The ancient Hebrews were an art-loving people, and occupied a fair
position among those Eastern nations of antiquity, who attained some
success in the production of works of artistic merit. Their success in
Music and Poetry was undoubted, and becomes even more striking when it is
remembered that it had been won by the Jewish nation at a time when in
Greece, for instance, the cultivation of these arts was still in its
infancy. The period of their artistic activity extended from the days of
Moses to the time of the destruction of the last Temple in Jerusalem by
Titus (70 A. D.). It is proposed in the present essay to deal, first with
the _Architecture_, then with the _Music_, and finally with the _Poetry_
of the ancient Hebrews.
Just as among other nations of antiquity architecture had its origin in
religion, and owed its development to religion, so it was among the Jews.
The first feeble attempt at architecture, though it is perhaps incorrect
to call it by that name, was the erection of the Tabernacle in the
wilderness. This was certainly nothing more than a large-sized movable
tent, and had no special beauty about it, but the fact that the original
design was retained and used on a larger scale at the construction of the
subsequent Temples of Jerusalem, invests it with more than ordinary
importance. From this it may also be seen that the Jewish architect, even
in those early times, had in the drawing up of its ground-plan some
glimmering of symmetry and purity of form. Noticeable also is the great
skill manifested at that time by the Jewish artisans in the manufacture of
the furniture of the Tabernacle, the beautiful covers and curtains with
their inwoven cherubims, the seven-branched golden candlestick of beaten
work, and the circular-shaped laver made by them from the metallic mirrors
presented by the women of the community (Exod. xxxviii. 8). The erection
of the Tabernacle was followed by some centuries of architectural and
artistic barrenness. This epoch includes the time of their sojourn in the
Arabian desert, and the period during which they were governed by the
Judges, and subsequently by King Saul. Those years were marked by internal
and external struggles, and consequently did not admit of the free
development of any of those arts which, generally speaking, flourish only
in times of undisturbed peace, and under the protection of a strong
government. In the reigns of David and Solomon, however, when the Jews
began to enjoy the first-fruits of peace and national prosperity, the
general spread of culture and architectural skill at once became manifest.
The sacred and royal buildings erected by the various Jewish kings, and
particularly the Temple of Solomon, show the pitch of artistic excellence
which they had attained.
There is no doubt much exaggeration in the statement made by some writers
that classical antiquity was largely indebted to the Temple for many
details of art, and that throughout the Middle Ages the form and shape of
all Christian churches were modelled after its design. Considering,
however, the attention and interest which the Temple has excited, there
can be little doubt of its extraordinary artistic value. Its original form
and mode of structure have already been so often and so minutely described
by learned men of all ages and countries that there is hardly anything new
left to be said about it. A few observations, however, concerning the
builders, and the difficulties encountered by them at its erection, may
not be out of place here. Some writers are of opinion that the fame and
magnificence of the Temple were entirely due to the skill of Phoenician
artisans, and not to the proficiency of Jewish workmen. The soundness of
this theory is, however, very questionable. In the first place, we have it
on the authority of the Biblical memorials that the assistance given by
the Phoenicians to the Jewish workmen at the erection of the Temple
consisted mainly in felling cedar-trees on Mount Lebanon, and in
manufacturing the artistic metal-work of the building. Next, the fact
already mentioned that the original Mosaic model of the Tabernacle had
been retained, and used on a larger scale in the construction of the
Temple, proves at once its purely Jewish character. We must also come to
the same conclusion when we consider that its internal and external
decoration consisted mostly of flowers and plants that only grew on
Palestinian soil.
As for the structure itself, it may be mentioned that many difficulties
had to be overcome before the actual building operations began. The summit
of Mount Moriah, on which King David had decided to erect the Temple, was
too narrow to permit of large buildings being established thereon. Thus
gigantic supports and walls had to be erected, which, owing no doubt to
their great strength and durability, have been preserved to the present
day. They bear a great similarity to the Cyclopean walls built by the
oldest races of Greece in Asia Minor, and the immensity of each block of
stone is such that it has excited the wonder of various modern travellers
(cp. Layard, _Nineveh and Babylon_, p. 62). These enormous stones were,
strange to say, put together without the aid of tools. The latter, made as
they were out of a material from which weapons of war are manufactured,
were used as little as possible at the erection of a building which was
intended, in conformity with the true spirit of Judaism, to serve as a
symbol of Peace. There is another noticeable feature in connexion with the
building, namely, that all its bronze works were cast in earthen moulds in
the valley of the Jordan. This spot was specially selected for the
purpose, on account of its fine clay soil. Thus it will be seen that even
at this early period in the history of architecture the Jews must have had
some knowledge of mining. Later on, at the time when the Romans were the
masters of the land, the mines of Phaino enjoyed a very great reputation
(cp. Ewald, _History of Israel_, ed. Carpenter, vol. IV, p. 192). A modern
writer of note (James Fergusson), in referring to the Temple of Solomon,
expresses himself thus:—“Whatever the exact appearance of its details may
have been, it may safely be asserted that the triple Temple of
Jerusalem—the lower court, standing on its magnificent terrace—the inner
court, raised on its platform in the centre of this—and the Temple itself,
rising out of the group and crowning the whole—must have formed, when
combined with the beauty of its situation, one of the most splendid
architectural combinations of the old world” (cp. Smith's _Bible
Dictionary_, _sub_ Temple).
In connexion with the Temple two other branches of architecture may be
mentioned here—the water conduits and bridges, or rather viaducts, built
by King Solomon. The former must have been of some importance; they are
quoted by Tacitus, who speaks of _Fons perennis aquae, cavati sub terra
montes_ (cp. _Hist._ vol. 12). As for the bridges or viaducts, it is said
that they were four in number, and of a peculiar construction. One led
over the valley of Gihon; another, called by Josephus _gerupha_, connected
Mount Zion with Mount Moriah, and served as a viaduct for the king on his
visiting the Temple (cp. _Ant._ xv. 11. 5). The third and fourth are
referred to in Talmud _Jer. Shekalim_, 4. 4, and in _Yomah_, 4 _b_.
In subsequent times two more Temples were built after the design of
Solomon's—one by Zerubbabel with the permission and assistance of the
Persian king Cyrus (558 B. C.), and another by King Herod (16 B. C.), who,
next to Solomon, was the most art-loving monarch the Jews ever had. During
his reign the influence of Greek taste began to make itself felt in
Palestine, and we are told that, in addition to the temple, he also built
colonnades, theatres, and castles (cp. Jos. _Ant._ xv. 8. 1). According to
the same authority (_Bell. Jud._ 5. 44), the beauty of King Herod's
residential palace was beyond all description. It consisted of a block of
various marble buildings, with artistically formed roofs, each building
having magnificent halls and colonnades. Pleasure grounds, tiny forests,
and gardens of every kind surrounded it, and elaborate waterworks were
built to give these grounds a never-failing freshness of appearance. The
Greek style did not, however, altogether supersede the Phoenician, for
even as late as the _Mishna_, mention is made of Tyrian windows and
porches (cp. Talmud, _Baba Bathra_, p. 36).
It would not be easy to describe here all the other architectural works of
Solomon and the rest of the Jewish kings. The former's palace ought not,
however, to be passed over unnoticed, especially as in splendour and
architectural beauty it rivalled the Temple itself. It consisted of a row
of large buildings, among which the king's private residence, that of the
Egyptian princes, and the so-called house of the forest of Lebanon, were
the most prominent. With the aid of his great waterworks in the
neighbourhood of the city, Solomon laid out all kinds of gardens and
pleasure-grounds, the beauty of which was enhanced by the addition of
fountains and artificial lakes (cp. Cant. iv. 13–15). At Etam he had a
magnificent park and gymnasium, which he occasionally visited. Not far
from Lebanon he erected some lofty towers ornamented largely with gold and
ivory (Cant. viii. 11; _Ant._ iii. 7. 3).
That the Greeks used ivory for the ornamentation of houses and public
buildings, may be seen from the passage in Eurip. _Iph. Aul._, where
ἐλεφάντινοι δόμοι (houses made of ivory) are mentioned.
Referring to the great taste for landscape culture displayed by the
Hebrews of old, Humboldt says that nowhere in antiquity, and not even
among the Greeks, is so much sense for the beauties of nature met with as
in the Bible. With regard to sculpture it ought to be mentioned that the
ancient Hebrews did not to any great extent cultivate this art. This was
in consequence of the law which forbade them to introduce any kind of
graven image in their places of worship. A few monuments, however, are
mentioned as having been erected by them, such as the one built by
Absalom, which, according to Josephus (_Ant._ vii. 10. 3), was a marble
column. Another, erected in memory of Queen Helena, consisted of three
small pyramids, and was considered a beautiful work of art (ibid. xx. 4.
3).
The tools that were used in those times by Hebrew artisans were, in
addition to the more common ones, such as the axe, saw, and others, the
compass (_Mechugah_) (Isa. xliv. 13), the plumb-line (_Anach_) (Amos vii.
7), and the measuring-reed (_Kav_) (cp. Job xxxviii. 5).
As for the artisans' position it may be said that they were not merely
servants and slaves as among the Greeks and Romans, but men holding some
rank in society. For instance, of Bezaleel and Aholiab, the principal
architects of the Tabernacle, it is said that “they were filled with the
spirit of the Lord” (Exod. xxxvi. 1), and had they not been classed among
the wisest men of their time, and held in high esteem by the community at
large, no respect would have been paid to them by the Biblical memorials.
The number of Jewish artisans of every description appears to have been
considerable, and this was specially the case during the time when the
national prosperity was advancing (Jer. xxix. 2). Even during the
Captivity, and later on when the Jews were finally scattered over the
world, their Rabbis urgently recommended them to teach their children some
art or handicraft.
The same exaggeration in respect of the achievements of the ancient
Hebrews in the art of architecture is also found in reference to the
perfection which they attained in science and the art of music. However
that may be, it can hardly be denied that they were, on the whole, an
eminently musical people. This can be seen from the comparatively large
number of Hebrew words denoting song and chanting, as well as from Hebrew
poetry, a considerable portion of which has been conceived in the form of
psalmody or sacred lyric song. As among the Greeks, Jewish tradition
ascribes the invention of the first musical instrument to shepherds. Jubal
is designated in the Bible as the father of all such as handle the harp or
organ (Gen. iv. 21). Other passages in the same book relating to musical
instruments and to their use, are found in connexion with Laban, Miriam,
and Jephthah. But a real and systematic cultivation of the art of music
did not begin before the days of Samuel and Saul; the former of whom seems
to have been the founder of a regular school of music (1 Sam. x. 5). There
a great number of students received their training, and the most able
among them were subsequently selected for the choir of the Temple. Already
in the time of David 4,000 singers, mostly Levites, assisted in the
service of the Lord, being presided over by the sons of Asaph, Heman, and
Jeduthun. In subsequent ages their services are recorded in connexion with
the laying of the foundation of the second Temple (Ezra iii. 10), and
again, after the great victory of the Maccabean army over Gorgias (1 Macc.
iv. 24).
The instruments used by the ancient Hebrews were of three different
kinds—percussion instruments, such as tambourines, drums, and cymbals;
wind instruments, such as trumpets, horns, and flutes; and stringed
instruments, such as harps, psalteries, and guitars. Another peculiar
instrument is mentioned in the Talmud (_Erachin_, ii _a_) as having been
used in the Temple service, which was called _Magrepha_ (מגרפה). This is
said to have had about a hundred different tones, and was audible at a
very long distance. These instruments seem to have been used in the Temple
service after a pause in the singing. Such a pause was perhaps notified by
the word _Selah_ (סלה), which is so often met with in the Psalms, and is
translated in the Septuagint by _diapsalma_ (διαψάλμα) (cf. Bötticher, _De
inferis rebusque post mortem futuris Hebraeorum et Graecorum opiniones_,
Dresden, 1868, p. 198). That the Temple music must have exercised a vast
influence on the cultivation and development of the Church songs and music
can hardly be doubted. Martini, who was a great authority on such matters,
maintains that the first Christian choral songs were taken from the songs
of the Temple. It is quite natural, he says, that the Apostles should have
introduced into the Church services only those melodies that had been
familiar to them from their earliest infancy (cp. _Storia della Musica_,
p. 350).
But it was not in the service of religion alone that music was performed
among the ancient Hebrews: it permeated their whole public and private
life. Following the example of David and Solomon, who had attached to
their courts “singing men and singing women” (2 Sam. xix. 36; Eccles. ii.
8), the rich men in Israel often, employed music and song at their
banquets (Amos vi. 4–6). When bridal processions passed through the
streets, they were accompanied with music and song (Jer. vii. 34). The
same was the case when victories were celebrated, or when the Jewish
armies went to battle (Exod. xv. 20; xx. 19). There seems also to have
existed a kind of Jewish troubadours, who sang love-songs before the
windows of their chosen ones (Ps. xlv, title). The harvest was gathered in
to the tunes of merry songs (Isa. xvi. 10), and at funeral processions
mournful music was played (Jer. ix. 17–20).
That a high position must have been assigned by the ancient Hebrews to
those who were skilled in song and music, may be seen from the term
applied to them in the Hebrew writings. There they are frequently called
_Nebiim_ (נביאים), “Prophets,” and of Jahaziel, a Levite of the sons of
Asaph, it is said that “the spirit of the Lord came over him” (2 Chron.
xx. 14). Thus the art of music was looked upon by the Hebrews as being the
outcome of divine inspiration, and its disciples were consequently held in
great esteem by them. But music and song only flourished among them so
long as they were masters in their own country, and were free men in a
free land. When their nationality had ceased to exist, and they were led
into captivity, they hung their harps on the willows by the streams of
Babylon, and uttered those memorable and touching words: “How shall we
sing the song of the Lord in a foreign land?” (Ps. cxxxvii. 4).
The third branch of the arts to which I now pass is Hebrew Poetry. Martin
Luther, in his _Table Talk_, compares it with the sweet melody of a
nightingale, and it is frequently admitted that, the Greeks and Romans
perhaps excepted, no nation of antiquity has produced anything in the
shape of poetry that can be compared with that of the Hebrews. There are
three kinds of poetry in the Hebrew literature—_dramatic_, _gnomic_, and
_lyrical_. The latter occupies the most prominent position. The drama is
represented by two pieces, the Book of Job and the Song of Songs. The Book
of Job is considered by many as the masterpiece of Hebrew poetry. Its fine
introduction with its double scene in heaven and on earth, in which Satan
plays so prominent a rôle, was imitated by Goethe in his “Faust.” Equally
grand, though in a different style, is the Song of Songs. Herder, in
referring to it, says that it is the most beautiful piece of poetry that
has ever been produced by any poet of ancient or modern times. He is of
opinion that in no other poem has love been so charmingly depicted as
there, and even now, in spite of its great age, it has lost none of its
freshness of colouring and beauty of diction. It is a true monument of
genuine pastoral and idyllic poetry.
The gnomic poetry comprises that section of Hebrew literature which
contains pithy maxims or proverbs. To this class of poetry belong the Book
of Proverbs, the Book of Ecclesiastes, and the Proverbs of Jesus ben
Sirach, better known under the name of Ecclesiasticus. Though the
religious element is not entirely excluded from these books, yet they
chiefly treat of worldly subjects. Some passages therein contain humorous
descriptions of various human characters. The bookworm, the scribbler, the
miser, the dull preacher, the quarrelsome woman, the drunkard—they are all
referred to, and spoken of with good-natured humour and irony^[33-1].
The lyric poetry of the Jews is almost entirely of a religious nature. To
this class belong the Psalms, which are confessedly the peculiar product
of Hebrew Art. They have never been surpassed in any other literature in
simplicity of diction and originality of sentiment. Being the classical
expression of the speech of the religious mind, they have naturally become
a treasure-house for the language and thought of the Christian world. The
Christian liturgy and the songs of the Church abound with beautiful
sentences borrowed from them.
The Book of Psalms contains 150 songs, most of which are said to have been
composed by King David. Psalms occur also here and there in other parts of
the Bible, such as those of Samuel's mother (1 Sam. ii), of Isaiah (chap.
xii), of Hezekiah (ibid. xxxviii. 9), and of Habakkuk. There are also
Hebrew songs which are similar to the Psalms in respect of form, but not
of subject. To this class of Psalms belong, for instance, Jacob's last
blessing, Balaam's prophecies, the Song of Deborah, and the Lamentations
of Jeremiah. In the Psalms songs are also met with which are of a joyful
nature, such as wedding songs, love songs, and wine songs.
Hebrew poetry has many characteristics of its own, the most prominent of
which are national and local colouring, and, secondly, its profound
humility and reverence. Its writers never lose sight of the grand idea of
their nation, which subordinates all and everything in the universe to one
supreme power called God, the Creator of heaven and earth. Even man, the
crown of the creation, is, according to them, only an _Adam_ or _Enosh_
(אדם, אנוש), an insignificant, helpless being, in comparison to
_Eloha_ (אלוה, Arab. _Allah_), the most powerful Lord of the universe.
Thus man is compared by them to a flower that withers, to a shadow that
passes by, and to a cloud that vanishes in the air; while at the same time
they call the thunder “the voice of the Lord,” the wind “his messenger,”
the clouds “the cover of his brightness,” the lightning “his servant,” and
the sun “the herald of his majesty.” But though they let Nature be
subservient to and dependent on God, yet they preserve a loving attachment
to it, and endow it, as it were, with life and animation. They let it
share man's sentiments; it rejoices and trembles with man, and it laughs
and weeps with him.
Every extraordinary event in the life of the nation affects Nature as it
does the human mind. So, for instance, when the Hebrew exiles are
described by the prophet as returning to the land of their nativity, the
desert rejoices and changes into a beautiful garden filled with rose
blossoms, and fragrant with the perfume of sweet plants. The mountains and
the hills break forth into song, and the trees of the fields clap their
hands. In those happy days, neither the light of the sun nor the
brightness of the moon will be required by the liberated exiles, for the
Lord will be unto them an everlasting light (Isa. xxxv. 1; lv. 12; lx.
20). On the other hand, when God sits in judgment, and a great catastrophe
is imminent over the inhabitants of the land, then the earth shakes and
trembles, and the foundations of the hills move. The heaven becomes
clouded, and the brightness of the sun disappears; the moon and the stars
shine no more (Ps. xviii. 8; Ez. xxxii. 7).
The _form_ of Hebrew poetry has been widely discussed. Some writers, such
as Philo, Josephus, Eusebius, St. Jerome, and others, maintain that in
some Biblical poems the Iambic, Alcaic, and Sapphic metres were used, and
that in others the heroic metre was employed. Others, again, are rather
inclined to think that the Hebrews wrote in no regular metrical periods,
but only preserved a kind of parallelism of sentences. No one will deny
that the Greeks and the Romans have produced literary works, which in
elegance of expression and symmetry of form are much superior to those of
the Hebrews. But at the same time it will be conceded by those who have a
taste for genuine poetry, that in the freshness of colouring, depth of
thought, and vivacity of representation, the poetical pieces of the Bible
stand very high. Though written thousands of years ago, they still
preserve their sway over the human heart, and afford consolation and hope
to the afflicted and oppressed.
From what has been said it will be seen how unfounded the charge is, so
often made in certain quarters against the Jews, that they have never
rendered any particular service to the nations with whom they have come in
contact. Surely, if they had done nothing else but given them the sacred
volume, the Book of Books, which contains so many golden rules for the
cultivation of the human mind and heart, they would, for that reason
alone, be entitled to expect acknowledgment and gratitude, not only from
the present but also from all future generations.
Footnotes:
[33-1] Cp. above, p. 5.