Stinging insects all belong to the group _Hymenoptera_ and consist of
the families _Apidae_ (honeybee, etc.), _Bombidae_ (bumblebee),
_Vespidae_ (wasps and hornets), _Sphecidae_ (thread-waisted wasps),
_Mutillidae_ (velvet ants), and _Formicidae_ (the ants).
[Illustration: _Wasp_]
_In general, the only treatment recommended for insect stings is to
bathe the parts with ordinary liquid household bluing just as soon as
possible after the sting has been received, and apply hot compresses.
However, certain specific treatments are advised, depending upon the
particular species or condition._
Some persons are extremely susceptible to insect bites and stings, and
preliminary work has been done in trying to immunize those sensitive
individuals, but, in general, with very little success. The problem of
immunizing or desensitizing persons who are allergic to insect bites and
stings is one of considerable importance, as such unfortunate persons
will testify.
Because of the fact that honeybees are of such great economic
importance, not only as producers of an important food but also as
pollenizers of fruit, vegetable, seed, and other crops, they will be
discussed separately from the other stinging insects.
Everyone is familiar with ants, wasps, hornets, and bumblebees, and
there are very few persons who have not had unpleasant experiences with
one or more of these groups of insects.
_Ants and velvet ants_
Velvet ants, which are in reality wingless wasps and not true ants, are
not as well known as the others, although the little creatures that
scurry about like brightly dyed bits of cotton are quite numerous in the
desert.
The primary purpose of the sting is to paralyze or kill their prey,
although it becomes more important as a weapon of defense with insects
which do not prey upon or parasitize other creatures. Although the
solitary insects use their poison as a means of personal defense if
attacked or imposed upon, the social insects such as ants, social wasps
and hornets, honeybees, and others, rally to the defense of their nests
and in mass attacks against an intruder may cause painful and sometimes
serious injury.
Although the small amount of poison introduced beneath the skin by the
sting of one of these creatures usually causes only temporary
discomfort, there are sometimes after effects which may be more intense
and of longer duration with some persons than with others. In general,
stinging insects may be considered more as a nuisance than a menace,
although a person attacked by a large number, or subjected to their
stings for some length of time, might receive serious and perhaps fatal
injuries. Known deaths have been caused by the sting of imported fire
ants in southeastern States. The species is believed to be spreading.
Treatment by a physician may include the use of ACTH and calmitol.
Although ants and velvet ants are commonly considered as wingless, they
are, actually, winged. Male velvet ants have wings whereas the females
are normally without wings. The females have a very effective sting, and
if picked up or pinched they make every effort to use it, at the same
time emitting a peculiar faint squeaking sound.
True ants, of which there are hundreds of species, are social insects
living in colonies containing the mother, or queen, which becomes
wingless after fertilization; numerous workers, or non-fertile females;
and young winged males and females.
[Illustration: _Velvet ant_]
_Control of ants_
Ants of various species are numerous on the desert, some of them
becoming serious household pests, difficult to control.
There are effective ant poisons on the market, but the surest method of
control is to find the nest and destroy it. Ants that are household
pests usually are either grease eaters or sweet eaters, and the proper
poison for the specific type should be obtained in attempting to rid the
house of these insects.
_Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, bees_
Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, and bees of many species are common in
the desert, some species being solitary in habit while others live in
colonies or nests which they defend with great pugnacity.
[Illustration: _Bumblebee_]
Although humans have little to fear from these insects if they leave
them strictly alone, some species select nest sites beneath overhanging
eaves or in attics or lofts, thus becoming persistent pests. They are
usually tolerated until one or more members of the family are stung.
Other species are attracted to human habitations by the presence of
sweets or other edibles, and make persistent nuisances of themselves.
They are capable of inflicting painful injuries, and are greatly feared
by many persons.
_Not usually serious, these injuries do not respond to any treatment
that has yet been developed. Immediate application of strong ammonium
hydroxide (household ammonia) is a home treatment which has_ _been found
helpful for ant stings, and, in most cases, for the stings of other
insects._
_A piece of ice held at the point of puncture will relieve the pain and
burning sensation in the majority of cases of insect sting._
_In serious cases, of course, the services of a physician should be
obtained immediately._
Honeybee
(_Apis mellifera_)
At first thought it may seem unjustified to include the common honeybee
in a discussion of poisonous creatures of the desert. Although the
honeybee is not a desert native, having been imported from Europe, it
has established itself in the wild state throughout the Southwest in
locations providing adequate moisture and sufficient nectar-producing
flowers.
[Illustration: _Honeybees on the honeycomb_]
Throughout much of the United States honeybees are encountered in
numbers only in apiaries operated by beekeepers, or in bee trees where
the insects have established themselves. In the desert climatic
conditions are ideal for honeybees, and they have become widespread and
well established.
They obtain water at springs, seeps, waterholes, cattle tanks, dripping
faucets, and leaking water containers, often congregating in such
numbers around sources of water that they become a distinct nuisance to
men and to animals. Individual honeybees are frequently found in
flowers, or may fly in through an open automobile window, and sting one
of the car’s occupants. Small children sometimes receive stings while
playing on white clover lawns or going barefoot. Farm boys may be
severely stung as a result of molesting beehives or throwing stones at
bees’ nests in trees or caves.
Normally, poison introduced by the sting of a honeybee is local in
effect and little more than a painful inconvenience to the person stung.
There are many cases on record, however, of persons and domestic animals
receiving stings from so many of the enraged insects that serious and
even fatal results have followed.
During the past half century, medical records show a number of deaths
each resulting from a single sting. Jones[7] made an intensive study of
this problem and was able to show conclusively that occasional
individuals become supersensitive to honeybee venom. If persons in such
condition receive even the small amount of poison injected by a single
sting, the resulting excessive susceptibility may be fatal unless proper
treatment is administered immediately. To such persons the honeybee is
definitely a poisonous and dangerous creature.
[Illustration: _Poison mechanism of worker bee, greatly enlarged._]
1. Poison sack or reservoir.
2. Muscles which force sting into flesh and pump poison from sack.
These muscles continue operating for as long as 20 minutes
after the sting has been torn from the bee’s body.
3. Sheath within which shafts of sting slide.
4. Barbed tip of sting. These barbs hold the sting in the flesh of the
victim so securely as to tear the sting from the body of the
bee.
_How a bee stings_
The poison-injecting mechanism of the worker bee is located within the
extremity of the abdomen and consists of a barbed sting at the base of
which is attached a sack, or reservoir, containing the poison. Male bees
(drones) have no sting, and the queen reserves hers for possible use in
battle with a rival queen.
In the act of stinging, the bee forces the tip of the sting through the
skin of the victim, where it becomes imbedded, being held by the barbs.
In escaping the bee tears away, leaving the sting, poison sack, and
attached muscles and viscera. Incidentally, this rupture results in the
death of the bee.
Capillarity and the spasmodic movement of the attached muscles force the
poison from the sack through the hollow shaft of the sting into the
wound.
_Treatment of bee sting_
_To counteract this, the first thing that anyone should do when stung by
a honeybee is to SCRAPE out the sting. This may be done with a knife
blade or even with the fingernail, although the latter is far from
sanitary. NEVER PULL OUT THE STING, because in grasping the protruding
poison sack between the thumb and forefinger, the sack is certain to be
pinched and the poison squeezed into the wound._
_Since, under normal conditions, it takes several seconds for the
contents of the sack to work into the puncture, prompt removal of the
sting with the attached sack prevents much of the poison from being
injected._
_Application of strong household ammonia just as soon as the sting is
scraped out is helpful in allaying the pain._
_If a person receives a great number of stings, a physician should be
summoned at once. The victim should be undressed, put in bed, and all of
the sting scraped out. All parts of the body that have received stings
should be covered with cloths soaked in hot water and wrung out. These
applications should be as hot as the victim can endure._
Persons who are supersensitive to bee-sting venom show the following
symptoms when stung: the skin over the entire body breaks out in lumpy
welts, palms of the hands and soles of the feet itch. This is followed
by headache, nausea, and vomiting. Breathing becomes labored and heart
action is rapid and weak.
As soon as such symptoms are noted, a physician should be summoned or
the victim taken to a hospital. Treatment consists of frequent, small,
hypodermic injections of epinephrine in the ratio of one part of
epinephrine to 1,000 parts of water. Dr. W. Ray Jones[7], who developed
and perfected this treatment, reports that it is immediately effective
and recommends that all commercial beekeepers provide themselves with
hypodermic kits and a small supply of epinephrine.
Even persons who are apparently immune to bee-sting venom through having
received bee stings during the course of many years of work in the
apiary, may suddenly develop supersensitivity. The treatment is
relatively simple, may be self-administered, and has already proved
effective in treating serious cases of excessive susceptibility
resulting from supersensitive persons receiving bee stings.
Experimental use of calcium lactate to counteract “sting shock”
indicates a high degree of success. Physicians should investigate “Death
by Sting Shock,” p 234, _Science News Letter_, April 9, 1955. Use of
antihistamines or a hormone of the cortizone family has had some
success.
Puss Caterpillar
(_Megalopyge opercularis_)
Superficially resembling a tiny, light, golden-yellow kitten, the puss
caterpillar is a short, bushy larva of a small gray-brown moth with
whitish underwings. When disturbed, the caterpillar rears back on its
hind legs and “makes a face.” The species has long been widespread
throughout the southern states feeding on the foliage of oak, elm, plum,
and sycamore trees. They have been found also in truck gardens and
orchards. Recently they have invaded the desert mountains of the
Southwest, having been reported by Stahnke as especially numerous in the
Globe-Miami area of Arizona, feeding on the foliage of oaks.
[Illustration: _Puss caterpillar_
(Courtesy Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke)]
Because of their long, silky hairs, children are tempted to touch them.
Under the hairs are small protrusions, each bearing a circlet of very
small spines resembling tiny porcupine quills. The venom is injected
when these spines pierce the child’s skin and the tips break off,
producing a burning, itching, irritated, inflamed area. The welts,
ranging in size from a dime to a dollar, are sometimes followed by
severe muscle cramps and headache. Not lethal, the toxin may cause
enough sleeplessness in a child to reduce his resistance to other
infections.
Treatment suggested by Dr. Bernard J. Collopy, Assistant Medical
Director of the Miami-Inspiration Hospital of Miami, Arizona, consists
of immersing the inflamed area in iced water for thirty minutes. Remove
for one minute at ten minute intervals for relief from the cold. The
skin may blister and peel at the site much as in the case of a first
degree burn, but should heal completely in ten days. Some physicians
suggest an opiate for relief of pain in severe cases. Cooling lotions
may be applied to relieve the itching.
Arizona coral snake
(_Micruroides euryxanthus_)
The coral snake, of which there are two species in the United States,
belongs to the _Elapine_ group, which is represented in the Old World by
the cobras and other poisonous snakes. These two species, the coral
snake of the Gulf States, and the smaller Arizona coral snake whose
range extends into the desert lands of southern New Mexico and Arizona,
are the only representatives of the _Elapine_ group found in this
country.
[Illustration: _Arizona coral snake_
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)]
The Arizona coral is shy and secretive in its habits, timid rather than
pugnacious, and it is so rarely seen that little is known of its habits.
The poison mechanism of the coral snake is somewhat different from that
of the pit viper group, to which the copperheads, cottonmouths, and
rattlesnakes belong. The teeth of the coral are short, and to be
effective the coral snake must chew rather than strike its victim.
The Arizona coral snake is so small—rarely reaching 2 feet in length—and
its mouth is so tiny, that it would be very difficult for it to bite an
adult human. It is conceivable that a small child playing with one might
be bitten.
Because of its close resemblance to several ringed or banded snakes of
the desert and also to the Arizona mountain kingsnake, or “coral”
kingsnake, of the ponderosa pine highlands of the Southwest, a brief
description of the Arizona coral snake is indicated. One of the
beautifully spectacular snakes of the desert, it is marked by bands of
dark red, cream, and black, which encircle the body. Superficially the
markings of the Arizona mountain kingsnake and other tricolored ringed
snakes appear similar. However, the red of the kingsnake and of others
is usually brighter, and the black bands narrower than those of the
coral.
Definite identification is provided by the relationship of the colors to
each other, the arrangement on the Arizona coral snake being red, cream,
black, cream, red, cream, black, cream. The bands of the Arizona coral
snake entirely circle the body and its snout is black.
Rattlesnakes
(Genus _Crotalus_, spp.)
Thirty species and subspecies of rattlesnakes occur in the United
States, more than half of this number being found in the Southwest.
Because they have been killed on sight for years, their numbers have
been considerably reduced in densely populated areas. For this reason,
together with emphasis placed upon their poisonous characteristics by
some writers of western thriller fiction, rattlesnakes are considered by
many people to be a serious menace in the thinly populated portions of
the arid West[8].
[Illustration: _Western diamondback rattlesnake_ (_Crotalus atrox._)
(Photo by Earl Jackson)]
_Where rattlesnakes are found_
In the hot desert regions of the Southwest rattlesnakes are usually
abroad at night during the summer months, as they have no controlling
system for body temperature and cannot endure the heat at ground surface
during the hours of sunlight. In spring and autumn they may be
encountered in the daytime but during December, January, and February
they are in hibernation and are rarely or never seen.
Their food consists principally of lizards and small rodents such as
ground squirrels, rats, mice, pocket gophers and young rabbits. They are
sometimes found along irrigation canal banks where they go for water,
and because they find rodents congregating there for the same reason.
Unless surprised, cornered, teased, handled, or injured, a rattlesnake
usually will try to remain hidden or will endeavor to crawl away rather
than strike. Because they are attracted to places where small rodents
abound, they are sometimes encountered around barns and outbuildings.
They occasionally enter abandoned structures in search of food or to
escape from the heat of the sun.
_Protective clothing_
Because a rattlesnake may be met at almost any time, except during the
winter months, by a person who lives, works, or visits in the desert, he
should be ever alert. If hiking or climbing through country where
rattlesnakes are known to be abundant, he should wear clothing that will
protect him from a possible bite.
Pope[9] states that records kept during 1928 and 1929 show that 98 per
cent of snake bites occurred below the knee or on the hand or forearm.
When in snake country, the hiker should wear knee-high boots or
leggings, and should never place his hand on a rock or ledge above the
level of his eyes. In other words, watch your step, and look before you
reach! Apparently rattlesnakes may strike at a quick movement and are
very sensitive to the body warmth of a nearby warm-blooded creature.
_Rattlesnake relatives_
Rattlesnakes belong to the group known as the pit vipers, which includes
the cottonmouths and the copperheads. The latter do not occur in the
desert, so they do not come within the province of this publication.
Snakes of the pit viper group are characterized by a noticeable
depression, or pit, found almost halfway between the eye and the
nostril, but slightly lower, on each side of the head.
Of the several species found in the desert, some, such as the western
diamondback rattlesnake have a wide range, while others are restricted
to limited areas. Some species attain large size, while others are quite
small; some are inclined to be pugnacious, while others are more or less
docile. All are dangerous!
It is not within the scope of this publication to enter into a
discussion of the many species, so the reader who wishes to pursue that
subject further is referred to Klauber’s publication on the
rattlesnakes[10].
_The Sidewinder_
There is one rattlesnake of the desert that should be especially
mentioned: the sidewinder, or the little horned rattlesnake. It is
called sidewinder because of the peculiar method of locomotion that
enables it to progress in the sandy habitat which it frequents. Unable
to get sufficient traction in loose sand by moving as other snakes do,
it throws a portion of its body ahead as a loop, thus serving to anchor
or pull the rest of the body ahead. Thus it progresses sideways in a
looping, or winding, motion most interesting to observe.
[Illustration: _Sidewinder or “horned” rattlesnake_]
Although the term sidewinder is often used loosely in referring to other
species of rattlesnakes, it actually applies only to this particular
species—_Crotalus cerastes_.
_Helpful precautions_
In snake country, it is important to take a flashlight along whenever
there is occasion to go outside at night in summer to be sure that there
are no rattlesnakes lying across your path. If you sleep out of doors.
keep your bed off the ground if possible. The widely believed statement
that, “a rattlesnake will not crawl across a hair rope” is not true,
although such a statement will often precipitate an argument.
Persons much in the field should provide themselves with a suction-type
snakebite kit, and should know how to use it. Although you stand 200
chances of being killed by an automobile to one of dying from snakebite,
the price of a suction-type kit is cheap insurance against that
possibility.
_First aid for rattlesnake bite_
_If, in spite of all precautions, you or some companion should be bitten
by a rattlesnake, first-aid should be rendered at once. This is not_
_difficult if you have a snakebite kit, and it is possible even if you
do not._
_The following steps are quite universally accepted:_
_1. Apply a tourniquet a short distance above the bite (that is between
it and the heart) but do not make it too tight. This prevents the blood
and lymph carrying the poison from being spread rapidly through the
body. The tourniquet should be loosened for a few seconds every 20
minutes._
_2. Make a short cut about one-fourth inch deep and one-fourth inch long
near each fang puncture with a sharp, sterile instrument. A knife or
razor blade sterilized in the flame of a match will do._
_3. Apply suction to the cuts. If no suction cup is available, the mouth
will do if it contains no open sores._
_4. If antivenin is available, administer it according to instructions,
but, if possible, this should be left to a physician. (Recent
experiments with antivenin indicate that, in some cases, its reaction
may be harmful and that it should be administered only under the care of
a physician.)_
_5. Get the patient to medical help as soon as possible, continuing the
first-aid treatment enroute. Keep the patient quiet and do not let him
get frightened or excited. Rather than require the patient to walk or
otherwise exercise, medical aid should be brought to him._
_6. If medical help is not available, and if Epsom salts can be
obtained, apply cloths soaked in a strong, hot solution of Epsom salts
over the cuts. The sucking, however, should be continued for at least
half an hour, preferably for an hour or more. Never give alcoholic
stimulants or use permanganate of potash. Snakebite kits give complete
instructions; follow them carefully._
[Illustration: _Poison mechanism of the rattlesnake_
Redrawn from Dr. Fox]
1. Poison gland.
2. Hollow fang.
3. Poison duct.
4. Constrictor muscle.
5. Eye.
6. Nasal opening.
7. Pouch enclosing fangs (not shown in drawing).
8. Tongue.
Rattlesnake venom contains digestive enzymes which attack and destroy
tissue, and because of this and the possibility of bacterial infection
introduced by cutting the skin, another method of treatment—cryotherapy
(treatment with cold)—advocated by Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, Poisonous
Animals Laboratory, Arizona State University, seems to be gaining more
and more support. This technique is designed to prevent and control the
chemical action of the venom and of bacteria, as well as minimizing
stress. This latter action is extremely important, since recent research
work has indicated that the physiological products produced by the body
under stress may more than double the toxic effects of the venom.
Cut-and-suction, or any similar treatment, tends to greatly increase
stress.
The following description of treatment is excerpted from “American
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,” Volume 6, Number 2, March,
1957, _The Treatment of Snake Bite_, by Herbert L. Stahnke, Fredrick M.
Allen, Robert V. Horan, and John H. Tenery:
_1. Place a ligature (tight tourniquet) at once between the site of the
bite and the body, but as near the point of entrance of the venom as
possible._
_2. Place a piece of ice on the site while preparing a suitable vessel
of crushed ice and water._
_3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well above
the point of ligation._
_4. After the envenomed member has been in the iced water for not less
than 5 minutes (N.B. research has shown that the danger generally
attributed to a ligature is not present when the member is
refrigerated), remove the ligature, but keep the member in the iced
water for at least 2 hours._
_5. Pack the envenomed member in finely crushed ice. This hypothermia
must continue for approximately 24 hours, and the patient must not be
permitted to chill, since this increases body stress._
_6. Change from hypothermia to cryotherapy. This is accomplished as
follows: after the first 24 hours following the bite, the patient should
be kept somewhat uncomfortably warm—that is, to the point of
perspiration—and encouraged to drink much water. This step is
exceedingly important. Unless the patient is kept uncomfortably warm the
proteolytic portion of the venom will not leave the site of the bite.
Consequently, when hypothermia is stopped, the concentration of this
part of the venom is greater and the tissue destruction will be
proportionately increased. Hypothermia should be avoided entirely if
this step is not meticulously observed._
[Illustration: _Western black-headed snake_ (Tantilla eiseni).
(Courtesy San Diego Natural History Museum)]
[Illustration: _Sonora lyre snake_ (Trimorphodon lambda).
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)]
_7. The warm-up period after Cryotherapy is important. This must be done
gradually. Remove the member from the crushed ice and place it in ice
water (without ice). Allow the water to warm to room temperature._
Dr. Walter C. Alvarez in the _Santa Fe New Mexican_, 8-18-57: “Recently,
Dr. Wm. Deichmann, John E. Dees, M. L. Keplinger, John J. Farrell, and
W. E. MacDonald Jr. reported that hydrocortizone is a life-saving drug
when given to animals that have suffered poisoning from rattlesnake
venom. Instead of only the 17% of the untreated animals that survived,
75% of treated animals were saved.”