_Improving the River_
It was not until commerce on the upper river was practically a thing
of the past, that any effort was made to improve the channel for
purposes of navigation. A number of interests united to bring about
this good work when it did come--some meritorious, others purely
selfish. The steamboatmen, what was left of them, entertained the
fallacious idea that if the river were straightened, deepened,
lighted, and freed from snags and other hindrances to navigation,
there would still be some profit in running their boats, despite the
railroad competition that had so nearly ruined their business. This
was a mistaken supposition, and they were disabused of the idea only
by experience.
The mill owners of the upper river and its tributaries, who had by
this time begun to "tow through"--that is, push their rafts of logs
and lumber with a steamboat from Stillwater to St. Louis, instead
of drifting--were assured of quicker trips and greater safety
if the river was dressed up somewhat, insuring greater profits
upon their investments. Both of these parties in interest were
engaged in legitimate trade, and while there was no intention of
dividing the profits that might inure to them from an investment of
several millions of dollars of other people's money, precedent had
legitimatized the expenditure in other localities and upon other
rivers. They were well within the bounds of reason, in asking that
their own particular business might be made more profitable through
the aid of government.
A greater influence than any arguments drawn from commercial
necessities was found in the political interest involved. For years,
members of congress elected from districts in which there was a
harbor or a river which by any fiction might be legislated into a
"navigable stream", had been drawing from the federal treasury great
sums of money for the improvement of these streams and harbors; yet
some of these never floated anything larger than the government yawls
in which the engineers who did the work reached the scene of their
duties. At the same time, country members from the interior of the
great West drew nothing. The rapid settlement of the Northwestern
territories, in the year immediately following the close of the
Civil War, had an effect that was felt in the enhanced influence
exerted by members of congress representing the new commonwealths.
It followed that when the biennial distribution of "pork", as it is
expressively but inelegantly called nowadays, came up, these members
were in a position to demand their share, and get it, or defeat the
distribution _in toto_.
The war was over. The Union soldiers who had fought in it were either
dead, or if alive were hustling for a living. Hundreds of thousands
of them were found in Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, and Nebraska, opening
up farms and developing the country. The contractors who had fattened
on their blood were hanging like leeches to every department of the
national government, clamoring for more contracts to further inflate
their already plethoric bank accounts. The river improvement appealed
strongly to this class of men. The influences that they could bring
to bear, backed by the legitimate demands of steamboatmen and mill
owners, convinced the most conscientious congressmen that their duty
lay in getting as large an appropriation as possible for the work of
river regeneration. The result was, that the river which had given
employment to three or four hundred steamboats, manned by fifteen
thousand men, without having a dollar expended in ameliorating its
conditions, suddenly became the centre of the greatest concern to
congress--and to the contractors--and all for the benefit of a dozen
steamboats in regular traffic, and perhaps a hundred boats used in
towing the output of a score of mills owned by millionaire operators.
From 1866 to 1876 there was spent on the river between the mouth
of the Missouri and St. Paul, a distance of 700 miles, the sum of
$5,200,707. That was for the ten years at the rate of $7,429 for each
mile of the river improved. It cost at that rate $742.90 per mile per
year during the decade quoted. It is doubtful if the few steamboats
engaged in traffic during that time were able to show aggregate
gross earnings of $742.90 per mile per annum. It seems a pity that
the benefit resulting from this expenditure could not have been
participated in by the great flotilla that covered the river in the
preceding decade, from 1856 to 1866.
In this expenditure we find $59,098 charged to the eleven miles of
river between St. Paul and St. Anthony Falls. It is doubtful if a
dozen trips a year were made to St. Anthony Falls during the time
noted. It was a hard trip to make against the rapid current below
the falls, and a dangerous trip to make downstream. It would seem,
however, that with the expenditure of $5,909 per year for ten years,
over only eleven miles of river, every rock (and it is all rocks)
might have been pulled ashore, and a perfect canal built up. Possibly
that is the result of all this work; I haven't been over that piece
of river since the work was completed--for one reason, among others,
that no steamboats ever go to St. Anthony Falls, now that the river
is put in order.
From St. Paul to Prescott, thirty-two miles, there was expended
$638,498 in ten years. I can readily understand why so much money was
planted in that stretch of river. Beginning at Prescott and going
toward St. Paul, there were to be found five or six of the worst
bars there are anywhere on the river; and between the accentuated
bars--bars of sufficient importance to merit names of their own--the
rest of the river was bad enough to merit at least some of the
language expended upon it by pilots who navigated it before the
improvements came. At Prescott, at the head of Puitt's Island (now
Prescott Island) or Point Douglass bar, at Nininger, at Boulanger's
Island, at Grey Cloud, at Pig's Eye, and at Frenchman's, were bars
that were the terror of all pilots and the dread of all owners
and stockholders. I will eliminate the "terror" as expressing the
feelings of the pilots. "Resignation" would perhaps be the better
word. They all knew pretty well where to go to find the best water
on any or all of the bars named; but they also knew that when they
found the best water it would be too thin to float any boat drawing
over three and a half feet. With a four-foot load line it simply
meant that the steamboat must be hauled through six inches of sand by
main strength and awkwardness, and that meant delay, big wood bills,
bigger wage-lists, wear and tear of material, and decreased earnings.
A big packet not loaded below the four-foot line, was not laden to
the money-making point. After the work of regeneration began, it was
a constant fight on the part of the engineers to maintain a four and
a half foot channel on either one of the bars named. The expenditure
of the great sums of money placed in this district is therefore
easily accounted for.
The work of improvement was, and still is carried on under the
direction of competent engineers, detailed for the service by
the chief of engineers of the United States army. No more highly
trained men in their profession can be found in the world than these
choice graduates of the most perfect institution of instruction in
the world--West Point Military Academy. Their scientific, perhaps
academic, knowledge of the laws governing the flow of water and the
shifting of sands, the erosion of banks and the silting up into
islands and continents, which are among the vagaries of the great
river, is supplemented by the practical, if unscientific, knowledge
of men who have gained their acquaintance with the river from years
of service as pilots or masters of river steamboats. The government
is shrewd enough to secure the services of such men to complement the
science of its chosen representatives. These two classes, in pairs or
by companies, have made an exhaustive study of conditions surrounding
each of the more difficult and troublesome bars, as well as all
others of lesser note, in order to decide what was needed, what kind
of work, and how to be placed to lead, or drive the water into the
most favorable channels, and there retain it under varying conditions
of flood or drought, ice jams, or any and all the conditions
contributing to the changes forever going on in the river.
These points determined, an estimate is made of the cost of
the necessary improvements, details of construction are drawn,
specifications submitted, and bids on the proposed work invited.
There were, and are, plenty of contractors, provided with boats,
tackle, stone quarries, and all else required in the prosecution
of the work. It would not be safe, however, to assume that the
government always reaped the benefit of so much competition as might
be assumed from the number of men engaged in the business. It would
be unsafe to assume that such competition has always been free
from collusion, although possibly it has been. On the other hand,
each contractor has his "beat", from which all other bidders have
religiously kept off. Not in an ostentatious manner, however, for
that might invite suspicion; but in a business-like and gentlemanly
manner, by putting in a bid just a few cents per cubic foot higher
than the man upon whose territory the work was to be done, and whose
figures have been secretly consulted before the bids were submitted.
There have been suspicions that such has been the case, more than
once, and that the work sometimes cost the government more than a
fair estimate had provided for. The contracts have been let, however,
and within the thirty years last past there have been built along the
river between Prescott and St. Paul two hundred and fifty-one dikes,
dams, revetments, and other works for controlling the flow of water
within that short stretch of thirty-two miles.
Some of these dams are long, strong, and expensive; others are
embryonic, a mere suggestion of a dam or dyke, a few feet in length,
for the protection of a particular small portion of the bank, or for
the diverting of the current. All these works, great and small, are
intended as suggestions to the mighty river that in future it must
behave itself in a seemly manner. Generally the river does take the
hint, and behaves well in these particular cases. At other times it
asserts itself after the old fashion, and wipes out a ten thousand
dollar curb in a night, and chooses for itself a new and different
channel, just as it did in the days of its savagery, fifty years
earlier.
A peculiar feature attending this work for the betterment of the
river was, that in its incipient stages it met with little or no
encouragement from any of the men personally engaged in navigating
steamboats on the river. Some deemed the proposition visionary and
impracticable, while others, fearing its success, and magnifying the
results to be obtained, threw every obstacle possible in the way of
the engineers who had the work in charge. They even went so far as to
petition Congress to abandon the work, and recall the engineers who
had been detailed to prosecute it. This opposition was particularly
true of work on the lower rapids, where the great ship canal now
offers a ready and safe passage around rapids always difficult to
navigate. Sometimes, when the water had reached an unusually low
stage, they were positively impracticable for large boats. Captain
Charles J. Allen, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., who was in charge
of the preliminary work on the lower rapids, calls attention, in
his report, to this hostility, and incidentally records his opinion
of river pilots in general, and rapids pilots in particular, in the
following far from flattering terms:
"Most of the river pilots are possessed of but little knowledge
beyond that required in turning the wheel; and their obstinacy
in refusing to recognize and take advantage of good channels
cut for them has been the experience of more than one engineer
engaged in improving rivers. The rapids pilots in particular,
who may lose employment, seemed to be the most hostile."
The last-named class were certainly sound in their conclusions that
the deepening, straightening and lighting of the rapids would take
away their business. There is, therefore, little wonder that they
were not enthusiastic in their support of the proposed improvements,
which were, if successful, to deprive them of the means of
livelihood. Perhaps the gentlemen of the engineer corps would not be
enthusiastic over a proposition to disband the United States army,
and muster out all its officers. The results justified the fears of
the rapids pilots. Any pilot could take his boat over, after the
improvements were completed, and rapids piloting, as a distinctive
business, was very nearly wiped out.
The slur of the West Pointer loses its point, however, with any
one who has known many Mississippi River pilots. They knew a great
many things besides "turning the wheel." Even had they known only
that, they carried around under their hats special knowledge not to
be sneezed at, even by a West Pointer. Later, all the men on the
river came to recognize the benefits accruing from the work of the
Mississippi River Commission, and none more heartily testified to the
success of the work than the pilots and masters of the river craft.
There were, indeed, none so well qualified to judge of results as
they.
The work once begun was prosecuted with vigor. The voice of the great
Northwest was potent in Washington, and in the ten years from 1866
to 1876 more than five millions of dollars were expended between
Minneapolis and the mouth of the Missouri.[I]
[I] See Appendix D.
The first thought of the government engineers to whom was entrusted
the duty of improving the river, was naturally in the direction
of securing and maintaining a greater depth of water. This was
to be accomplished by so curbing and controlling the flow that it
would follow the channel decided upon, at all times and under all
conditions. The dikes and wing dams, which were built by the hundred,
served this purpose in a degree, and the flow of water was controlled
to a fairly satisfactory extent.
Then the menaces to navigation were considered, and measures taken
for their elimination. Of the two hundred and ninety-five recorded
steamboat wrecks on the Missouri River between 1842 and 1895, a
hundred and ninety-three, or about two-thirds of all, were by
snagging. I presume this proportion would be maintained on the upper
Mississippi, if a similar compilation were at hand to decide the
point. The problem was to get rid of this greatest of all dangers to
steamboats. There was but one way, and that was to pull them out and
carry them away, or cut them up and so dispose of them that the same
snag would not have to be pulled out at each recurring rise of water,
from other parts of the river.
Having no steamboats fitted for the business in that early day
(1866), the contract system was resorted to. This was found to be
costly and unsatisfactory. Contractors agreed to remove snags at
so much per snag, within certain lengths and estimated weights,
they furnishing the steamboats and machinery necessary for the
work. In order to make the business pay, they had to find snags,
somewhere. When they were not to be found in or near the channel,
they were obtained in any place--chutes, bayous, and sloughs where
no steamboat ever ran, or ever would run. After a trip or two up
and down the river, there were not enough snags left to make the
pulling profitable, and of course the work was given over. But the
first rise brought down a new supply of snags to lodge in the channel
of the falling river, and pilots set to dodging them, just as they
had done before the pulling began. To be of the highest efficiency,
the work must be continuous. This was deemed impossible under the
contract system, and the engineers in charge recommended the purchase
of two suitable steamboats for the upper river, to be fitted with
improved machinery for lifting and disposing of the snags fished
out of the river. These boats were to be manned and officered by
the government, and placed in charge of an engineer detailed by the
War Department. They were continuously to patrol the river during
the season of navigation, removing every snag as soon as located,
assisting steamboats in distress, cutting overhanging trees, placing
guide-boards and crossing lights where needed, maintaining the same
after being established, and giving their whole time and attention
to the work of river improvement. This suggestion was carried into
effect, and two steamboats purchased and fitted for the work.
In 1866 Colonel Dodge, of the Corps of Engineers, who had had large
experience in the work of river improvement, realizing the necessity
for dredging the shoalest places, in addition to directing the water
by dikes and dams, invented a dredge to be attached to a steamboat,
and operated by steam machinery, for the purpose of plowing out and
scraping away the sand as it accumulated on the worst bars and reefs.
Two or three experimental machines were built by a St. Paul mechanic
upon the order of the United States officials, and under their
supervision. These were attached to derricks, placed on the bows of
the steamboats secured for the work, suspended by stout chains, and
operated by steam. The boat, headed up river, was run to the head of
the reef; the dredge was then lowered, and the boat backed downstream
in the line of the channel. The dredge, twenty feet wide, stirred up
the sand, and the scraper attachment drew it down to the foot of the
reef, where the dredge was hoisted up and the current carried away
the released sand into deep water. The boat was again run to the head
of the reef and the operation repeated, each "scrape" being about
the width of the dredge, the pilot so placing his boat each time as
exactly to match the last preceding draft, without going over the
same ground a second time.
The machine was found to work to perfection, and to be of even
greater practical utility in keeping open a navigable channel than
the dikes and wing dams, as there is a constant filling in of sand at
the foot of every channel artificially formed by contracting the flow
of water. The dredge hauls this sand away as it accumulates, and by
deepening the water in the channel does much toward attracting the
steady flow of water to the particular lines so dredged.