[Illustration:
WAGGON OF THE VIKING AGE.
One of two waggons found in the Deibjerg bog, Ringkjobing, West
Jutland, ornamented all over with bronze; and on each side
representations of two human heads with heavy moustaches, and with
the triskele and other mystic signs. Length of sides, 5 feet, 4
inches; straight pole, about 6 feet, including the bent piece;
diameter of wheels, 3 feet.
]
THE VIKING AGE
THE EARLY HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE ANCESTORS OF THE
ENGLISH-SPEAKING NATIONS
ILLUSTRATED FROM
_THE ANTIQUITIES DISCOVERED IN MOUNDS, CAIRNS, AND BOGS AS WELL AS FROM
THE ANCIENT SAGAS AND EDDAS_
BY
PAUL B. DU CHAILLU
AUTHOR OF “EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA,” “LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT
SUN,” ETC.
WITH 1366 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAP
IN TWO VOLUMES.—VOL. II
NEW YORK:
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS.
1889.
COPYRIGHT, 1889, BY
PAUL B. DU CHAILLU.
Press of J. J. Little & Co.,
Astor Place, New York.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
[Illustration]
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
MARRIAGE 1
CHAPTER II.
DIVORCE 25
CHAPTER III.
THE BIRTH AND BRINGING-UP OF CHILDREN 30
CHAPTER IV.
THE ARVEL, OR INHERITANCE FEAST 47
CHAPTER V.
FOSTER-BROTHERHOOD 61
CHAPTER VI.
WEAPONS 65
CHAPTER VII.
WAR CUSTOMS 102
CHAPTER VIII.
ROCK-TRACINGS 116
CHAPTER IX.
WAR-SHIPS 136
CHAPTER X.
THE FLEETS OF THE NORTHMEN 176
CHAPTER XI.
MODE OF NAVAL WARFARE OF THE NORTHMEN 181
CHAPTER XII.
SEA BATTLES 188
CHAPTER XIII.
TRADERS AND TRADING-SHIPS 209
CHAPTER XIV.
DEBTS AND ROBBERY 235
CHAPTER XV.
HALLS AND BUILDINGS 241
CHAPTER XVI.
FEASTS, ENTERTAINMENTS 274
CHAPTER XVII.
DRESS OF MEN 285
CHAPTER XVIII.
DRESS OF WOMEN 301
CHAPTER XIX.
THE BRACTEATES 332
CHAPTER XX.
OCCUPATIONS AND SPORTS OF MEN 344
CHAPTER XXI.
OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN 362
CHAPTER XXII.
EXERCISES—IDRÓTTIR 369
CHAPTER XXIII.
IDRÓTTIR.—POETRY OR SCALDSHIP, MUSIC AND MENTAL EXERCISES 389
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE CONDUCT OF LIFE.—THE HÁVAMÁL 401
CHAPTER XXV.
SORROW AND MOURNING 414
CHAPTER XXVI.
CHAMPIONS AND BERSERKS 423
CHAPTER XXVII.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS 433
CHAPTER XXVIII.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS
(_Continued_) 450
CHAPTER XXIX.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS
(_Continued_) 462
CHAPTER XXX.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS
(_Continued_) 479
CHAPTER XXXI.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS
(_Continued_) 486
CHAPTER XXXII.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS
(_Continued_) 499
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF ICELAND, GREENLAND, AND AMERICA 514
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE ORKNEYS AND HEBRIDES 531
───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
APPENDIX I.—FRANKISH CHRONICLES 536
APPENDIX II.—FACSIMILES OF SAGAS 544
APPENDIX III.—COINS FOUND IN SCANDINAVIA 551
───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
INDEX 557
THE VIKING AGE.
CHAPTER I.
MARRIAGE.
High position of women—Married women’s property—Marriage a civil
compact—The suitor—Qualities looked for in a suitor—The bride’s
dower—Runaway marriages—The marriage settlement—The givers away of
the bride—The betrothal—Breaking a betrothal—Length of a
betrothal—The wedding—The trousseau—Illegality of marriages
without betrothal—Guardians of unmarried sisters—Marriage against
the will of the parents—Age of majority—Widows—Marriage on
insufficient means—Laws relating to marriage—The wedding
feast—Valuation of property—Laws on kissing—Women’s rights.
It is particularly striking, in reading the Sagas and the ancient laws
which corroborate them, to see the high position women occupied in
earlier and later pagan times.
If we are to judge of the civilisation of a people in their daily life
by the position women held with regard to men, we must conclude that in
this respect the earlier Norse tribes could compare favourably with the
most ancient civilised nations whose history has come down to us.
A maiden was highly respected, and on becoming a wife she was greatly
honoured, and her counsels had great weight; by marrying she became the
companion and not the inferior of her husband. She held property in her
own right, whatever she received by inheritance and by marriage being
her own; though there were restrictions put upon her, as well as upon
her husband, in regard to the use of her property.
In a word, a retrograde movement in regard to the rights and standing of
women took place after the extinction of the Asa creed. The high
position they had occupied before was lost, and it is only latterly that
they have striven, and in some countries with success, to regain the
authority that once belonged to them in regard to property and other
matters.
From the earliest time we see the chivalrous regard that men had for
women, and the punishment that any breach of its laws involved. Young
men went into warlike expeditions to attain great fame, so that their
acts of bravery could be known or extolled, and that they might become
worthy of the maiden they wished to woo. The same spirit afterwards
spread from the North to other countries in Europe, where, however, the
opinion only of women of higher rank was valued. Among the earlier
tribes of the North all were respected.
Marriage was not a religious contract or ceremony. It was simply
regarded as a civil compact, owing to the relations which man and wife
held towards each other in regard to property. It was the means of
joining families together, which was called _tengja saman_,[1] and
therefore the relation was called _tengdir_. Consequently marriage
itself was a bargain and on that account was called _brud-kaup_
(bride-buying).
When a man had selected for himself, or by the advice of his parents, a
woman or maiden whom he wanted to marry, he, accompanied by his father,
or nearest relatives or best friends, and by a retinue, according to his
rank, went to get the consent of the father, or of those who were the
guardians of the woman. It was the exception for the suitor himself not
to go on this journey, which was called _bonordsför_ (suit journey).[2]
“Njal once said to his son Helgi, ‘I have thought of a match for thee,
kinsman, if thou wilt follow my advice.’ ‘Certainly I will,’ he said,
‘for I know both that thou meanest it well and knowest well how to act;
but what is it?’ ‘We will ask in marriage the daughter of Asgrim
Ellidagrimsson, for she is the best match.’ Shortly afterwards they rode
out across the Thjórsá (a river), until they came to Tunga. Asgrim was
at home, and received them well, and they stayed there over night. The
next day they proceeded to talk the matter over. Njal opened the
subject, and asked for the hand of Thorhalla for his son Helgi. Asgrim
received this well, and said that with no men was he more desirous to
bargain than with them. They then talked about the matter, and at last
Asgrim betrothed his daughter to Helgi, and the wedding feast was agreed
upon” (Njala, c. 26, 27).
The suitor, even if present, had a spokesman who spoke on his behalf,
and enumerated his good qualities, deeds of valour, &c., and other
qualifications which might speak well for the suit. If the suit was
favourably received, a talk ensued in regard to the conditions of the
marriage.
Rut, a chief, went with his brother Höskuld to the _Althing_, and was
told by him that he would like him to marry Unn, the daughter of Mörd
Gigja. They went to his booth at the place of the Althing, and after
awhile Höskuld said:—
“‘I should like to make a bargain with thee; Rut wants to buy thy
daughter, and become thy son-in-law, and I shall not spare my property.’
Mörd answered: ‘I know thou art a great chief, but thy brother is
unknown to me.’ Höskuld said: ‘He is a greater chief than I.’ Mörd
added: ‘Thou must furnish him well, for she is the owner of all my
inheritance.’ ‘Thou needest not wait long for what I shall fix upon,’
replied Höskuld; ‘he shall have Kambsnes and Rutstadir and the land as
far as Thrandargil; he also has a trading ship on voyages abroad.’ Rut
then said to Mörd: ‘You may think, bondi, that my brother has spoken so
highly of me because he loves me, but if you will take the matter into
consideration I want you to state your conditions.’ Mörd answered: ‘I
have thought of the conditions. She shall have 60 hundreds, and it shall
be increased with one-third from thy farm, but if you have an heir each
of you shall have the half.’ Rut said: ‘These conditions I accept; and
now let us have witnesses’” (Njala, c. 2).[3]
The qualities which the parents or guardians took most into
consideration were good birth, powerful and prominent relatives.
Families on both sides had to be well matched in rank, wealth, and
personal bravery, the last being highly prized by the one whose hand was
sought.
“The kings (Ingibjörg’s brothers) went to a feast at Framnes[4] with
Fridthjóf, and, as usual, he treated them all better than they were
accustomed to be treated. Ingibjörg was there, and often spoke with
Fridthjóf; she said to him: ‘Thou hast a good gold ring.’ ‘That is
true,’ said Fridthjóf. Then the kings went home, and their envy against
Fridthjóf increased. A little after Fridthjóf became very sad; Björn,
his foster-brother, asked why he was so; he said he had it in mind to
ask Ingibjörg in marriage; ‘though I have lower rank than her brothers,
I am as good a man as they.’ Björn said: ‘Let us do it.’ The kings sat
on their father’s mound, and Fridthjóf saluted them; afterwards he asked
their sister Ingibjörg, Beli’s daughter, in marriage. The kings said:
‘It is very unwise to ask us to give her in marriage to a man of no
rank, and we refuse it.’ Fridthjóf said: ‘Then my errand is ended. I
will never hereafter give you any help though you may need it”
(Fridthjóf’s Saga, c. 2).
“And Björn was king over Firdafylki. His jarl was Hróald, and Thorir was
his son. Atli the Thin was then jarl at Gaular. His children were
Hallstein, Hólmstein, Herstein, and Solveig the fair. One autumn many
people were at Gaular at an autumn sacrifice. Then Ölvir Hnúfa saw
Solveig, and liked her well. He asked her in marriage, but the jarl
thought there was inequality of rank and would not consent to the
marriage. Thereupon Ölvir made many songs of love. He loved Solveig so
much that he left off Viking expeditions” (Egil’s Saga, c. 2).
“Grimkel, a godi, said: ‘I am told for certain, Valbrand, that thou hast
a daughter called Signy, who is very accomplished; I want to ask her in
marriage, if thou wilt marry her to me.’ Valbrand answered: ‘It is known
to us that thou art of good kin and art wealthy, and a great champion; I
will give a favourable answer to this’” (Hörd’s Saga, c. 3).
“I (Harald Fairhair) have thought of a match for thee; it was in my mind
when thou didst endanger thy life for mine. Vigdis, the daughter of
Thorir jarl the Silent, is a most handsome woman, and has much property;
I will marry her to thee. Ingimund thanked him and consented” (Vatnsdæla
Saga, c. 12).
In order that marriage should be regarded as perfectly lawful, the woman
had to be “_mundi keypt_”; that is, bought with _mund_[5] acquired by a
legal agreement between the man on one side, and the parents or
guardians of the intended bride on the other, in regard to the dower or
property agreed on both sides as belonging to the bride.
“The sons of Hildirid went to Thórólf and presented their claim to the
property of their father Björgólf. Thórólf answered: ‘I know of
Brynjolf, and still better of Bárd, that they were men of such
generosity that they would have given you of the inheritance of Björgólf
as much as they knew you had a right to. I was present when you pressed
this same claim against Bárd, and I heard that he thought there were no
proofs for it, for he called you sons of a concubine.’ Harek said they
would get witnesses that their mother was bought with _mund_. ‘But it is
true that we did not first present this claim to our brother Brynjolf.
There was also to be a division between kinsmen, and from Bárd we
expected honourable treatment in every respect, but our dealings with
him were not long. Now this inheritance has come into the hands of
unrelated men, and we cannot be altogether silent with regard to our
loss. It may be that there yet is as before such difference in power
that we may not get our rights from thee, if thou wilt hear none of the
witnesses, whom we can bring forth that we are odal-born men.’ Thórólf
answered harshly: ‘I count you the less legitimate as I am told your
mother was taken away by force and brought home as a captive’” (Egil’s
Saga, c. 9).
_Mund_ was originally the name for all the conditions in regard to the
property of both, especially that of the wife. This agreement was the
most important thing at the _festar_[6] (betrothal, fastening). Children
born without the payment of it were not _inheritance-born_—in a word,
were considered illegitimate.
If the wife was poor and entirely without property the husband had to
give a _mund_ of twelve _aurar_, in order that the marriage should be
regarded as fully legal.
“Next we must know how we shall buy women with _mund_, so that the child
is _inheritance-born_. The man shall give that woman a poor man’s
_mund_, amounting to 12 _aurar_, and have witnesses (at the ceremony).
He shall have bridesmen, and she bridesmaids, and he shall give her a
gift in the morning when they have been together one night, as large as
the one at the betrothal. Then the child born thereafter is
_inheritance-born_” (Gulath., 5).
“All men are not inheritance-born though they are free-born. The man
whose mother is not bought with _mund_, with a mark, or still more
property, or not wedded, or not betrothed, is not inheritance-born. A
woman is bought with _mund_ when a mark consisting of _aurar_, of the
value of 12 feet of _vadmal_,[7] or more property, is paid or stipulated
by _hand-shaking_. A wedding is lawfully made if the lawful man betroths
the woman, and six men at least are present” (Gragas, i. 75).[8]
If a man married a girl without the consent of her parents or guardians,
or made a runaway match, the husband was outlawed.
“Björn, the son of a hersir at Aurland in Sogn, was a great seafaring
man; sometimes he was on Viking expeditions, sometimes on
trade-journeys. One summer he was in Firdafylki at a feast where there
were many people. There he saw a handsome maiden whom he liked much. He
asked of what family she was. He was told that she was the sister of
Thórir hersir, son of Hróald, and was named Thora Hladhönd (lace-hand).
Björn asked her in marriage, but Thorir refused her to him, and so they
parted; but the same autumn Björn got men and went with a full-manned
_skuta_[9] north to Firdafylki, and arrived at Thórir’s when he was not
at home. He took Thora away, and carried her home with him to Aurland.
“In the autumn ships arrived at Iceland from Norway, bringing the report
that Björn had run away with Thora, without the consent of her kinsmen,
and that the king had for that reason outlawed him from Norway” (Egil’s
Saga, c. 32, 34).
The first matter settled was the _heimanfylgja_ (home-following, or
dowry), which follows the bride as given by the parents, or by those who
had the right to give her away; and then what the man had to set against
the dowry of his intended, which was called _tilgjöf_, or counter gift.
This latter stood in a certain proportion to the former, and generally
formed a third of the whole coming to the wife. It was occasionally
decided at the same time what _linfé_[10] (linen fee) the husband should
give to his wife on the morning after their wedding.
“The king (Svein of Denmark) and the jarl agreed that Thyri (Svein’s
sister) should have the possessions in Vindland which Gunnhild (deceased
wife of Svein, daughter of Búrisleif) had owned, and also other large
possessions as dower (_tilgjöf_). Thyri wept sorely, and went, very much
against her will. When they came to Vindland Búrisleif made his
wedding-feast and married Thyri, but she would neither take food nor
drink from the heathens for seven days” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 99).
The dowry included movable property and lands.
“The mother shall take as much property if her daughter dies childless
as she has given her from home, and also the _mund_ without interest.
She and her children shall get this in preference to the father. Every
man who has given anything for the _heimanfylgja_ shall get it back if
the wife dies childless, and also get the mund, if he has declared it at
the betrothal or the wedding” (Gragas, i. 174).
The givers-away of the bride were called _giptingar-men_, and were
either parents, kinsmen, or guardians.
After the preliminaries to the marriage had taken place, and the
agreement had been announced to the witnesses, the _festar_ or betrothal
followed, when the parties became _festarmadr_ or betrothed man, and
_festarkona_ or betrothed woman. This was a legal tie which could not be
broken with impunity. The suitor went over to the father or guardian of
the woman, and the latter betrothed her to him with a “_handsal_”
(hand-shaking); at the same time both parties also named their witnesses
to their betrothal. Gragas gives the formula used at this ceremony,
which is as follows:—
“A woman is betrothed according to law if a man recites the agreement
about the _mund_; then the guardian and the man to whom the woman is
betrothed shall name witnesses to it. The man who is betrothed shall
say: ‘We name witnesses that thou N. N. betrothest thyself to me N. N.
with a lawful betrothal, and givest me the _heimanfylgja_ with
_hand-shaking_, as the fulfilment and performance of the whole agreement
which was a while ago recited between us without fraud and tricks.’ This
is a complete and lawful match. It is lawful when the betrother is the
one who has the right to betroth according to law; and it is complete if
the betrothed is in such health that she would be bought at no less
price if she was a bondmaid, or has no other faults or blemishes which
would make her cost less or which she had when sixteen winters old. But
if these faults are found in the woman, the man who knowing it betrothed
the woman is liable to lesser outlawry for it, and the wedding may be
prevented if the man betrothed wishes it, provided he had before
pronounced the words, ‘a complete and lawful match’—but not otherwise.
Now if the betrothed man wants to demand the _mund_ he shall summon the
guardian, because he has betrothed the woman knowing such faults in her
that she would cost less if she were a bondmaid. He shall summon him to
lesser outlawry, and summon nine of his neighbours to the _Thing_. If
the witnesses are against him he is to be outlawed, and the _mund_
cannot be claimed. If the witnesses say that the guardian knew not the
faults of the woman he can defend himself, but he cannot claim the
_mund_ unless he can get five dwellers at the farm of the woman as
witnesses that she has not these faults; then the _mund_ is to be paid
back” (Gragas, i. 316).[11]
If the betrothed woman was injured or wronged in any way the man had the
same right to gain redress as if she were his wife.
“Every man has full _rétt_ on the behalf of his betrothed as well as his
wife, as long as it is due; but if she sits at home in the house of a
father or brother they have the full rétt on her behalf which her
betrothed would otherwise have had” (Frostath., xi. 12).
“If a man runs away with a betrothed woman he shall pay full _rétt_ to
the betrothed man and also to her father” (Bjarkey law, 125).
The virtue of a betrothed woman was very carefully guarded.
“If the father dies before the wedding within the twelve months, and the
child is begotten, then that child shall take its father’s inheritance
as if its mother were bought with _mund_. But in no other way is a man
inheritance-born unless his mother is bought with _mund_, or he is led
lawfully into the family (adopted). Though a man betroth his concubine
in order that according to this law his children be inheritance-born, or
delays the wedding on account of this, it does not matter, for neither
shall _inheritance-fraud_ be committed, nor the wedding be dishonoured
by this” (Frostath., 13).
The breaking of a betrothal by either party was severely punished, and
the laws on the subject were strict.
“If a man will not take his betrothed he shall be summoned home to take
her, and a day be fixed. Thereupon he shall be summoned to the _Thing_
because he flees from his betrothed. Then the thingmen shall make him an
outlaw, and he is called a runaway (_fudflogi_)” (Gulath., 51).
“If a man wants a better match, the father shall betroth his daughter
himself if she is a maiden, and the brother shall do it if the father is
dead. If the father will not give his daughter to the man to whom she
has been betrothed, he shall be summoned home and a day be fixed on
which he shall have his betrothed. If the betrother will not let him
have her, he shall demand the dowry of his betrothed, and summon him to
the _Thing_ for robbery; then the thingmen have to outlaw him. The
maiden has no power in this matter, if she does not draw back from the
marriage herself. The man who has charge of the betrothed woman may keep
her from the betrothed man for a twelvemonth. A widow may betroth
herself, but shall take the advice of her kinsmen; then she cannot break
her troth. If she has not taken the advice of her kinsmen, she may break
it and pay three marks for the breach of faith to the one who was
betrothed to her. If a man betroths to a man a woman over whom he has no
betrothing power, he shall pay three marks to the one who was betrothed
to her. Two or more brothers shall have power over their sister; if one
of them betroths her to a man, and the others object, then they shall
draw lots who of them shall rule; if the one who betrothed her draws the
lot, the betrothal shall be kept, otherwise not, and then the betrother
shall pay three marks for breach of faith” (Earlier Gulathing’s Law, c.
51).
The length of the betrothal, if no special agreement had been made, was
limited to twelve months, that being the longest time that a woman’s
guardian could defer a marriage against the will of her future husband.
Three years seems to have been the longest delay allowed; during that
time the woman was said to _sit as betrothed_, if the suitor was away
and did not return within that time the agreement was void, and the
woman was free to marry another man.
“Björn now rode to Borg to see his kinsman Skúli. When they met, Björn
told him that he wished above all to get Oddny Thorkel’s daughter before
he left. Skúli asked if he had said anything about it to her. Björn
answered he had certainly done so. Then let us go, said Skúli; and they
went. They came to Hjörsey, and saw Thorkel and his daughter Oddny.
Björn then told him the state of his feelings, and asked Oddny in
marriage. Thorkel took it well, and referred it altogether to his
daughter’s decision. As Björn had been known to her before, and they had
loved each other very fondly, she consented. Then the betrothal was
performed at once, and she was to sit betrothed for three winters. And
even if Björn, while staying in the same country (Iceland), was
prevented from marrying her, she was to wait for him nevertheless during
a fourth winter. If he should not come back from Norway in three
winters, Thorkel was to give her in marriage if he liked. Also Björn was
to send men to Iceland to renew the betrothal if he could not come
himself. Skúli contributed as part of the contract so much property with
Björn that it was as much as all the property which Thorkel added to his
daughter’s _mund_”[12] (Björn Hitdælakappi’s Saga).
The betrothed who without valid reason did not fulfil her engagement,
and the giver-away who kept back the betrothed woman, were outlawed. If
she of her free will took another man than her betrothed, both she and
the giver-away were outlawed.
“If a man betroths a woman he shall have her married within twelve
months if no necessity hinders” (Frostath., iii. 12).
“The giver-away of a woman may keep her from her betrothed man for
twelve months” (Gulathing’s Law, 51).
“If she (the betrothed woman) wants to break the betrothal within twelve
months, and says she has been betrothed against her will, he can use his
witnesses against her words and get her. If he lacks witnesses then she
and also her father and mother, or their nearest kinsmen if they do not
exist, shall assure it is against her will with an oath, and pay the
betrothed man as much as was promised. If this takes place after the
wedding she loses her third” (Frostath., iii. 22).
“If the man to whom a woman is betrothed becomes sick he shall send word
half a month before (the wedding) to the man who has betrothed the woman
that he will not come to the wedding on account of his health, and the
woman need not be brought home to him though it was agreed, and the
reasons must be told. Then the wedding shall not be before the same time
next year, unless the man wants it before, and then word must be sent
half a month or more before, and he shall keep the wedding at his sole
cost. If he does not recover in the next twelvemonth the betrothal is
dissolved, unless both wish otherwise” (Gragas, i. 310).
The wedding generally took place at the home of the bride; very seldom
at the bridegroom’s: on the wedding-night the _mund_ became the wife’s
personal property.
After the marriage the bride and bridegroom were _hjón_, a word which
means man and wife; and then the wife became an _eiginkona_ (own woman,
wife, spouse) and _hùsfreyja_ (housewife), and enjoyed the rights
belonging to that position.
“Illugi lived at Hólm in Akranes. He was tall and strong and wealthy; he
went on a wooing-journey to Ölfusvatn, and asked for Thurid, the
daughter of Grimkel by his first wife. Grimkel answered favourably, for
he knew Illugi; the betrothal was performed there; Hörd (Grimkel’s son
by Signy) was not present at this. In the _tvimanad_ (September) the
wedding-feast was to be at Ölfusvatn, and when the appointed day came
Illugi made ready to go with thirty men” (Hörd’s Saga, ch. ii.).
No rings were exchanged or given either at the betrothal or the wedding.
That the bride had a special dress for the bridal ceremony seems to be
certain, though in no Saga have we a description of a bridal dress; but
from several passages we see that the bride was _hvit-földud_
(white-folded), and _lin-bundin_ (linen-bound, enveloped in linen),
which implies that the bridal dress was white.
“It is told that the first evening of the wedding the brides (King
Svein’s, and that of Sigvaldi, Jarl of the Jomsvikings) had their
head-dress (_fald_) low down so that their faces could not be distinctly
seen; next morning they were very merry and did not wear any
_skuplas_.”[13]
This bridal linen was a long wide head-dress hanging down the back from
the top of the head, or a kind of veil. In _Thrymskvida_ the bride wore
such a head-dress, which was fastened on the head with an ornament. At
the waist a bunch of keys was placed to show her authority as mistress
of the household, and on her breast she had an ornament.
The jötun Thrym had got Thor’s hammer and would not give it back, unless
Freyja were married to him. Thor was disguised as Freyja, and sent as a
bride to Thrym; he got hold of the hammer, and crushed Thrym and the
jötnar.
Then said Thor,
The mighty Ás,
The Asar will me
Effeminate call
If I let myself
Be tied in bridal linen.
Then they tied Thor
In the bridal linen,
And the great
Brisinga-necklace;[14]
Let keys hang
From his belt,
And woman’s clothes
Hang round his knees,
And broad stones[15]
Be on his breast,
And fastened the cloth[16]
On his head with skill.
(Thrymskvida.)
We have nothing to show positively that marriage was celebrated with
religious ceremonies, but certain forms may have taken place. In the
later Edda we have the goddess _Vár_, who hears the vows of men and
women. In Helgi Hjörvardson there are also vows called by her name, and
it seems that she was solemnly invoked at weddings, and the sign of the
hammer of Thor made over the bride.
Then said Thrym,
The chief of Thursar:
Carry in the hammer
To consecrate the bride,
Lay Mjöllnir
In the maiden’s lap.
Wed us together
With the hand of _Var_.
The mind laughed
In the breast of Hlórridi[17]
As the hard-minded one
Saw the hammer;
Thrym killed he first,
The lord of Thursar,
And thrashed
The Jötun’s whole kin.
(Earlier Edda; Thrymskvida.)[18]
Marriage without betrothal proceedings and dowry was called
_skyndibrúdhlaup_ (hasty wedding), or _lausa-brudhlaup_ (loose wedding).
Such an union was illegal, and the children begotten thereby had no
right of inheritance.
“Björgólf, a landed man in Halogaland, once in his old age was at a
feast with Högni, a rich bondi, and saw his daughter Hildirid, whom he
liked well.
“The same autumn Björgólf the old left on his _skuta_ with thirty men.
He came to Leka (Högni’s farm), and twenty men went up to the farm,
while ten guarded the ship. When they came home Högni received him well,
and invited him to stay there with his men; he accepted, and went into
the _stofa_ (daily room). When they had taken off their outer clothes
Högni had a _skap-ker_ (large vessel) with ale carried in. Hildirid, his
daughter, carried ale to the guests. Björgólf called Högni, and said:
‘My errand hither is that I wish thy daughter to go home with me, and I
will marry her in loose wedding.’ Högni saw he could do nothing but what
Björgólf wished. Björgólf bought her with an _eyrir_ of gold.... They
had two sons, Hárek and Hrœrek, and Björgólf died afterwards. Then
Brynjólf, his son by the first wife, sent her away to her father. They
were called Hildirid-sons, and not by the name of the father. Brynjólf
died, and his son Bard got his death wounds in the battle of Hafrsfjord.
Bard had the king called to him, and said: ‘If I die from these wounds I
ask you to allow me to dispose of my inheritance.’ The king consented.
Bard said: ‘I wish my companion and kinsman Thorólf to take all my
inheritance, lands and loose property; I will also give him my wife and
my son to bring up, for I trust him best of all men.’ Thorólf according
to the wish of his friend married this wife, Sigrid, daughter of Sigurd
in Sandnes” (Egil’s Saga, 7).
The father or the guardian of the girl had the decision over her
marriage. If the father was dead the brothers were the guardians of the
unmarried sister. If she had neither father nor brothers, her mother in
connection with the nearest uncle could give her away; and as the maiden
had no voice in the matter, she could be forced by her father or
guardians into a marriage against her will.
“Thorvald Usvifrsson, a rich man, demanded Hallgerd in marriage from her
father Höskuld, an Icelandic chief. Höskuld told him that she was proud,
but Thorvald said that did not matter. Höskuld did not ask his daughter,
because he intended to give her in marriage and betroth her to Thorvald.
When he told her, she said: ‘Now I have found out what I long suspected,
that thou dost not love me so much as thou always pretendest, as thou
didst not think it worth while to speak to me about this matter; nor do
I think this match as high as you have promised me.’ It could be seen
that she considered herself to be married beneath her rank” (Njala
10).[19]
“The giver away next to a father or brother is a lawfully wedded mother.
If there is no mother, then the man twenty winters old or more who is
the nearest heir after the woman who is married” (Frostath., law ii.
13).
The father did not always exercise his right of deciding about the
marriage; sometimes he left the decision of the suit entirely in the
hands of the daughter, but such cases must be regarded as an exception.
If a girl married against the will of her parents or kinsmen the latter
could disinherit her, and her progeny were illegitimate, and this act of
disobedience would even get her self-chosen husband declared an outlaw
as a woman-robber.
When a poor girl was given in marriage to a rich man, one of the
conditions made was that her clothes and ornaments should be provided,
though if she was an heiress and fifteen years of age she could betroth
herself with the advice of her kinsmen.
The different Sagas and laws place the age of majority of men as well as
of women at fifteen years, and early marriages of women at that age were
not uncommon.
“Thorvald (a wealthy Icelander) asked in marriage Gudrún Úsvifr’s
daughter at the _Althing_ when she was fifteen winters old. The answer
was favourable, but Úsvifr said it would be seen by the conditions that
they were not equally high-born. Thorvald took this well, and said he
asked for the woman and not for property. Then Gudrún was betrothed to
Thorvald, and Úsvifr made the agreement. It was that Gudrún alone should
rule over their property after they had come into one bed, and be owner
of one half of all, whether they lived longer or shorter together. He
was also to buy costly things for her, so that no equally rich wife had
better jewels” (Laxdæla, c. 34).[20]
“The maiden who becomes an heiress may marry herself to whomever she
likes when she is fifteen winters old, with the counsel of those of her
kinsmen who are the wisest and nearest both on her father’s and mother’s
side” (Frostath., xi. 18).
“Glúm, a powerful man, went with his brother (Thorarin) to
Höskuldsstadir with eighteen men to ask in marriage Hallgerd, the
daughter of the chief Höskuld who lived there. When they had stayed
there overnight Glúm’s brother, Thórarin, said: ‘I have come here,
Höskuld, with my brother Glúm to ask thy daughter Hallgerd in marriage
for him. Thou must know that he is high-born.’ ‘I know,’ said Höskuld,
‘that your brothers are of good kin, but I will also tell thee that I
married her once and it became a great misfortune.’ Thórarin answered:
‘We will not let that prevent the bargain, for a single oath is no
evidence for all cases.’”
As Hallgerd had been unfortunately married, Hrut said:—
“This time Hallgerd must not, as before, be kept in ignorance of the
betrothal; she shall know all this bargain and see Glúm, and have her
way about marrying him or not; then she cannot accuse others if it does
not do well; all this shall be without deceit.’ Thórarin said: ‘Now, as
always, it will be best to take thy advice.’”
Hallgerd was sent for; and after coming in with two women—
“She sat down between Hrút and her father. She greeted them all with
fine words, and spoke well, and asked for news. Then she grew silent.
Glúm said: ‘I and my brother Thórarin have spoken about a bargain to thy
father, namely, that I should marry thee, Hallgerd, if it is thy will,
as it is theirs. Thou wilt also tell now, as thou art called a highly
accomplished woman, whether it is somewhat to thy mind; but if the
bargain with us is not to thy wish, we will not speak of it.’ Hallgerd
said: ‘I know that your brothers are men of good kin, and that I will
now be married much better than before; but I want to know what you have
said, and how far the matter has advanced; but as thou lookest to me, I
think I will love thee well if our tempers agree.’ Glúm himself told her
all the conditions, and left nothing out, and asked Höskuld and Hrút
whether they were rightly told. Höskuld said they were. Hallgerd said:
‘You, my father, and Hrút have behaved so well to me in this matter that
I will do this at your advice, and this bargain shall be as you have
made it.’ Hrút said: ‘I think it advisable that I and Höskuld should
name witnesses, and that Hallgerd should betroth herself if the lawman
thinks it right.’ Thórarin answered: ‘It is right.’ Then the property of
Hallgerd was valued, and Glúm was to give as much, and there was to be
joint-partnership between them. Then Glúm betrothed Hallgerd to himself,
and they rode home. Höskuld was to hold the wedding feast” (Njala, c.
13).
When girls were of age they could transact their own business.
“There are maidens called _baugryg_. They shall pay with rings and take
rings when they are only children and inheritance-born, till they sit
down on a bride’s chair. Then they throw this into the lap of their
kinsmen, and shall neither pay nor take rings thereafter” (Frostath.,
vi. 4).
A widow, who had the same rights as a girl of age, could not be forced
into a new marriage by her father or kinsmen, but on the other hand she
could not marry without their consent; and the conditions of the
marriage were generally settled by the spokesmen of the suitor and her
nearest of kin in the usual manner.
“A widow shall betroth herself and take the advice of her kinsmen”
(Gulathing’s Law, 51).
“Thorgerd, Thorstein’s daughter, Höskuld’s mother, was still a young and
very beautiful woman. She did not like to stay in Iceland after the
death of Koll (her husband). She declared to her son Höskuld that she
wished to go abroad with the property she owned. Höskuld said he was
sorry to part with her, but would not oppose her will in this any more
than in other things. Then Höskuld bought the half of a ship in
Dögurdarnes for his mother. Thorgerd went on board with much property,
set sail, and after a good journey landed in Norway. She had in Norway a
large family and many highborn kinsmen; they received her well, and
offered her everything she might wish. Thorgerd accepted this
thankfully, and said she intended to settle down there. She was not long
a widow; Herjólf, a wealthy and highly-honoured lendirmadn, asked her in
marriage. She accepted him, although he was not handsome, and a splendid
wedding was celebrated. A son was born to them, who was called Hrut, and
who quickly grew up and became very strong and large. He was fair of
face like his mother’s family. Herjólf fell sick and died, and men
thought it a great loss. After his death Thorgerd did not like to remain
in Norway, but returned to Iceland to her son Höskuld with much
property, and remained there until her death, after which she was buried
in a mound. After her burial Höskuld took all her property, and offered
half of it to Hrut, who had remained in Norway” (Laxdæla, 7).
The Icelandic chief Thorkel Eyjolfsson wanted to marry the widow Gudrun,
Usvifr’s daughter. The chief Snorri godi asked her in marriage on his
behalf.
“Gudrun answered: ‘My sons Thorleik and Bolli will have most of the
power in this, but thou, Snorri, art the third man to whom I would most
willingly entrust the matters which I think very important, for thou
hast long given me good advice.’ Snorri said it was evident that Thorkel
ought not to be rejected. Thereafter Snorri had the sons of Gudrun
called thither; he told them how much support they could get from
Thorkel on account of his wealth and foresight, and gave good advice
about it. Bolli answered: ‘My mother will be best able to see this; I
shall consent to her will. But surely we think it advisable to take into
account that thou hast supported this matter, Snorri, for thou hast done
many good things for us.’ Gudrun said: ‘We shall carefully heed the
advice of Snorri in this matter, for thy counsels have been good to us.’
Snorri urged her strongly to do it, and it was settled that the marriage
should take place. Snorri offered to make the wedding-feast. Thorkel was
pleased at that, and said: ‘I have got provisions enough to supply as
much as you like.’ Then Gudrun said: ‘It is my will that the feast shall
be here at Helgafell’” (Laxdæla, 68).
People could not marry unless they had means enough to support
themselves in comfort. If they acquired wealth afterwards, then he owned
two-thirds, and she one-third, both of land and movable property, and
the husband could not take his wife’s property out of the country
without her consent. Partnership between husband and wife was said to be
established after a certain time, which according to Frostathing’s Law
was twelve months.
But according to the Gulathing, man and wife could not, without the
consent of the heirs of both, enter into partnership before they had
children; but when they had, they could make whatever partnership they
liked. When they had been married twenty years they were partners
according to law.[21]
“If men marry who have less property than one hundred legal _aurar_,
besides their everyday clothes, and no children, then they are liable to
lesser outlawry unless the woman is barren. No _féránsdóm_[22] shall be
held, and their property is not confiscated, and they shall leave the
land with their children, and not come back unless their property
increases so much that they own a hundred or more, or the woman is
barren” (Gragas, i. 323).
“If man and wife have equal property they shall make partnership if they
wish, which is also valid for their heirs. The contract of betrothal is
valid between man and wife while its witnesses live and no other
contracts are made. But if the witnesses remembering it are dead, then
their property is in common, according to law, if he owned a mark or
more, and the _mund_ was paid, and they have lived together three
winters or more. If they are poor and earn property, their property is
in common according to law. According to law the joint partnership is
always thus, that he owns two parts, and she one-third”[23] (Gragas, i.
334).
“If a wife loses her husband, and they have lived twelve months
together, she owns one-third of the farm and of all loose property, and
her clothes besides” (Frostathing, xi. 6).
“If a man marries a widow or maiden who owns a farm, he owns nothing of
the farm before they have lived together twelve months. Then the laws
lay their property together.
“If two paupers marry according to the laws of the land, and their
property increases, then he owns two-thirds, and she one-third of lands
and loose property” (Frostathing, ix. 8, 9).
“A man shall not take the property of his wife out of the land, except
with her consent. He shall rule over all their property for their use.
Neither of them shall by word or deed forfeit the property of the other.
Every man has the same _rétt_ for his wife as for himself” (Earlier
Gulathing’s Law, 52).[24]
“If a man wants to leave the country with the property of his wife, she
may give full powers to any man she wishes to forbid him going, and
prosecute him and the men who take him away, if needed” (Grágás, i.
331).
“A wife shall not refuse partnership to her husband. If a man marries a
maiden, they cannot enter into partnership unless the men who have right
to their inheritance assent; but if they have inheritance-born children,
they can enter into such partnership as they like.
“If a man marries a widow, and she has children (inheritance-born
children) which are under age, and the man nevertheless wants to enter
into partnership with her, ‘then a meeting shall be summoned of the
children nearest of kin on their father’s side, and a partnership be
made according to the worth of their property; land shall be valued
against land, and loose property against loose property,’ and his
property valued also if it is more than hers. It cannot be broken if
thus made.
“If they enter into partnership in another way, it may be broken,
whether his heirs or hers want it, by going to a _Thing_ before they
have been twenty winters together, and declaring that the partnership is
broken. If this is not done before they have been twenty winters
together, he (the husband) can never change it thereafter.
“Wherever husband and wife enter into partnership, they shall declare it
before many men. Now if they have lived together twenty winters or more,
they are partners according to the laws, if they were not before. Then
she owns a third of the property, and he two-thirds. Though it (the
partnership) be made, if it is not made public during the twenty
winters, it is as if it had not been made” (Gulathing’s Law, 53).
Marriages were forbidden to the fifth degree of relationship.
“It is a new law that marriage is not allowed nearer than the fifth
degree in the same degrees of relationship and kinsmanship. If they are
both kinsmen in the fifth degree they may marry if they like, but pay a
larger tithe of all their property” (Grágás, i. 308).
The wedding feasts, at which the gods were invoked for the happiness of
the marriage, were often very splendid, and guests, to whom presents
were given, came from long distances. The length of the feasts varied
according to the rank and wealth of the family, and were so gorgeous
that they remained long in the memories of the people.
The _brúd-kaup_, or wedding, was the fulfilment of the conditions
stipulated at the betrothal.
“Sigmund[25] rode to Orradal, and visited Thorkel, and was well
received. He now began his wooing, and asked Thurid in marriage. Thorkel
took this well, and thought it a great honour for his daughter and them
all. Sigmund made his wedding-feast at Hladir with Hakon jarl, and the
jarl made it last for seven nights” (Færeyinga Saga, 26).[26]
“Heidrek married Herborg, the daughter of King Hrollaug in Gardariki.
Their wedding-feast was made, and no man had heard of a greater feast in
these lands; it lasted a month; when it ended the chiefs were led away
with gifts. Hrollaug gave his daughter a dower of gold and silver and
costly things; Vindland, which lies next to Reidgotaland, was also to
follow her as dower” (Hervara Saga, c. 14).[27]
The celebration of King Olaf’s wedding is thus related:—
“Olaf had made preparations, with the best of all kinds of drink and
provisions that could be got. He had invited many high-born men from the
districts. When Rögnvald jarl arrived with his men, the king received
him well, and large, good, and well-furnished rooms were given to him;
the servants took care that there should be lack of nothing which might
be proper for a feast. When the feast had lasted some days, the king and
the jarl and the king’s daughter spoke together; it was agreed that
Rögnvald of Western Gautland should betroth Astrid the daughter of Olaf,
King of Sweden, to Olaf, King of Norway, with the dower which they had
before agreed upon that her sister Ingigerd should have. The king also
was to give Astrid as much as he would have given to her sister
Ingigerd. Then the feast was made larger, and the wedding of Olaf and
Astrid was celebrated with great splendour” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 94).
In sparsely-settled countries we find that a bondi was obliged to
shelter the bridal party.
“A bondi shall feed at least five of them (the bridesmen and
bridesmaids). He is an outlaw if he refuses to lodge them. This is if
the bride or bridegroom are with them; otherwise he must feed three men”
(Kristinrett Thorláks og Ketils biskupa, p. 94).
In the hall where the wedding-feast took place there were bridal
benches, which were probably kept in the family for such an occasion;
just as to-day the bridal crowns are kept in Norway.
On one of the long benches the bridegroom was seated with his men; on
the other, which was opposite, the father of the bride and his male
guests. On the cross-bench sat the women, with the bride in the middle;
therefore this bench was called _brudbekk_ (bride-bench).
Sverting Hafr-Bjarnarson was going to marry Húngerd, Thorodd’s daughter,
and invited Hlugi the black, father of Gunnlaug Ormstunga, and his sons
to the wedding-feast.
“The women sat on the cross-bench; Helga fagra (the fair) sat next to
the bride, and her eyes often glanced at Gunnlaug, and there the saying
was proved that ‘the eyes do not hide it if a woman loves a man.’
Gunnlaug was then well dressed, and wore the fine clothes which King
Sigtrygg gave him; he was thought greatly superior to other men, both in
strength, beauty, and stature” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga c. ii.).[28]
We find that during the feast the bride was seated between the bridesmen
and bridesmaids, a custom that has come down to this day; the _linfé_
was then presented to her as she sat under the bridal linen.
“Then he (the bridegroom) shall sit between the bridesmen, and she
between the bridesmaids. He shall walk across the floor and give her
_linfé_. That is lawful whether the gift is small or great” (N. G. L.,
ii. 305, King Magnus’ Laws).
It was the custom to offer to the bride a _bekkjar-gjöf_ (bench-gift)
while she sat on the bridal bench.
Kjartan Olafsson, a famous Icelandic champion, was taking leave of
Ingibjörg, the sister of King Olaf Tryggvason, as he was going to
Iceland.
“At this moment Ingibjörg opened a mead-cask standing at her side, and
took out of it a white and gold woven woman’s head-gear, which she gave
to Kjartan, saying it would be only too good for Gudrún Osvifr’s
daughter to wrap around her head; ‘and thou wilt give it to her as a
bench-gift. I want the Icelandic women to see that she who has been
talking with thee in Norway is not of thrall-kin. It was in a bag of
_gudvef_,[29] and was most costly” (Laxdæla, c. 43).
When Olaf Tryggvason kept his wedding-feast with Thyri of Denmark, he
asked her whether he should choose a bench-gift befitting a maiden or a
woman who has been married. She answered that he should do what seemed
to him most beseeming for himself and her. He was pleased with her
answer, and at once sent her a woman’s cloak with very fine furs and
beautifully ornamented.[30]
We see not only how particular people were in regard to precedence, but
how jealously wives guarded the reputation of their husbands.
“The chief Gudmund Riki (the powerful) was present at the wedding-feast
of his overseer Thorstein; he sat in the high-seat, Thorir Helgason (a
chief) opposite to him, and the women on the cross-bench; bright lights
were burning, and tables were placed in front. The bride sat on the
middle of the cross-bench, with Thorlaug (wife of Gudmund) on the one
side, and Geirlaug (wife of Thorir Helgason) on the other. A woman went
with water to the cross-bench, having a cloth on her shoulder, and first
went to Geirlaug because she had been with her the previous winter.
Geirlaug said: ‘Thou actest with goodwill, but in a thoughtless way;
carry the water first to Thorlaug.’ She did so. Thorlaug beckoned it
away with the back of her hand, saying: ‘Too much trouble is taken,
Geirlaug, for the woman is right; there is no jealousy in my mind at
this; it is not certain that any other woman is of higher rank in the
district than thou.’ Geirlaug answered: ‘The trouble is little,
Thorlaug; but if thou hast the ambition to be most honoured, I have
nothing equal to thee, except my marriage.’ Thorlaug replied: ‘Certainly
I think thee well married, though I do not now know another who is
better married than I.’ Geirlaug added: ‘Thou wouldst be well married,
if thy husband were said by all to be courageous or valiant.’ Thorlaug
replied: ‘This is wickedly spoken, and thou art the first to say it.’
Geirlaug replied: ‘It is true, for many others say it; but Thorkel Hák
said it first, and my husband Thorir and every man who can move his
tongue says it.’ Thorlaug said: ‘Bring the water hither, woman, and let
us end this talk” (Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13).
“The famous champion Gunnar of Hlidarendi was to have his wedding, and
had invited to the feast many people. He placed his guests as follows.
He sat himself in the middle of the bench; and to the right of him was
Thráin Sigfússon, Ulf Aurgodi, Valgard the grey, Mörd, Runólf, the sons
of Sigfús, and innermost Lambi. Next to Gunnar on the other side sat
Njál, then Skarphedin, Helgi, Grim, Höskuld, Hafr the wise, Ingjald from
Keldur, and the sons of Thorir from Holt. Thorir wanted to sit outside
all the men of distinction.... Höskuld was in the middle of the other
bench, and his sons inside to the left of him; Rút sat outside to the
right of Höskuld; it is not said how the others were placed. The bride,
Hallgerd, sat in the middle of the cross-bench with her daughter
Thorgerd on one side, and on the other Thórhalla, daughter of Asgrím
Ellidagrímsson” (Njala, c. 34).[31]
The man, as the guardian of his wife, had to manage their property; but
nevertheless the property of each was quite separate. At the marriage
the property of both was valued, and the _heimanfylgja_, _tilgjöf_,
_linfé_, and also what she had got or would get by inheritance or other
ways, were regarded as the property of the woman.
If the husband died first, his natural heir got his property, while the
wife kept hers; but if the wife died first, the husband took back the
_tilgjöf_, and the other property went to her heirs.
If a man did not value the property of his wife at the marriage, then he
had to pay the value to her heirs if she died before him, and take an
oath that he had not received more. But if he died first, and his
property also had not been valued, and they had been married for twelve
months, then she got one-third of the loose property and land, besides
her clothes.
“A man shall rule over his wife’s property while they are married, and
not separated, except that which is stipulated at their betrothal or
their marriage; that property shall she answer for and rule herself. If
an inheritance falls to a man’s wife, and there are _umagi_[32] in that
inheritance but no property,[33] her husband shall take care of these,
and “fit them out,” but her _heimanfylgja_ shall not diminish when it is
made public in a drinking-hall.[34] But if there is property in that
inheritance, the lands and all loose property shall be valued, and he
shall have the care of them and the increase, but he shall pay as much
back as he got, except the land-rents which he got afterwards” (Earlier
Frostathing’s Law, xi. 5).
“A gift given to a woman shall be her property, in whatever manner she
may be separated. All the property of a maiden shall be valued, loose
property against loose property, but one half of a widow’s property
shall be valued. The valuation shall be lawful in every case except
two—if she dies childless or leaves him without a protector” (Gulath.,
54).
The only certain examples of polygamy[35] occur among the great chiefs,
such as Harald Fairhair. Harald Hardradi had two wives, Elizabeth, the
daughter of the King of Gardaríki, and Thora, the daughter of a
Norwegian chief; both enjoyed the name of queen.
The husband was obliged to protect his wife, and take as much care of
her honour as of his own.
“Now is about the rights of women. Every man has claim on behalf of his
wife. A _Hauld_ owns three marks if she is struck; but a widow shall
have the same _rétt_ as her last husband (had), and the one she wishes
shall prosecute. But if a maiden is struck, her nearest kinsman shall
claim her _rétt_ as if it were his own. But if she is to have it
herself, the right plaintiff shall summon a _Thing_” (Earlier
Frostathing’s Law, x., c. 37).
The following laws show how strict people were in regard to kisses:—
“If a man kisses a woman (belonging to another) secretly, with her will,
he is liable to pay three marks, and the one who would have to prosecute
for seduction has to prosecute. If she gets angry at it, she may
prosecute herself, and the man is then liable to lesser outlawry. If a
man kisses a man’s wife secretly, he is liable to lesser outlawry
whether she allows it or refuses it. Nine neighbours are to be called as
witnesses to this at the _Thing_.... If a man puts on a _fald_ or
_woman’s clothes_ to deceive a woman, he is liable to lesser
outlawry”[36] (Gragas, i. 337).
“If a man makes a _song of love_[37] on a woman, he is to be outlawed.
If the woman is twenty years or older, she shall prosecute the case
herself. But if she is younger, or will not prosecute, her legal
guardian has to do it” (Gragas, vol. ii., p. 150).
Women’s rights appear to have been not altogether unknown even in these
early days; for women who got their own livelihood and whose kinsmen did
not trouble themselves about their support, were their own masters.
“If kinsmen will not take proper care of women, and they (the women) get
their living themselves, then they shall rule over themselves as they
like” (Frostath., xi. 17).
-----
Footnote 1:
To tie or join together. _Tengdir_ = bonds or ties of affinity;
_tengda-modir_ = mother-in-law; _tengda-fadir_ = father-in-law.
Footnote 2:
Powerful chiefs sometimes sent ambassadors to ask for the hand of the
lady they wanted to wed.
Footnote 3:
Cf. also c. 13, 98.
Footnote 4:
Farm of Fridthjóf’s father.
Footnote 5:
The mund was the property or money which the suitor was to give to the
bride.
Footnote 6:
The word _festar_ implied that she was fastened, or, in a modern
sense, betrothed to the man; and this important ceremony preliminary
to marriage took place in the presence of six witnesses.
Footnote 7:
Common woollen cloth.
Footnote 8:
Cf. also Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 51; Njala, c. 2.
Footnote 9:
A ship.
Footnote 10:
The word seems to imply a gift of linen, in which, perhaps, clothing
was included. Olaf Tryggvason gave a cloak as linfé.
Footnote 11:
Cf. Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. 4.
Footnote 12:
Cf. also Laxdæla.
Footnote 13:
Skupla = a woman’s hood hiding the face.
Footnote 14:
This necklace had been made by Dvergar, and belonged to Freyja.
Footnote 15:
Stones to make a false breast.
Footnote 16:
Cf. also Rigsmal, 23.
Footnote 17:
Thor.
Footnote 18:
For the whole story of Thor and Thrym, as translated from the Earlier
Edda, see Anderson’s Mythology, pp. 328–335; and especially, in
connection with this, pp. 331, 332.
Footnote 19:
Cf. also Hörd, c. 3.
Footnote 20:
Cf. also Droplaugar sona Saga, 23, 24.
Footnote 21:
Borgarthing’s Law says thirty years; in Iceland after three years
(Gragas, 153). But however these laws differed, they all agree that
the woman owns one-third, the man two-thirds.
Footnote 22:
A court of execution or confiscation to be held within a fortnight
after the sentence at the house of a person convicted in one of the
two degrees of outlawry.
Footnote 23:
Cf. also Gulathing’s Law, 53.
Footnote 24:
Cf. also Gragas, i. 331.
Footnote 25:
This Sigmund is the famous champion of the Faroes.
Footnote 26:
Cf. also Sturlunga, i., c. 13; Fornmanna Sögur, iv. c. 24–26; Hörd’s
Saga, c. 11.
Footnote 27:
Cf. also Vatnsdæla Saga, c. 12; Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13; Hervarar
Saga, c. 10.
Footnote 28:
Cf. also Hænsa Thori’s Saga, c. 12.
Footnote 29:
Costly woven stuff.
Footnote 30:
Cf. Fornmanna Sögur, ii. 133; Laxdæla, 69; Gunnlaug Ormstunga, ch. ii.
Footnote 31:
Cf. Hænsa Thori’s Saga, c. 12.
Footnote 32:
Umagi, one that cannot support himself.
Footnote 33:
Negative inheritance.
Footnote 34:
Before people in a hall.
Footnote 35:
Concubines were both slaves of high birth who were captured in war and
women of lower birth, and seem to have often lived in the house. Njal
had a concubine whose son by him was killed, and Njal’s wife was
anxious to avenge his death. Their status seems to have depended on
that of the man with whom they lived.
Footnote 36:
Another text states that the women also are punished if they do the
opposite.
Footnote 37:
This probably means derisive songs.