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem
königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. 2/4 Heft (Berlin, 1899),
pp. 188-194. The account of the ceremonies given in the Spanish
version of Sahagun’s work is a good deal more summary. See B. de
Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_
(Paris, 1880), pp. 94-96.
M145 The Corn-mother among the North American Indians.
570 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the
Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part I. (Washington, 1900) pp. 423,
432. See further _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 296
_sq._
571 L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 161
_sq._, 199. According to the Iroquois the corn plant sprang from the
bosom of the mother of the Great Spirit after her burial (L. H.
Morgan, _op. cit._ p. 199 note 1).
572 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 280.
M146 The Mother-cotton in the Punjaub.
573 H. M. Elliot, _Supplemental Glossary of Terms used in the
North-Western Provinces_, edited by J. Beames (London, 1869), i.
254.
M147 The Barley Bride among the Berbers.
574 W. B. Harris, “The Berbers of Morocco,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 68.
M148 Another account of the Barley Bride among the Berbers. Competitions
for the possession of the image that represents the Corn-mother.
575 Sir John Drummond Hay, _Western Barbary, its Wild Tribes and Savage
Animals_ (1844), p. 9, quoted in _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896) pp. 306
_sq._
576 See above, pp. 70 _sqq._
M149 Comparison of the European ritual of the corn with the Indonesian
ritual of the rice.
M150 The Indonesian ritual of the rice is based on the belief that the
rice is animated by a soul.
M151 Parallelism between the human soul and the rice-soul.
577 R. J. Wilkinson (of the Civil Service of the Federated Malay
States), _Malay Beliefs_ (London and Leyden, 1906), pp. 49-51. On
the conception of the soul as a bird, see _Taboo and the Perils of
the Soul_, pp. 33 _sqq._ The Toradjas of Central Celebes think that
the soul of the rice is embodied in a pretty little blue bird, which
builds its nest in the rice-field when the ears are forming and
vanishes after harvest. Hence no one may drive away, much less kill,
these birds; to do so would not only injure the crop, the
sacrilegious wretch himself would suffer from sickness, which might
end in blindness. See A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen
Archipel,” p. 374 (see the full reference in the next note).
M152 The soul-stuff of rice.
578 A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen
en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_,
Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903),
pp. 361 _sq._ This essay (pp. 361-411) contains a valuable
collection of facts relating to what the writer calls the
Rice-mother in the East Indies. But it is to be observed that while
all the Indonesian peoples seem to treat a certain portion of the
rice at harvest with superstitious respect and ceremony, only a part
of them actually call it “the Rice-mother.” Mr. Kruyt prefers to
speak of “soul-stuff” rather than of “a soul,” because, according to
him, in living beings the animating principle is conceived, not as a
tiny being confined to a single part of the body, but as a sort of
fluid or ether diffused through every part of the body. See his
work, _Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel_ (The Hague, 1906),
pp. 1 _sqq._ In the latter work (pp. 145-150) the writer gives a
more summary account of the Indonesian theory of the rice-soul.
M153 Rice treated by the Indonesians as if it were a woman.
579 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 28 _sq._; A. C.
Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder,” _op. cit._ pp. 363 _sq._, 370 _sqq._
580 See above, pp. 113 _sqq._
581 See above, p. 181.
582 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 411 _sq._; A. C. Kruyt,
“De Rijstmoeder,” _op. cit._ p. 372.
M154 The Kayans of Borneo, their treatment of the soul of the rice.
583 See above, pp. 92 _sqq._
584 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 157
_sq._
M155 Instruments used by the Kayans for the purpose of catching and
detaining the soul of the rice. Ceremonies performed by Kayan
housewives at fetching rice from the barn.
585 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 118-121. Compare _id._, _In
Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 154 _sqq._
M156 Masquerade performed by the Kayans before sowing for the purpose of
attracting the soul of the rice.
586 A similar belief probably explains the masked dances and pantomimes
of many savage tribes. If that is so, it shews how deeply the
principle of imitative magic has influenced savage religion.
587 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 322-330. Compare _id._,
_In Centraal Borneo_, i. 185 _sq._ As to the masquerades performed
and the taboos observed at the sowing season by the Kayans of the
Mendalam river, see above, pp. 94 _sqq._
588 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 317.
M157 Comparison of the Kayan masquerade with the Eleusinian drama.
M158 Securing the soul of the rice among the Dyaks of Northern Borneo.
589 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London,
1863), i. 187, 192 _sqq._; W. Chalmers, quoted in H. Ling Roth’s
_Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i.
412-414.
M159 Recalling the soul of the rice among the Karens of Burma.
590 Rev. E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, iv. (1854) p. 309.
M160 Securing the soul of the rice in various parts of Burma.
591 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
of the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. p. 559.
592 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the
Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 423.
Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 296 _sq._
593 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _op. cit._ Part ii. vol. i. p.
172.
594 From a letter written to me by Mr. J. S. Furnivall and dated Pegu
Club, Rangoon, 6/6 (_sic_). Mr. Furnivall adds that in Upper Burma
the custom of the _Bonmagyi_ sheaf is unknown.
M161 The Rice-mother among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra.
595 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der
Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 63-65. In the
charm recited at sowing the Rice-mother in the bed, I have
translated the Dutch word _stoel_ as “root,” but I am not sure of
its precise meaning in this connexion. It is doubtless identical
with the English agricultural term “to stool,” which is said of a
number of stalks sprouting from a single seed, as I learn from my
friend Professor W. Somerville of Oxford.
M162 The Rice-mother among the Tomori of Celebes. Special words used at
reaping among the Tomori. Riddles and stories in connexion with the
rice.
596 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 227, 230 _sq._
597 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 411 _sq._
598 A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ p. 228.
599 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschapelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 _sq._
M163 The Rice-mother among the Toradjas of Celebes.
600 G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der
Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 330-337. The
writer dates his article from Tanneteya (in Celebes?), but otherwise
gives no indication of the geographical position of the people he
describes. A similar omission is common with Dutch writers on the
geography and ethnology of the East Indies, who too often appear to
assume that the uncouth names of these barbarous tribes and obscure
hamlets are as familiar to European readers as Amsterdam or the
Hague. The Toerateyas whose customs Mr. Maan describes in this
article are the inland inhabitants of Celebes. Their name Toerateyas
or Toradjas signifies simply “inlanders” and is applied to them by
their neighbours who live nearer the sea; it is not a name used by
the people themselves. The Toradjas include many tribes and the
particular tribe whose usages in regard to the Rice-mother are
described in the text is probably not one of those whose customs and
beliefs have been described by Mr. A. C. Kruijt in many valuable
papers. See above, p. 183 note 1, and _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, i. 109 note 1.
M164 The rice personified as a young woman among the Bataks of Sumatra.
601 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) pp. 425 _sq._
602 J. H. Neumann, “Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) pp. 380 _sq._ As to the employment in ritual of young
people whose parents are both alive, see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,
Second Edition, pp. 413 _sqq._
M165 The King of the Rice in Mandeling.
603 A. L. van Hasselt, “Nota, betreffende de rijstcultuur in de
Residentie Tapanoeli,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xxxvi. (1893) pp. 526-529; Th. A. L. Heyting,
“Beschrijving der Onderafdeeling Groot- mandeling en Batangnatal,”
_Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_,
Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 290 _sq._ As to the rule of sowing
seed on a full stomach, which is a simple case of homoeopathic or
imitative magic, see further _The Magic Art and the Evolution of
Kings_, i. 136.
M166 The Rice-mother and the Rice-child at harvest in the Malay
Peninsula.
604 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 225 _sq._
605 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 235-249.
M167 The Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom at harvest in Java.
606 See above, pp. 163 _sq._
607 P. J. Veth, _Java_ (Haarlem, 1875-1884), i. 524-526. The ceremony
has also been described by Miss Augusta de Wit (_Facts and Fancies
about Java_, Singapore, 1898, pp. 229-241), who lays stress on the
extreme importance of the rice-harvest for the Javanese. The whole
island of Java, she tells us, “is one vast rice-field. Rice on the
swampy plains, rice on the rising ground, rice on the slopes, rice
on the very summits of the hills. From the sod under one’s feet to
the verge of the horizon, everything has one and the same colour,
the bluish-green of the young, or the gold of the ripened rice. The
natives are all, without exception, tillers of the soil, who reckon
their lives by seasons of planting and reaping, whose happiness or
misery is synonymous with the abundance or the dearth of the
precious grain. And the great national feast is the harvest home,
with its crowning ceremony of the Wedding of the Rice” (_op. cit._
pp. 229 _sq._). I have to thank my friend Dr. A. C. Haddon for
directing my attention to Miss de Wit’s book.
M168 Another account of the Javanese custom.
608 A. C. Kruijt, “Gebruiken bij den rijstoogst in enkele streken op
Oost-Java,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvii. (1903) pp. 132-134. Compare _id._, “De
rijst-moeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen
der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde,
Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 398 _sqq._
M169 The rice-spirit as husband and wife in Bali and Lombok.
609 J. C. van Eerde, “Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op
Lombok,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
xlv. (1902) pp. 563-565 note.
610 J. C. van Eerde, “Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op
Lombok,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
xlv. (1902) pp. 563-573.
M170 The Father and Mother of the Rice among the Szis of Burma.
611 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) p. 426.
M171 The spirit of the corn sometimes thought to be embodied in men or
women.
M172 The Old Woman who Never Dies, the goddess of the crops among the
Mandans and Minnitarees.
612 Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_
(Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 182 _sq._
M173 Miami myth of the Corn-spirit in the form of a broken-down old man.
613 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, v.
(Philadelphia, 1856) pp. 193-195.
M174 The harvest-goddess Gauri represented by a girl and a bundle of
plants.
614 B. A. Gupte, “Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and Ganesh,”
_Indian Antiquary_, xxxv. (1906) p. 61. For details see _The Magic
Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 77 _sq._
M175 Analogy of Demeter and Persephone to the Corn-mother, the
Harvest-maiden, and similar figures in the harvest customs of modern
European peasantry. The rustic analogues of Demeter and Persephone.
615 It is possible that the image of Demeter with corn and poppies in
her hands, which Theocritus (vii. 155 _sqq._) describes as standing
on a rustic threshing-floor (see above, p. 47), may have been a
Corn-mother or a Corn-maiden of the kind described in the text. The
suggestion was made to me by my learned and esteemed friend Dr. W.
H. D. Rouse.
616 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._; Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._
617 See above, pp. 150 _sq._
618 It is possible that a ceremony performed in a Cyprian worship of
Ariadne may have been of this nature: at a certain annual sacrifice
a young man lay down and mimicked a woman in child-bed. See
Plutarch, _Theseus_, 20: ἐν δὴ τῇ θυσίᾳ τοῦ Γορπιαίου μηνὸς
ἰσταμένου δευτέρᾳ κατακλινόμενόν τινα τῶν νεανίσκων φθέγγεσθαι καὶ
ποιεῖν ἅπερ ὠδινοῦσαι γυναῖκες. We have already seen grounds for
regarding Ariadne as a goddess or spirit of vegetation. See _The
Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 138. Amongst the
Minnitarees in North America, the Prince of Neuwied saw a tall
strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her
stomach; the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of
maize in the following year. See Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise
in das innere Nord-America_ (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 269.
619 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 97 _sqq._
M176 Why did the Greeks personify the corn as a mother and a daughter?
M177 Demeter was perhaps the ripe crop and Persephone the seed-corn.
620 See above, p. 135.
621 See above, pp. 140 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._, 197 _sqq._
622 However, the Sicilians seem on the contrary to have regarded Demeter
as the seed-corn and Persephone as the ripe crop. See above, pp. 57,
58 _sq._
623 According to Augustine (_De civitate Dei_, iv. 8) the Romans
imagined a whole series of distinct deities, mostly goddesses, who
took charge of the corn at all its various stages from the time when
it was committed to the ground to the time when it was lodged in the
granary. Such a multiplication of mythical beings to account for the
process of growth is probably late rather than early.
M178 Or the Greeks may have started with the personification of the corn
as a single goddess, and the conception of a second goddess may have
been a later development. Duplication of deities as a consequence of
the anthropomorphic tendency. Example of such duplication in Japan,
where there are two distinct deities of the sun. Perhaps the Greek
personification of the corn as a mother and a daughter (Demeter and
Persephone) is a case of such a mythical duplication.
624 In some places it was customary to kneel down before the last sheaf,
in others to kiss it. See W. Mannhardt, _Korndämonen_, p. 26; _id._,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 339. The custom of kneeling and
bowing before the last corn is said to have been observed, at least
occasionally, in England. See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1888) p.
270; and Herrick’s evidence, above, p. 147, note 1. The Malay
sorceress who cut the seven ears of rice to form the Rice-child
kissed the ears after she had cut them (W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_,
p. 241).
625 Above, pp. 132 _sq._
626 Even in one of the oldest documents, the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_,
Demeter is represented as the goddess who controls the growth of the
corn rather than as the spirit who is immanent in it. See above, pp.
36 _sq._
627 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 127.
628 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 323 _sqq._, 330
_sqq._, 346 _sqq._
629 A. Pauly, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Alterthumswissenschaft_, v. (Stuttgart, 1849) p. 1011.
M179 Death and resurrection a leading incident in the myth of Persephone,
as in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, and Dionysus.
M180 Popular harvest and vintage customs in ancient Egypt, Syria, and
Phrygia.
M181 Maneros, a plaintive song of Egyptian reapers.
630 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, ἔτι γὰρ καὶ νῦν κατὰ τὸν θερισμὸν τοὺς
πρώτους ἀμηθέντας στάχυς θέντας τοὺς ἀνθρώπους κόπτεσθαι πλησίον τοῦ
δράγματοσ καὶ τὴν Ἶσιν ἀνακαλεῖσθαι κτλ. For θέντας we should
perhaps read σύνθεντας, which is supported by the following
δράγματος.
631 Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7;
Athenaeus, xiv. 11, p. 620 A.
632 H. Brugsch, _Die Adonisklage und das Linoslied_ (Berlin, 1852), p.
24. According to another interpretation, however, Maneros is the
Egyptian _manurosh_, “Let us be merry.” See Lauth, “Über den
ägyptischen Maneros,” _Sitzungsberichte der königl. bayer._
_Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München_, 1869, ii. 163-194.
633 Above, pp. 197 _sqq._
634 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), pp.
249 _sq._
635 See above, pp. 158 _sq._
636 W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du comté d’Aberdeen,”
_Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888) p. 487 (should be
535).
M182 Linus or Ailinus, a plaintive song sung at the vintage in Phoenicia.
637 Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 570; Herodotus, ii. 79; Pausanias, ix. 29.
6-9; Conon, _Narrat_. 19. For the form Ailinus see Suidas, _s.v._;
Euripides, _Orestes_, 1395; Sophocles, _Ajax_, 627. Compare Moschus,
_Idyl._ iii. 1; Callimachus, _Hymn to Apollo_, 20. See Greve, _s.v._
“Linos,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Ausführliches Lexikon der griech, und
röm. Mythologie_, ii. 2053 _sqq._
638 Conon, _Narrat._ 19.
639 F. C. Movers, _Die Phönizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841), p. 246; W.
Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 281. In
Hebrew the expression would be _oï lanu_ (אוי לנו), which occurs in
1 Samuel, iv. 7 and 8; Jeremiah, iv. 13, vi. 4. However, the
connexion of the Linus song with the lament for Adonis is regarded
by Baudissin as very doubtful. See W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und
Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), p. 360, note 3.
640 Pausanias, ix. 29. 8.
M183 Bormus, a plaintive song sung by Mariandynian reapers in Bithynia.
641 Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, pp. 619 F-620 A;
Hesychius, _svv._ Βῶρμον and Μαριανουνὸς θρῆνος.
M184 Lityerses, a song sung at reaping and threshing in Phrygia. Legend
of Lityerses.
642 The story was told by Sositheus in his play of _Daphnis_. His verses
have been preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer. See
_Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick,
1839), pp. 220 _sq._; also Athenaeus, x. 8, p. 415 B; Scholiast on
Theocritus, x. 41; Photius, _Lexicon_, Suidas, and Hesychius, _s.v._
“Lityerses”; Apostolius, _Centur._ x. 74; Servius, on Virgil,
_Bucol._ viii. 68. Photius mentions the sickle with which Lityerses
beheaded his victims. Servius calls Lityerses a king and says that
Hercules cut off his head with the sickle that had been given him to
reap with. Lityerses is the subject of a special study by W.
Mannhardt (_Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 1 _sqq._), whom I
follow. Compare O. Crusius, _s.v._ “Lityerses,” in W. H. Roscher’s
_Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 2065
_sqq._
643 Julius Pollux, iv. 54.
M185 The story of Lityerses seems to reflect an old Phrygian harvest
custom of killing strangers as embodiments of the corn-spirit.
644 In this comparison I closely follow W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, pp. 18 _sqq._
M186 Contests among reapers, binders, and threshers in order not to be
the last at their work.
645 Compare above, pp. 134, 136, 137 _sq._, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147
_sq._, 149, 164 _sq._ On the other hand, the last sheaf is sometimes
an object of desire and emulation. See above, pp. 136, 141, 153, 154
_sq._, 156, 162 note 3, 165. It is so at Balquhidder also
(_Folk-lore Journal_, vi. 269); and it was formerly so on the
Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, where there was a competition for the
honour of cutting it, and handfuls of standing corn used to be
hidden under sheaves in order that the last to be uncovered should
form the Maiden.—(From the information of Archie Leitch. See pp. 157
_sq._)
646 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 19 _sq._
647 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 342.
648 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 20; F. Panzer,
_Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 217,
§ 397; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), p. 222, § 69.
M187 Custom of wrapping up in corn-stalks the last reaper, binder, or
thresher.
649 Above, pp. 167 _sq._
650 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 22.
651 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 22.
_ 652 Ibid._ pp. 22 _sq._
_ 653 Ibid._ p. 23.
_ 654 Ibid._ pp. 23 _sq._
_ 655 Ibid._ p. 24.
_ 656 Ibid._ p. 24.
_ 657 Ibid._ p. 24.
_ 658 Ibid._ pp. 24 _sq._
_ 659 Ibid._ p. 25.
660 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), ii. 65.
661 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 223, § 70.
M188 The corn-spirit, driven out of the last corn, lives in the barn
during the winter.
662 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 25 _sq._
M189 Similar ideas as to the last corn in India.
663 C. A. Elliot, _Hoshangábád Settlement Report_, p. 178, quoted in
_Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. §§ 8, 168 (October and December,
1885); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 306.
664 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 306 _sq._
M190 The corn-spirit supposed to be killed at reaping or threshing.
Corn-spirit represented by a man, who is threshed.
665 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 31.
_ 666 Ibid._ p. 334.
_ 667 Ibid._ p. 330.
_ 668 Ibid._
_ 669 Ibid._ p. 331.
670 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 335.
_ 671 Ibid._ p. 335.
672 Above, pp. 135, 146.
673 J. Nicholson, _Folk-lore of East Yorkshire_ (London, Hull, and
Driffield, 1890), p. 28, supplemented by a letter of the author’s
addressed to Mr. E. S. Hartland and dated 33 Leicester Street, Hull,
11th September, 1890. I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland for calling
my attention to the custom and allowing me to see Mr. Nicholson’s
letter.
674 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 26.
675 Above, pp. 149 _sq._
676 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 50.
_ 677 Ibid._ pp. 50 _sq._
678 See above, pp. 146, 170 note 1; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 195 sqq.
M191 Corn-spirit represented by a stranger or a visitor to the
harvest-field, who is treated accordingly.
679 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschunge_ pp. 32 _sqq._ Compare K.
Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna,
1879-1880), ii. 296 _sq._; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 62 _sq._; A.
John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_
(Prague, 1905), p. 193; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche
aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 221, § 61; R. Krause, _Sitten,
Gebräuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen_ (Berlin, preface dated
March, 1904), p. 51; _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888)
p. 598.
680 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 35 _sq._
_ 681 Ibid._ p. 36.
682 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_,
(Prague, 1905), p. 194.
683 O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins
für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 153.
684 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 240 _sq._
685 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 36.
686 For the evidence, see _ibid._ p. 36, note 2. The “key” in the
European custom is probably intended to serve the same purpose as
the “knot” in the Cingalese custom, as to which see _Taboo and the
Perils of the Soul_, pp. 308 _sq._
687 From a letter written to me by Colonel Henry Wilson, of Farnborough
Lodge, Farnborough, Kent. The letter is dated 21st March, 1901.
688 “Notes on Harvest Customs,” _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp.
52 _sq._
M192 Ceremonies of the Tarahumare Indians at hoeing, ploughing, and
harvest.
689 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 214 _sq._
690 Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 75 _sq._
691 K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), p. 7.
692 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) p. 137. As to
influence which the spirits of the dead are thought to exercise on
the growth of the crops, see above, pp. 103 _sq._, and below, vol.
ii. pp. 109 _sqq._
M193 Pretence made by the reapers of killing some one with their scythes.
693 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 39.
694 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 39 _sq._
_ 695 Ibid._ p. 40. For the speeches made by the woman who binds the
stranger or the master, see _ibid._ p. 41; C. Lemke,
_Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 23 _sq._
696 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 41 _sq._
M194 Pretence made by threshers of choking a person with their flails.
697 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42. See also above, p. 150.
698 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42. See above, p. 149. In Thüringen a
being called the Rush-cutter (_Binsenschneider_) used to be much
dreaded. On the morning of St. John’s Day he was wont to walk
through the fields with sickles tied to his ankles cutting avenues
in the corn as he walked. To detect him, seven bundles of brushwood
were silently threshed with the flail on the threshing-floor, and
the stranger who appeared at the door of the barn during the
threshing was the Rush-cutter. See A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und
Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 221. With the
_Binsenschneider_ compare the _Bilschneider_ and _Biberschneider_
(F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, Munich, 1848-1855,
ii. pp. 210 _sq._, §§ 372-378).
M195 Custom observed at the madder-harvest in Zealand.
699 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 47 _sq._
M196 The spirit of the corn conceived as poor and robbed by the reapers.
Some of the corn left on the harvest-field for the corn-spirit.
Little fields or gardens cultivated for spirits or gods.
700 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 48.
701 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._
_ 702 Ibid._ pp. 48 _sq._
703 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 49.
_ 704 Ibid._ p. 337.
_ 705 Ibid._
706 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 337 _sq._
707 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_
(Prague, 1905), p. 189.
708 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 224, § 74.
_ 709 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,
1860-1867), iii. 343 _sq._
_ 710 Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.
711 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien_
(Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, § 419.
712 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition
(London, 1872), pp. 251 _sq._ As to Perun, the old Slavonic
thunder-god, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii.
365.
713 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of
Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 182.
714 See above, pp. 136 _sqq._
715 A. Germain, “Note zur Zanzibar et la Côte Orientale d’Afrique,”
_Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), Vème Série, xvi.
(1868) p. 555.
716 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 593.
717 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 303. In the Central
Provinces of India “sometimes the oldest man in the house cuts the
first five bundles of the crop and they are afterwards left in the
fields for the birds to eat. And at the end of harvest the last one
or two sheaves are left standing in the field and any one who likes
can cut and carry them away. In some localities the last sheaves are
left standing in the field and are known as _barhona_, or the giver
of increase. Then all the labourers rush together at this last patch
of corn and tear it up by the roots; everybody seizes as much as he
can [and] keeps it, the master having no share in this patch. After
the _barhona_ has been torn up all the labourers fall on their faces
to the ground and worship the field” (A. E. Nelson, _Central
Provinces Gazetteers, Bilaspur District_, vol. A, 1910, p. 75). This
quotation was kindly sent to me by Mr. W. Crooke; I have not seen
the original. It seems to shew that in the Central Provinces the
last corn is left standing on the field as a portion for the
corn-spirit, and that he is believed to be immanent in it; hence the
name of “the giver of increase” bestowed on it, and the eagerness
with which other people, though not the owner of the land, seek to
appropriate it.
M197 Hence perhaps we may explain the dedication of sacred fields and the
offering of first-fruits to gods and spirits.
718 See above, pp. 93 _sq._
719 See above, pp. 36, 74.
720 Leviticus, xix. 9 _sq._, xxiii. 22; Deuteronomy, xxiv. 19-21.
721 See above, pp. 46 _sq._, 53 _sqq._, and below, vol. ii. pp. 109
_sqq._
M198 Passing strangers treated as the spirit of the madder-roots.
722 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 49 _sq._; A. Wuttke,
_Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 254, § 400; M.
Töppen, _Aberglaube aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 57. The same
belief is held and acted upon in Japan (L. Hearn, _Glimpses of
Unfamiliar Japan_, London, 1904, ii. 603).
723 The explanation of the custom is W. Mannhardt’s (_Mythologische
Forschungen_, p. 49).
_ 724 Odyssey_, xvii. 485 _sqq._ Compare Plato, _Sophist_, p. 216 A.
725 A. C. Kruijt, “Mijne eerste ervaringen te Poso,” _Mededeelingen van
wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxvi. (1892) p. 402.
M199 Killing of the personal representative of the corn-spirit.
726 For throwing him into the water, see p. 225.
M200 Human sacrifices for the crops in South and Central America.
727 Cieza de Leon, _Travels_, translated by C. R. Markham, p. 203
(Hakluyt Society, London, 1864).
728 Juan de Velasco, _Histoire du Royaume de Quito_, i. (Paris, 1840)
pp. 121 _sq._ (Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires
Originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_,
vol. xviii.).
729 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), i. 274; H. H.
Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876),
ii. 340.
730 Brasseur de Bourbourg, “Aperçus d’un voyage dans les États de
San-Salvador et de Guatemala,” _Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie_ (Paris), IVème Série, xiii. (1857) pp. 278 _sq._
731 Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_
(Berlin, 1878), ii. 379 _sq._ See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 338 _sq._
M201 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Pawnees.
732 E. James, _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky
Mountains_ (London, 1823), ii. 80 _sq._; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian
Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 77
_sqq._; J. De Smet, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xi.
(1838) pp. 493 _sq._; _id._, in _Annales de la Propagation de la
Foi_, xv. (1843) pp. 277-279; _id._, _Voyages aux Montagnes
Rocheuses_, Nouvelle Edition (Paris and Brussels, 1873), pp. 121
_sqq._ The accounts by Schoolcraft and De Smet of the sacrifice of
the Sioux girl are independent and supplement each other. According
to De Smet, who wrote from the descriptions of four eye-witnesses,
the procession from hut to hut for the purpose of collecting wood
took place on the morning of the sacrifice. Another description of
the sacrifice is given by Mr. G. B. Grinnell from the recollection
of an eye-witness (_Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_, New York,
1889, pp. 362-369). According to this last account the victim was
shot with arrows and afterwards burnt. Before the body was consumed
in the fire a man pulled out the arrows, cut open the breast of the
victim, and having smeared his face with the blood ran away as fast
as he could.
M202 Human sacrifices for the crops in Africa.
733 J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_ (Paris,
1732), i. 380.
734 John Adams, _Sketches taken during Ten Voyages in Africa between the
years 1786 and 1800_ (London, N.D.), p. 25.
735 P. Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 132.
736 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’exploration au Nord-est de la
Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 117 _sq._ The
custom has probably long been obsolete.
737 From information given me by my friend the Rev. John Roscoe, who
resided for some time among the Wamegi and suppressed the sacrifice
in 1886.
M203 Human sacrifices for the crops in the Philippines.
738 F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindanao,”
_Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 110.
739 A. Schadenberg, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der im Innern Nordluzons
lebenden Stämme,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1888, p. (39) (bound
with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xx. 1888).
740 Schadenberg, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1889, p. (681) (bound
with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxi. 1889).
M204 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Wild Wa of Burma.
741 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. pp. 493-509.
M205 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Shans of Indo-China and the
Nagas and other tribes of India.
742 Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, “Some Account of the Shans and Hill Tribes of
the States on the Mekong,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxvi. (1897) p. 24.
743 For a general description of the country and the tribes see L. A.
Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” _Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1901), pp.
1-127.
744 Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-Eastern
India,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898)
pp. 9 _sq._, 38 _sq._
_ 745 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 4, § 15 (April 1891).
_ 746 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 127 _sq._, § 721 (May 1885).
747 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,” _Memoirs
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906),
pp. 141 _sq._
M206 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Khonds.
748 Major S. C. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_ (London,
1865), pp. 113-131; Major-General John Campbell, _Wild Tribes of
Khondistan_ (London, 1864), pp. 52-58, etc. Compare Mgr. Neyret,
Bishop of Vizagapatam, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_,
xxiii. (1851) pp. 402-404; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes on
Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 510-519; _id._, _Castes and
Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iii. 371-385.
749 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 56.
750 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 115 _sq._
751 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._; J. Campbell, _op. cit._
p. 112.
M207 Ceremonies preliminary to the sacrifice.
752 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._
753 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.
754 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 54 _sq._
M208 Consummation of the sacrifice.
755 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 112.
756 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 119; J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 113.
757 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 127. Instead of the branch of a
green tree, Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57)
or a slit bamboo (p. 182).
758 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 56, 58, 120.
759 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
288, quoting Colonel Campbell’s _Report_.
760 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth
Goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form (Campbell,
_op. cit._ pp. 51, 126). In the hill tracts of Goomsur she was
represented in peacock-form, and the post to which the victim was
bound bore the effigy of a peacock (Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 54).
761 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 130. In Mexico also the tears of the
human victims were sometimes regarded as an omen of rain (B. de
Sahagun, _Histoire générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_,
traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, Paris, 1880, bk. ii. ch. 20,
p. 86).
M209 Flesh of the victim used to fertilise the fields.
762 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288, referring
to Colonel Campbell’s _Report_.
763 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 129. Compare J. Campbell, _op. cit._
pp. 55, 58, 113, 121, 187.
764 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 182.
765 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 128; E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive
Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288.
766 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 182.
767 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 187.
768 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
iii. 381-385.
M210 In these Khond sacrifices the human victims appear to have been
regarded as divine.
769 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 112.
770 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.
M211 Traces of an identification of the human victim with the god in
other sacrifices.
771 Above, pp. 239, 240, 244.
M212 Analogy of these barbarous rites to the harvest customs of Europe.
772 Above, p. 134.
773 Above, pp. 134, 157 _sqq._
774 Above, p. 223.
775 Above, p. 224.
776 Above, p. 170, with the references in note 1; _Adonis, Attis,
Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.
M213 Human representative of the corn-spirit slain on the harvest-field.
M214 The victim who represented the corn-spirit may have been a passing
stranger or the reaper, binder, or thresher of the last corn.
777 See above, p. 217.
778 Above, p. 224.
779 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 5.
780 H. Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 98.
M215 Perhaps the victim annually sacrificed in the character of the
corn-spirit may have been the king himself.
781 Above, p. 217. It is not expressly said that he was wrapt in a
sheaf.
782 Above, pp. 225 _sq._, 229 _sq._
783 See _The Dying God_, pp. 160 _sqq._
M216 Relation of Lityerses to Attis: both may have been originally
corn-spirits, or the one a corn-spirit and the other a tree-spirit.
Human representatives both of Lityerses and Attis annually slain.
784 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 231 _sqq._, 239
_sq._
785 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._
786 I do not know when the corn is reaped in Phrygia; but the high
upland character of the country makes it likely that harvest is
later there than on the coasts of the Mediterranean.
787 See above, pp. 240 _sqq._; and _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 247-249. As to head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L.
Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London,
1896), ii. 140 _sqq._; in Central Celebes, see A. C. Kruijt, “Het
koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne
Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie
van Wetenschappen_, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. part 2
(Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of Bontoc in Luzon,
see A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_ (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172
_sqq._; among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga
and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India”, _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not,
however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring
human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of
the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence
on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian
spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their
lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in
antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had
slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 _sq._
788 There are traces in Greece itself of an old custom of sacrificing
human victims to promote the fertility of the earth. See Pausanias,
vii. 19. 3 _sq._ compared with vii. 20. 1; _id._, viii. 53. 3; L. R.
Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455;
and _The Dying God_, pp. 161 _sq._
M217 Similarity of the Bithynian Bormus to the Phrygian Attis.
789 Above, pp. 215 _sq._
790 Above, p. 216.
791 Hesychius, _s.v._ Βῶρμον.
M218 The Phoenician Linus song at the vintage. Linus identified with
Adonis, who may have been annually represented by a human victim.
792 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 6. 3.
793 The scurrilities exchanged both in ancient and modern times between
vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a
different category. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
pp. 53 _sq._
794 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 188 _sqq._
795 Above, pp. 236 _sq._, 240, 243, 244, 248 _sq._
796 The probable correspondence of the months, which supplies so welcome
a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, was pointed out to me
by my friend W. Robertson Smith, who furnished me with the following
note: “In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, not
Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one month
different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy in
Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest
(_Ideler_, i. 396) that in 229 B.C. Xanthicus began on February 26.
It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon, not Nisan
but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar month Tammuz.”
M219 The corn-spirit in Egypt (Osiris) annually represented by a human
victim.
797 Above, p. 215.
798 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 5. 11; Scholiast on Apollonius
Rhodius, _Argon._ iv. 1396; Plutarch, _Parall._ 38. Herodotus (ii.
45) discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human
sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of
Manetho (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73), who affirms that they did.
See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 210 _sqq._, who says
(pp. 210, 212): “There is abundant proof for the statement that the
Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, in common
with many African tribes at the present day, their customs in
dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and savage.... The
passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this chapter prove
that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis as well as at
Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices has found
expression in the works of Greek writers.”
799 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p.
68.
800 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin,
1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient
Classique, Les Origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 _sqq._ Both these
eminent historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris
was the Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as “the
great vegetation god” and, on the same page, as “an earth-god” (_op.
cit._ i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the nature of
Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by the authority
of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge
holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in the north of
Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at Abydos in the
south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), ii. 1.
801 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 30,
33.
802 Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 30,
referring to Mariette, _Dendereh_, iv. plates xxxi., lvi., and
lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. 62. 4. As
to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in religious
rites see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 133; _The
Dying God_, p. 72.
M220 Assimilation of human victims to the corn which they represent.
803 Above, pp. 237 _sq._, 240, 251.
804 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
1892) p. 422.
805 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.
806 Festus, _s.v._ _Catularia_, p. 45 ed. C. O. Müller. Compare _id._,
_s.v._ _Rutilae canes_, p. 285; Columella, _De re rustica_, x. 342
_sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 14.
807 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg,
1856), ii. 388 _sq._ Compare _ibid._, pp. 384 _sq._, 386 _sq._, 391,
393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the victim
to the god, see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin,
1894), pp. 77 _sq._, 357-359.
M221 Remains of victims scattered over the fields to fertilise them.
808 Above, pp. 240, 249.
809 Above, pp. 149 _sq._, 237 _sq._, 239.
810 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.
811 See above, p. 248; and compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 331 _sqq._
812 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 323.
M222 The black and green Osiris like the black and green Demeter.
813 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.
814 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_
(ed. 1878), iii. 81.
815 Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. 42. i.
816 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28. See above, p. 42.
M223 The key to the mysteries of Osiris furnished by the lamentations of
the reapers for the annual death of the corn-spirit.
M224 Crying “the neck” at harvest in Devonshire.
817 W. Hone, _Every-day Book_ (London, N.D.), ii. coll. 1170 _sq._
818 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_
(London, 1883), pp. 372 _sq._, referring to Mrs. Bray’s _Traditions
of Devon_, i. 330.
819 W. Hone, _op. cit._ ii. 1172.
820 The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote
to me (4th February 1893) that his wife remembers the “neck” being
kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish farmhouse; it
generally stayed there throughout the year.
M225 Other accounts of cutting and crying “the neck” in Devonshire.
821 “Old Harvest Customs in Devon and Cornwall,” _Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
p. 280.
_ 822 Ibid._
M226 Cutting “the neck” in Pembrokeshire.
823 Frances Hoggan, M.D., “The Neck Feast,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) p.
123. In Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been
commonly known as “the Hag” (_wrach_) rather than as “the Neck.” See
above, pp. 142-144.
M227 Cutting “the neck” in Shropshire. Why the last corn cut is called
“the neck.”
824 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20 (Bohn’s edition); Miss C. S.
Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 371.
825 Burne and Jackson, _l.c._
826 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.
827 See above, p. 158.
828 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.
_ 829 Ibid._
_ 830 Revue des Traditions populaires_, ii. (1887) p. 500.
831 Above, p. 150.
M228 Cries of the reapers in Germany.
832 E. Meier, in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
i. (1853) pp. 170-173; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei
Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H.
Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), pp. 104
_sq._; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_
(Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 _sq._, §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W.
Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic,
1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in
hessischen Gauen_ (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.
M229 The corn-spirit as an animal.
M230 The corn-spirit in the form of an animal is supposed to be present
in the last corn cut or threshed, and to be caught or killed by the
reaper or thresher.
833 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.
M231 The corn-spirit as a wolf or a dog, supposed to run through the
corn.
834 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_2 (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6
_sqq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318
_sq._; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 103; A. Witzchel,
_Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 213;
O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins
für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur
Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p.
327; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_
(Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, 60.
835 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 10 _sqq._; _id._,
_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 319.
836 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 14 _sq._
M232 The corn-spirit as a dog at reaping and threshing.
837 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104; P. Drechsler,
_Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, ii. 64.
838 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104.
_ 839 Ibid._ pp. 104 _sq._ On the Harvest-May, see _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sq._
840 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.
841 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 105.
_ 842 Ibid._ p. 30.
_ 843 Ibid._ pp. 30, 105.
_ 844 Ibid._ pp. 105 _sq._
M233 The corn-spirit as a wolf at reaping.
845 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), ii. 64.
846 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch,
_Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880),
ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.
847 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.
848 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 33.
849 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33 _sq._; K.
Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.
850 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 34.
851 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 38; _id._, _Antike
Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.
852 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 34 _sq._
853 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 311, § 1505.
854 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch,
_op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. 311, §§
1506, 1507.
M234 The corn-spirit as a wolf killed at threshing.
855 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 321.
_ 856 Ibid._ pp. 321 _sq._
M235 The corn-wolf at harvest in France. The corn-wolf killed on the
harvest-field.
_ 857 Ibid._ p. 320.
_ 858 Ibid._ pp. 320 _sq._
M236 The corn-wolf at midwinter.
_ 859 Ibid._ p. 322.
_ 860 Ibid._ p. 323.
M237 The corn-spirit as a cock at harvest.
861 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.
862 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder,
Sprüchwörter und Rathsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i.
95; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.
863 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.
864 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W.
Schwartz, _l.c._
865 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232,
No. 277 note.
866 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.
867 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 220.
868 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, pp. 13 _sq._; J. H. Schmitz,
_Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler
Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und
Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 _sq._; H.
Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 110.
869 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, _op. cit._
pp. 111, 419 _sq._
870 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the
corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p.
268), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose
the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the
harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire
Folk-lore_, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts of England the
harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose
(J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 23, 26, Bohn’s edition).
871 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 14.
_ 872 Ibid._ p. 15.
M238 The corn-spirit killed in the form of a live cock.
873 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30.
874 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15.
_ 875 Ibid._ pp. 15 _sq._
876 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15; _id._, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, p. 30.
M239 The corn-spirit as a hare at harvest. The corn-spirit as a hare
killed in the last corn cut.
877 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 1.
878 W. Gregor, “Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland,”
_Report of the British Association for 1896_, p. 623.
_ 879 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 47 _sq._
880 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.
881 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 3.
882 O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins
für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.
883 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),
i. 24.
884 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.
885 Above, p. 268.
886 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 29.
887 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 29 _sq._; _id._, _Die
Korndämonen_, p. 5.
888 Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), p. 310.
M240 The corn-spirit as a cat sitting in the corn. The corn-spirit as a
cat killed at reaping and threshing.
889 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 172-174; _id._,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.
890 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.
891 Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 102.
M241 The corn-spirit as a goat running through the corn or sitting in it.
The corn-goat at reaping and binding the corn.
892 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 155 _sq._
_ 893 Ibid._ pp. 157 _sq._
_ 894 Ibid._ p. 159.
_ 895 Ibid._ pp. 161 _sq._
_ 896 Ibid._ p. 162.
897 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
ii. pp. 232 _sq._, § 426; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_, p. 162.
898 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 228 _sq._, § 422; W. Mannhardt,
_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163; _Bavaria, Landes- und
Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.
899 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163.
900 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.
901 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 164.
_ 902 Ibid._ p. 164.
903 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.
904 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 164 _sq._
_ 905 Ibid._ p. 165.
M242 The corn-spirit as the Cripple Goat in Skye.
906 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s edition, quoting
_The Gentleman’s Magazine_ for February, 1795, p. 124; W. Mannhardt,
_op. cit._ p. 165.
907 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in
Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 151, from information given
by Mrs. C. Nicholson.
908 Above, p. 232.
909 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 165.
M243 The corn-spirit killed as a goat on the harvest-field.
910 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 166; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
p. 185.
911 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 166.
912 Above, p. 281.
913 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.
914 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt,
_Baumkultus_, pp. 482 _sqq._
M244 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat supposed to lurk among the
corn in the barn, till he is expelled by the flail at threshing.
915 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.
916 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 225 _sqq._, §
421; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 167 _sq._
917 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 168.
918 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_
(Prague, 1905), p. 194.
919 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_, p. 168.
M245 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat passed on to a neighbour who
has not finished his threshing.
920 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.
921 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 224 _sq._, §
420; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 169.
922 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.
M246 The corn-spirit in goat form killed at threshing.
_ 923 Ibid._ p. 170.
_ 924 Ibid._ p. 170. As to the custom of leaving a little corn on the
field for the subsistence of the corn-spirit, see above, pp. 231
_sqq._
M247 Old Prussian custom of killing a goat at sowing.
925 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 394 _sq._
926 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 241.
M248 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull running through the corn or
lying in it. The corn-spirit as a bull, ox, or cow at harvest.
927 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 58.
_ 928 Ibid._
_ 929 Ibid._ p. 62.
930 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.
931 Above, p. 275.
932 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 59.
933 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 440 _sq._, §§ 151, 152, 153; F. Panzer,
_Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.
934 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.
935 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 59 _sq._
_ 936 Ibid._ p. 58.
937 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 58 _sq._
M249 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox killed at the close of
the reaping.
_ 938 Ibid._ p. 60.
M250 The corn-spirit as a bull or cow at threshing.
939 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, pp.
444 _sq._, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 61.
940 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 233, § 427.
941 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 61 _sq._
_ 942 Ibid._ p. 62.
_ 943 Ibid._ p. 62.
944 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, pp.
445 _sq._, § 163.
M251 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull supposed to be killed at
threshing.
945 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 60.
946 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 62.
M252 The corn-spirit as a calf at harvest or in spring.
947 Above, pp. 150 _sq._
948 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), ii. 135.
949 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 62: “_Il fait le
veau._”
_ 950 Ibid._
_ 951 Ibid._ p. 63.
M253 The corn-spirit as a horse or mare running through the corn. “Crying
the Mare” in Hertfordshire and Shropshire.
_ 952 Ibid._ p. 167.
953 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.
954 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s edition.
955 C. F. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London,
1883), pp. 373 _sq._
M254 The corn-spirit as a horse in France.
956 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 167. We may compare
the Scotch custom of giving the last sheaf to a horse or mare to
eat. See above, pp. 141, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 162.
957 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), ii. 133; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
pp. 167 _sq._ We have seen (above, p. 267) that in South
Pembrokeshire the man who cut the “Neck” used to be “shod,” that is,
to have the soles of his feet severely beaten with sods. Perhaps he
was thus treated as representing the corn-spirit in the form of a
horse.
M255 The corn-spirit as a quail. The rice-spirit as a blue bird. The
rice-spirit as a quail.
958 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.
959 A. Peter, _Völksthumliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau,
1865-1867), ii. 268.
960 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 240.
961 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volks aberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 189,
§ 277; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_
(Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238; Rev. Ch. Swainson, _The Folk Lore and
Provincial Names of British Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 173.
962 Alfred Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_, New Edition (London,
1893-1896), p. 755.
963 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 228, 229; _id._, “De
rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen
van der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling
Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v., part 3 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 374
_sq._
M256 The corn-spirit as a fox running through the corn or sitting in it.
The corn-spirit as a fox at reaping the last corn. The corn-spirit
as a fox at threshing. The Japanese rice-god associated with the
fox.
964 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 109 note 2.
965 L. Pineau, _Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 500 _sq._
966 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 109 _sq._, note 2.
967 J. F. L. Woeste, _Völksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_
(Iserlohn, 1848), p. 27; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
p. 110 note.
968 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
312 _sqq._; W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 162 _sq._ At
the festival of the Roman corn-goddess Ceres, celebrated on the
nineteenth of April, foxes were allowed to run about with burning
torches tied to their tails, and the custom was explained as a
punishment inflicted on foxes because a fox had once in this way
burned down the crops (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 679 _sqq._). Samson is
said to have burned the crops of the Philistines in a similar
fashion (Judges xv. 4 _sq._). Whether the custom and the tradition
are connected with the idea of the fox as an embodiment of the
corn-spirit is doubtful. Compare W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, pp. 108 _sq._; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of
the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 77-79.
M257 The corn-spirit as a boar rushing through the corn. The corn-spirit
as a boar or sow at reaping. The corn-spirit as a sow at threshing.
969 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 213, § 4. So at Klepzig, in Anhalt (_Zeitschrift des
Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150).
970 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107; W.
Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 187.
971 A. Birlinger, _Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 328.
972 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
ii. pp. 223, 224, §§ 417, 419.
973 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 112.
974 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 428, 436.
975 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebaüche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162.
976 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1861-1862), ii. p. 425, § 379.
977 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 221-224, §§
409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.
M258 The corn-spirit as a pig at sowing.
978 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 186 _sq._
979 Above, p. 272; compare 268.
980 Above, p. 298.
981 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 187.
982 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 187 _sq._; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten
und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, _Hessische
Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.
983 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 188; W. R. S. Ralston,
_Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p. 220.
M259 The corn-spirit embodied in the Yule Boar of Scandinavia. The Yule
straw in Sweden.
984 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 197 _sq._; F.
Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 491; J. Jamieson,
_Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
(Paisley, 1879-1882), vol. iii. pp. 206 _sq._, _s.v._ “Maiden”; Arv.
Aug. Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und
neuerer Zeit_, übersetzt von F. H. Ungewitter (Leipsic, 1842), i. 9.
985 Above, p. 275.
986 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 169 _sq._,
182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw
(_ibid._ p. 177).
987 U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche_ (Breslau, 1884), p. 215.
Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 17, 27 _sq._
988 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 31.
989 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 9; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_,
pp. 181, 185.
M260 The Christmas Boar among the Esthonians.
990 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 55 _sq._
991 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.
Petersburg, 1876), pp. 344, 485.
M261 Sacramental character of the harvest-supper.
992 Above, pp. 277 _sq._, 280, 281, 285, 290, 300, 301. In regard to the
hare, the substitution of brandy for hare’s blood is probably
modern.
M262 Parallelism between the conceptions of the corn-spirit in human and
animal forms.
M263 The reason why the corn-spirit is thought to take the forms of so
many animals may be that wild creatures are commonly penned by the
advance of the reapers into the last patch of standing corn, which
is usually regarded as the last refuge of the corn-spirit.
993 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 1.
M264 Importance of the Pleiades in primitive calendars.
994 R. Andree, “Die Pleiaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum
Jahresbeginn und Landbau,” _Globus_, lxiv. (1893) pp. 362-366.
M265 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Australian aborigines.
995 Mr. McKellar, quoted by the Rev. W. Ridley, “Report on Australian
Languages and Traditions,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 279; _id._, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p.
138. Mr. McKellar’s evidence was given before a Select Committee of
the Legislative Council of Victoria in 1858; from which we may
perhaps infer that his statement refers especially to the tribes of
Victoria or at all events of south-eastern Australia. It seems to be
a common belief among the aborigines of central and south-eastern
Australia that the Pleiades are women who once lived on earth but
afterwards went up into the sky. See W. E. Stanbridge, in
_Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. i. (1861)
p. 302; P. Beveridge, “Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great
Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray,” etc.,
_Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_,
xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 61; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 566; _id._,
_Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 628; A. W.
Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp.
429 _sq._ Some tribes of Victoria believed that the Pleiades were
originally a queen and six of her attendants, but that the Crow
(Waa) fell in love with the queen and ran away with her, and that
since then the Pleiades have been only six in number. See James
Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide,
1881), p. 100.
996 J. Manning, “Notes on the Aborigines of New Holland,” _Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (Sydney,
1883) p. 168.
997 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 75.
M266 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Paraguay and
Brazil.
998 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 118.
999 M. Dobrizhoffer, _op. cit._ ii. 77 _sq._, 101-105.
1000 Pedro de Angelis, _Coleccion de Obras y Documentes relativos a la
Historia antigua y moderna de las Provincias del Rio de la Plata_
(Buenos Ayres, 1836-1837), iv. 15.
1001 P. Lozano, _Descripcion chorographico del terreno, rios, arboles, y
animales del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova, 1733). p. 67.
1002 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), p. 139.
1003 Pedro de Angelis, _op. cit._ iv. 14.
1004 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p.
418, referring to Marcgrav de Liebstadt, _Hist. rerum naturalium
Brasil_. (Amsterdam, 1648), viii. 5 and 12.
1005 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_, ii. 104.
1006 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
1909-1910), ii. 203.
1007 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal
Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 441.
1008 Carl Teschauer, S.J., “Mythen und alte Volkssagen aus Brasilien,”
_Anthropos_, i. (1906) p. 736.
1009 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle et Civile et Géographique de
l’Orenoque_ (Avignon, 1758), iii. 254 _sq._
M267 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Peru and Mexico.
1010 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
1892) p. 492.
1011 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), pp. 11, 29 _sq._ According to Arriaga, the Peruvian name for
the Pleiades is _Oncoy_.
1012 Garcilasso de la Vega, _First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the
Yncas_, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1869-1871,
Hakluyt Society), i. 275. Compare J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral
History of the Indies_ (London, 1880, Hakluyt Society), ii. 304.
1013 E. Seler, _Alt-Mexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 166
_sq._, referring to Petrus Martyr, _De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis
insulis_ (Basileae, 1521), p. 15.
1014 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_
(Paris, 1880), pp. 288 _sq._, 489 _sqq._; A. de Herrera, _General
History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by
Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 222; F. S. Clavigero,
_History of Mexico_, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 315
_sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_
(Bâle, 1867), pp. 519 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of
the Pacific States of North America_ (London, 1875-1876), iii.
393-395.
M268 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the North American Indians.
1015 Jean l’Heureux, “Ethnological Notes on the Astronomical Customs and
Religious Ideas of the Chokitapia or Blackfeet Indians,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 301-303.
1016 Walter McClintock, _The Old North Trail_ (London, 1910), p. 490.
1017 J. Walter Fewkes, “The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,” _Proceedings of
the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi. (1895) p. 453.
M269 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Polynesians.
1018 Rev. W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 87.
1019 Rev. W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_ (London,
1876), p. 43.
1020 Rev. W. W. Gill, _op. cit._ p. 317, compare p. 44.
1021 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 279.
1022 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_,
Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 219.
_ 1023 The United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_,
by Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 170; E. Tregear,
_Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_ (Wellington, N.Z., 1891),
p. 226.
M270 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Melanesians.
1024 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 348. In
the island of Florida the Pleiades are called _togo ni samu_, “the
company of maidens” (_op. cit._ p. 349).
1025 H. B. Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_ (London, 1887),
p. 56.
M271 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of New Guinea and the
Indian Archipelago.
1026 A. C. Haddon, “Legends from Torres Straits,” _Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
p. 195. We may conjecture that the “new yam time” means the time for
planting yams.
1027 R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 159, 431 _sq._
1028 A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, “Een blik op de Minahassa,” _Tijdschrift
voor Neerlands Indië_, Vierde Deel (Batavia, 1845), p. 316; J. G. F.
Riedel, “De landschappen Holontalo, Limoeto, Bone, Boalemo, en
Kattinggola, of Andagile,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xix. (1869) p. 140; _id._, in _Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie_, iii. (1871) p. 404.
1029 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second
Edition (London, 1863), i. 214. Compare H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London,
1848), p. 251.
1030 Dr. Charles Hose, “Various Modes of computing the Time for Planting
among the Races of Borneo,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 42 (Singapore, 1905), pp. 1 _sq._
Compare Charles Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_ (London, 1866), i.
59; Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p.
229.
1031 Dr. Charles Hose, _op. cit._ p. 4. Compare _id._, “The Natives of
Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894)
pp. 168 _sq._, where the writer tells us that the Kayans and many
other races in Borneo sow the rice when the Pleiades appear just
above the horizon at daybreak, though the Kayans more usually
determine the time for sowing by observation of the sun. As to the
Kayan mode of determining the time for sowing by the length of
shadow cast by an upright pole, see also W. Kükenthal,
_Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo_ (Frankfort, 1896),
pp. 292 _sq._ Some Dyaks employ a species of sun-dial for dating the
twelve months of the year. See H. E. D. Engelhaard, “Aanteekeningen
betreffende de Kindjin Dajaks in het Landschap Baloengan,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxix.
(1897) pp. 484-486.
1032 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 160.
1033 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 424.
1034 R. Friederich, “Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,”
_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen_, xxiii. (1849) p. 49.
1035 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias en deszelfs Bewoners,” _Verhandelingen van het
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx.
(Batavia, 1863) p. 119.
1036 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, Third Edition (London, 1811), p.
71.
1037 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 428.
M272 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of Africa, Greeks, and
Romans.
1038 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
1766), p. 217. The three stars are probably the Belt.
1039 See above, vol. i. p. 116.
1040 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
pp. 194 _sq._ Compare J. Sechefo, “The Twelve Lunar Months among the
Basuto,” _Anthropos_, iv. (1909) p. 931.
1041 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p.
418. Compare G. Thompson, _Travels and Adventures in Southern
Africa_ (London, 1827), ii. 359.
1042 Rev. H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii.
(London, etc., 1870), p. 397.
1043 R. Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_
(London, 1842), pp. 337 _sq._
1044 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833),
p. 273.
1045 Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika’s_ (Breslau, 1872). p.
340.
1046 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_
(London, 1881), p. 43, quoting the Moravian missionary George
Schmidt, who was sent out to the Cape of Good Hope in 1737.
1047 H. S. Stannus, “Notes on some Tribes of British Central Africa,”
_Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 289.
1048 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 155, 198.
1049 May.
1050 June-August.
1051 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 275, compare p. 333.
The “season of showers” seems to be a name for the dry season (June,
July, August), when rain falls only occasionally; it is thus
distinguished from the rainy season of winter, which begins after
the reappearance of the Pleiades in September.
1052 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, pp. 275 _sq._
1053 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 100.
1054 C. W. Hobley, “Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious
Beliefs and Customs,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 442.
1055 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the
Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), p. 48.
1056 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sq._, 615 _sqq._ See above, pp. 45,
48.
1057 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 264-267; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125,
xviii. 280, “_Vergiliae privatim attinent ad fructus, ut quarum
exortu aestas incipiat, occasu hiems, semenstri spatio intra se
messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem conplexae._” Compare L.
Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_
(Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 _sq._ Pliny dated the rising of the
Pleiades on the 10th of May and their setting on the 11th of
November (_Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125).
1058 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 49 and 223.
M273 The widespread association of the Pleiades with agriculture seems to
be based on the coincidence of their rising or setting with the
commencement of the rainy season.
1059 See above, p. 307.
1060 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, xvii. 10 _sqq._ If “the sweet
influences of the Pleiades” in the Authorised Version of the English
Bible were an exact translation of the corresponding Hebrew words in
Job xxxviii. 31, we should naturally explain the “sweet influences”
by the belief that the autumnal setting of the constellation is the
cause of rain. But the rendering of the words is doubtful; it is not
even certain that the constellation referred to is the Pleiades. See
the commentaries of A. B. Davidson and Professor A. S. Peak on the
passage. The Revised English Version translates the words in
question “the cluster of the Pleiades.” Compare H. Grimme, _Das
israelitische Pfingstfest und der Plejadenkult_ (Paderborn, 1907),
pp. 61 _sqq._