JEWELLERY
Native gold is, in all countries, one of the earliest materials for
manufactured ornaments, and it appears to have been much used in
prehistoric Egypt. Though gold is not now sought in or near Egypt,
we must remember that it is found in the stream deposits of most
countries, and its absence from the Mediterranean lands now is only
due to the ancient workers having exhausted the supply. The immediate
sources of the metal were in Nubia and Asia Minor. The Asiatic gold
was certainly used in the first dynasty, as it is marked by having a
variable amount of silver alloy, about a sixth; but looking at the
African influence on Egypt it is probable that Nubia was the first
source, though whether gold (_nūb_) was called from the country
(_nūb_), or the reverse, is uncertain.
[Illustration]
So general was the use of gold for necklaces, that the picture of a
collar of beads became the hieroglyph for gold. Strings of minute gold
beads were worn on the ankles in prehistoric times (8000-5000 B.C.).
Larger beads were economically made by beating out a thin tube, and
then drawing down the ends over a core of limestone. A thin gold finger
ring has been found, and a flat pendant with punched dots. But most of
the prehistoric gold is seen on the lips of stone vases, overlaying
the handles of vases, and forming the wire loops for carrying them.
Similarly it was used for covering the handles of flint knives; a sheet
of gold was fitted over the flint, embossed with figures of women,
animals, twisted snakes, a boat, etc. But the use of thin gold leaf
which adheres to its base, is not found until the pyramid times. At
the close of the prehistoric period we meet with a gold cylinder seal
engraved with signs. When we remember that it is very rarely that an
unplundered grave is discovered, the quantity of gold objects found
show that the metal must have been generally used in the ages when
commerce developed, before writing was known.
On reaching the historic times we obtain a good view of the production
and variety of jewellery, in the four bracelets of the Queen of Zer,
early in the first dynasty, 5400 B.C. These bracelets (fig. 93) show
how each separate piece was made to fit its own place in a complete
design, and that the later custom of merely stringing ready-made beads
was not then followed.
The bracelet of hawks has the gold blocks alternating with turquoise.
The hawks on the gold pieces are all equal, but the sizes of the blocks
vary in the height. This is due to their being all cast in the same
mould, which was filled to varying amounts. The surfaces were hammered
and chiselled, but not either ground or filed. The order of the hawks
was marked by numbering them with cross cuts on the base; these cuts
are directly across for the blocks on one half, and diagonally across
for the other half.
The bracelet with spiral beads has the gold spiral formed of a hammered
gold wire, thicker at the middle, where it forms the barrel of the
beads. This form is imitated in the three dark lazuli beads down the
middle. The triple gold balls, on either side of those, are each beaten
hollow and drawn into a thread-hole left at each end; so perfectly
wrought are they that only in one instance does the slightest ruck of
metal remain. To join the three balls together they were soldered, but
without leaving the least excess or difference of colour.
In the lowest bracelet the hour-glass-shaped beads are of gold, with
one of amethyst between each pair. The gold is doubtless cast, being
solid. None of these are pierced, but they were secured by tying round
a groove at the middle of each bead. There was also a fourth bracelet
with a ball and loop fastening which shows the skill in soldering. The
ball is beaten hollow, leaving about a quarter of it open; inside it a
hook of gold wire is soldered in without leaving the smallest trace of
solder visible. The band round the wrist was formed of very thick black
hair plaited with gold wire, which was hammered to exactly the same
thickness. We see from these bracelets that casting, chiselling, and
soldering were perfectly understood at the beginning of the monarchy.
Of about the Ist dynasty there are also copies of spiral shells made
by pressing gold foil, perhaps over shells. These were threaded as a
necklace, imitating the shell necklaces of earlier ages.
On coming to the VIth dynasty (4000 B.C.) we see gold chains (fig.
94) made of rings, each folded into a double loop and put through the
next; these may be called loop-in-loop chain. Gold seals (fig. 95) are
also found, probably made by foreigners and worn as buttons, like many
similar stone buttons.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
93. Bracelets (Ist dynasty)
94. Chain (VIth dynasty)
95. Gold seal (VIth dynasty?)
96. Gold uraeus (XIIth dynasty)]
The XIIth dynasty has left us some magnificent groups of jewellery,
which were found at Dahshur. The general effect of this work is
graceful and sincere in design and pure in colour. There is no glitter
and pomp about it, but it has the highest beauty of careful harmony
and perfect finish. The tints of the carnelian, turquoise, and lazuli
which are used have been precisely chosen for their clear strength of
colour, while the Egyptian system of putting a line of gold between two
bright colours prevents any dazzling or clashing. The charm of this
jewellery lies in the calm, fresh, cool colouring with the unhesitating
perfection of the work, which seems to ignore all difficulty or
compromise.
Three pectoral ornaments made in successive reigns are each formed of
an open-work gold plate, engraved on one side and inlaid with coloured
stones on the other. The engraved sides of two are here given (figs.
97, 98), as they are better suited for illustration. The earlier
pectoral, bearing the names of Senusert II, is by far the better in
design. The scheme of the whole is grasped at once, and rests the eye;
there is repose and dignity in it. Although clear open spaces are left,
the parts are sufficiently connected for strength.
The second pectoral, of Senusert III, is too complex for a single
piece of jewellery for the breast. The heavy mass of the vulture at the
top over-weights the design; the head-dress of the royal sphinxes is
too tall; and the combination of four captives between the eight legs
of the sphinxes, or twenty-four limbs in action, is far too complex
and distracting. But in the detail we must admire the expression of
the captives; and also the skill with which the parts are united,
especially where the frail length of the tails is held in by the extra
lotus flowers.
The third pectoral, of Amenemhat III, is the least successful in
design. It is made too large in order to take in whole figures of
the king fighting; the action is violent; and, not content with four
figures, the outlines are lost in a maze of emblems which fill all
the space around, so that nothing is clear or restful to the eye. The
earliest pectoral was evidently designed to be seen at a respectful
distance on royalty in movement. To see the last design the queen
would need to be closely stared at, in order to make out the cumbrous
historical document on her breast.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
97, 98. Chased gold pectoral ornaments (XIIth dynasty)]
Two crowns of gold and inlaid stones belonged also to the princesses.
The floret crown (fig. 100) is perhaps the most charmingly graceful
head-dress ever seen; the fine wavy threads of gold harmonised with
the hair, and the delicate little flowers and berries seem scattered
with the wild grace of Nature. Each floret is held by two wires
crossing in an eye behind it, and each pair of berries has likewise an
eye in which the wires cross. The florets are not stamped, but each
gold socket is made by hand for the four inserted stones. The berries
are of lazuli. In no instance, however small, was the polishing of the
stone done in its cloison; it was always finished before setting.
The upper crown (fig. 99) is less unusual. The motive is the old one
seen on the head-dress of Nofert (fig. 24); but the flowers have become
conventionalised. The band form is broken by the upright flowers rising
from each rosette; and in front there was an aigrette of gold with
flowers formed of coloured stones.
Turning now to the technical details, some small gold lions were cast,
but not all from a single mould. They seem to have been modelled in
wax, and after forming the mould around the model the wax was melted
out, and the metal run in. This method, known as _cire perdue_, was
usual in later periods. The details are slightly chiselled upon the
gold.
Moulding by pressure was used in making cowry beads and tie beads,
which were impressed in stout foil, aided by burnishing on to the model
so as to tool the detail.
Soldering was done most delicately for the side joints of the hollow
cowry beads; it was also used on a large scale for the dozens of
delicate ribs of gold which were fixed to the back plates for the
cloison work of the pectorals. To attach this multitude of minute ribs
exactly in place shows most practised work, for they could not be
treated separately, being so close together.
Wire was made in large quantity for the floret crown. This wire was
all cut in strips, and pieces soldered together to form a length. The
same method was later used by the Jews: “they did beat the gold into
thin plates and cut it into wires” (Ex. xxxix. 3). Drawn wire has not
been found in any ancient work. A favourite style of work for figures
of gods and sacred animals in this age was a mixture of wirework and
sheet metal; such amulets and sacred animals are usually half an inch
high: the example of the sacred cobra here shown (fig. 96) is by far
the finest known.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
99, 100. Crowns of gold inlaid with stones
101. Granulated gold work (all XIIth dynasty)]
A new decoration which first appears in this age is that of granulated
work (fig. 101). Here it is seen on a case in a zigzag pattern, and on
two pendants. Another example is a pattern of small rhombs on the bezel
of a ring. The granules are 5 × 5 in each rhomb, and eight rhombs on
the bezel, or forty granules in about six-tenths of an inch; allowing
for spaces, the granules must be an eightieth of an inch wide. This
kind of work is found also later on in Egypt, but it may not be native;
in Etruria it was the national type of jewellery about three thousand
years after this.
[Illustration]
The mode of fastening the necklaces was by grooved pieces. One of the
gold cowries, or lion’s heads, or ties which formed the necklace, was
made in two halves with dovetail groove and tongue fitting into each
other along the whole length of the piece. The tongue ran up against a
butt end when the halves coincided.
When we reach the XVIIIth dynasty we see in the jewellery of Queen
Aah-hotep (1570 B.C.) much the same system of work as in the XIIth
dynasty. The whole style is less substantial, exact, and dignified;
both in design and execution it is at all points inferior to the
previous work. One new art appears, the plaiting of gold wire chains,
in what is now commonly called Trichinopoly pattern. This method was
continued down to Roman times.
The Aah-hotep-Aahmes bracelet (fig. 102) is a broad band of metal, with
the figures in raised gold on a dark blue ground. At first it looks as
if enamelled, as the ground runs in the small intervals between the
gold; but it is really a surface formed of pieces of dark lazuli, cut
approximately to the forms and patched around with a dark blue paste
to match it. Two other bracelets (or perhaps anklets) are formed of
minute beads of stones and gold threaded on parallel wires, forming a
band about 1½ inches wide. The pattern seems an imitation of plaiting,
as each colour forms a half square divided diagonally. The necklace
of large gold flies is heavy, and lacks the grace of earlier times.
The axe of Aahmes (fig. 104) is beautifully inlaid with gold, bearing
the king’s names, the figures of the king smiting an enemy, and the
gryphon-sphinx of the god Mentu. The dagger (fig. 103) has more of
the Mykenaean Greek style in the inlaying of the blade, with figures
of a lion chasing a bull, and four grasshoppers. The four heads which
form the pommel are unlike any other Egyptian design; but the squares
divided diagonally on the handle are like the patterns of the bead
anklets, and are probably of Egyptian source.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
102. Bracelet
103. Dagger (both parts)
104. Axe
(all of King Aahmes, XVIIIth dynasty)]
Of the XIXth dynasty there is the Serapeum jewellery, found with the
Apis burials. The pectoral of Ramessu II (fig. 105) is of good design;
the wings of the vulture are boldly spread in wide curves, and the
king’s name is simple, without titles, and well placed. The border
band is heavy, and the colouring is rich. It is a creditable work, but
entirely missing the grace and sense of perfection of the best work
from Dahshur.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The gold bracelets with name of Ramessu II found at Bubastis, are
of inferior work, probably for one of his fifty-nine daughters. The
name is only impressed on stout foil, which is set in a framework
of the bracelet, but the surfaces are ornamented with gold granular
work, showing that such was commonly used. There is a pair of
collar fasteners, clumsily made by filing the bent gold and working
thread-holes in the cut; there are thirty-six thread-holes, so the
collar must have been a very wide one. The fastening by two halves
sliding together is made by two wires soldered in to form the dovetail.
In this same group are thick wire bracelets of silver, with a coarse
hatched pattern on the ends; also many plain silver earrings, such as
were worn by the common people of this time.
[Illustration]
Slightly later is the jewellery of Sety II and Tausert from the
Kings’ Tombs. Here are also solid wire bangles, but of gold. And
square wire bangles have the thin tail of each end of the bar twisted
round the stem on the other side, a fastening also commonly found
on finger-rings, of this age and rather earlier. Some clumsy little
open-work beads are made by rough circles of gold wire soldered
together; a wide equatorial circle is joined to a small polar circle at
each end by six small circles touching. Flowers are made by stamping
the petals out of foil; there are ten petals to each, and four of them
are stamped with the king’s name. Some monstrous earrings overloaded
with ornament belong to the end of the Ramessides (fig. 106).
Base gold was much used at the close of the XVIIIth dynasty, and many
of the finger-rings of that age almost verge into copper. But stones
were used for inlay work until the later Ramessides, and glass or paste
does not become usual till up to 1000 B.C. Enamel fused upon metal is
not known until Roman times.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
105. Pectoral of Ramessu II
106. Earrings of Ramessu XII
107. Gold statuette (XXVth dynasty)]
In the VIIIth century B.C. gold working was well maintained, as seen
(fig. 107) in the statuette made by the local king Pafaabast. The
modelling of the limbs is exact, the pose is free, and it shows the
maintenance of a good tradition. About a century later there is fine
cloison work on the gold birds of the Hawara amulets, as minute as any
of earlier times.
A free use of gold-work comes in with the wealth of the Ptolemaic age,
especially for bracelets and chains. A usual type of bracelet, in gold
or silver, was with busts of Serapis and Isis on the two ends of a
strip, which were turned up at right angles to the circle. These are
generally of coarse work. Plain bangles, bracelets with the two tails
of a bar twisted each round the other, coiled wire bracelets which were
elastic, and hingeing bracelets, are all found in use at this age. Much
Greek influence is seen in the patterns, both now and in the Roman
period. The bangle bracelets were often made hollow, both for lightness
and economy of metal. Cheaper styles were of thin gold foil worked over
a core of plaster; the decoration of cross lines on such shows that
they are probably Roman. The chains of Ptolemaic and Roman age (fig.
109) are simple, but of pleasing style.
In Coptic times bracelets of various forms were made, mostly of
silver and baser metal; but they are all plain and tasteless. Large
earrings were made with a big hoop and a bunch of small pendants, or an
open-work metal bead. Necklets of silver were usual, with the tails of
the strip wound round each other, so as to slide open for passing over
the head.
Gold was also used largely for gilding both metals and wood. The gold
leaf was often about a 5000th of an inch thick, weighing one grain to
the square inch. Thus a pound’s weight of gold would cover about six
feet square; and the gilding of doors and of the caps of obelisks as
described is not at all unlikely.
Silver was known to the Egyptians later than gold, as it is called
“white gold”; and it was scarcer than gold in the early ages. Of the
prehistoric time there is a cap of a jar, and a small spoon with
twisted handle. A few silver amulets are known in the XIIth dynasty. In
the XVIIIth dynasty silver became commoner, as the source in northern
Syria which supplied the Hittites became accessible. The silver dishes
of this age are rather thick, and not finely beaten. One bowl, probably
of Ramesside date from Bubastis, has the brim turned inward like a
modern anti-splash basin (fig. 115). It seems to have been made by
spinning the metal, as thin vessels are now wrought.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
108. Silver bowls
109. Roman gold chain]
The most elaborate style of silver work is that of the bowls from
Mendes (fig. 108). These are entirely made by hammer work, and no
moulds or matrices were used for the forms. But the finish of the
surfaces is so fine that no trace of hammer or polishing is left.
The design is derived from the fluted vases and bowls of the XVIIIth
dynasty; the fluting was made deeper and stronger, and it was
suppressed below, as it interfered with the using of the bowl, while
round the sides it remained as deep bosses. The detail was all put in
by the graving tool, the sinking round the central rosette, the hollows
in the petals, and the outlines of the petals. There is no sign of
punch-work. The number of ribs is, curiously, indivisible, being 18,
26, 28, and 30; these show that it was not divided either by triangles,
hexagons, or repeated halving. Probably a suitable size of rib was
designed, and then repeated an even number of times; and the divisions
not being truly radial, show that eye-design was followed rather than
geometrical scaling.