what ways are foods acted upon during cooking? 118. What causes chemical
changes to take place during cooking? 119. What are the principal
compounds that are changed during the process of cooking? 120. How does
cooking affect the cellulose of foods? 121. What change does starch
undergo during cooking? 122. When foods containing starch are baked,
what change occurs? 123. How are the sugars acted upon when foods are
cooked? 124. What effect does dry heat have upon sugar? 125. What change
occurs to the fats during cooking? 126. How does this affect nutritive
value? 127. What changes do the proteids undergo during cooking? 128.
Why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways?
129. Why are chemical changes, as hydration, often desirable in the
cooking and preparation of foods? 130. What physical changes do
vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked? 131. How do foods
change in weight during cooking? 132. Why is a prolonged high
temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking? 133. To
what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and
chemical changes in foods during cooking? 134. What effect does cooking
have upon the bacterial flora of foods? 135. In what ways do bacteria
exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods? 136. How may
certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation
of foods? 137. What are the insoluble ferments? 138. What are the
soluble ferments? 139. What part do they take in animal and plant
nutrition? 140. Define aerobic ferments. 141. Define anaërobic ferments.
142. What general relationship exists between the chemical, physical,
and bacteriological changes that take place in foods? 143. Why should
foods also possess an esthetic value? 144. What kinds of colors should
be used in the preparation of foods? 145. What processes should be used
for removal of coloring materials from foods?
CHAPTER III
VEGETABLE FOODS
146. Give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class. 147.
How do vegetable foods differ from animal foods? 148. Name some
vegetables which contain the maximum, and some which contain the minimum
percentage of protein. 149. Give the general composition of potatoes.
150. Of what is the dry matter mainly composed? 151. How much of the
crude protein of potatoes is true protein? 152. What ratio exists
between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato?
153. Give the chemical composition of the potato. 154. What influence do
different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of
potatoes? 155. To what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and
absorbed by the body? 156. What value do potatoes impart to the ration?
157. How do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value
from white potatoes? 158. How do carrots differ in composition from
potatoes? 159. What is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot?
160. How do carrots and milk differ in composition? 161. To what is the
color of the carrot due? 162. To what extent are the nutrients removed
in the cooking of carrots? 163. What is the value of carrots in a
ration? 164. Give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips.
165. How does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 166.
How does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes?
167. How does the cabbage differ in general composition from many
vegetables? 168. To what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling
of cabbage? 169. Give the nutritive value of cabbage. 170. How does the
cauliflower differ from cabbage? 171. Give the general composition of
beets. 172. Give the general composition of cucumbers. 173. What
nutritive value has lettuce? 174. Give the composition and dietetic
value of onions. 175. How does the ratio of nitrogenous and
non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other
vegetables? 176. Give the general composition and nutritive value of
asparagus. 177. How much nutritive material do melons contain? 178. What
are the principal compounds of tomatoes? 179. What nutrients do they
supply to the ration? 180. In the canning of tomatoes, why is it
desirable to conserve the juices? 181. How does sweet corn differ in
composition from fully matured corn? 182. What nutritive value does the
egg plant possess? 183. What are the principal nutrients of squash? 184.
What nutritive material does celery contain? 185. To what does celery
owe its dietetic value? 186. Why are vegetables necessary in a ration?
187. Why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the
basis of percentage of nutrients present? 188. Name the miscellaneous
compounds which many vegetables contain, and the characteristics which
these may impart. 189. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary
conditions of vegetables? 190. How do canned vegetables differ in
composition and food value from fresh vegetables? 191. What proportion
of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts? 192. Why is it necessary
to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value?
CHAPTER IV
FRUITS
193. To what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter? 194. Give
the general composition of fruits. 195. What compounds impart taste and
flavor? 196. How much nutrients do fruits add to a ration? 197. Why is
it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of
nutrients? 198. Give the general composition of apples? 199. What
compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples?
200. How do apples differ in composition? 201. Give the general physical
composition of oranges. 202. What nutrients are present to the greatest
extent in oranges? 203. How do lemons differ in composition from
oranges? 204. How does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical
composition from oranges and lemons? 205. What are the main compounds in
strawberries? 206. In what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration?
207. Of what is grape juice mainly composed? 208. What acid is in
grapes, and what is its commercial value? 209. To what are the
differences in flavor and taste due? 210. How do ripe olives differ in
composition from green olives? 211. What is the food value of the olive?
212. What physiological property does olive oil have? 213. What is the
principal nutrient in peaches? 214. What compounds give flavor to
peaches? 215. Of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist? 216.
How do plums differ in composition from many other fruits? 217. What are
prunes? What is their food value? 218. How do dried fruits differ in
composition from fresh fruits? 219. What should be the stage of ripeness
of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning? 220. How do
canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh
fruits? 221. To what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices? 222.
Why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality?
223. What preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned
fruits? 224. What is the objection to their use? 225. Why are fruits
necessary in the ration? 226. What change does heat bring about in the
pectose substances of fruits?
CHAPTER V
SUGAR, MOLASSES, SIRUPS, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS
227. What is sugar? 228. From what sources are sugars obtained? 229.
Name the two divisions into which sugars are divided. 230. How are
sugars graded commercially? 231. What per cent of purity has granulated
sugar? 232. How is the coloring material of sugar removed? 233. How is
sugar treated to make it whiter? 234. What value as a nutrient does
sugar possess? 235. Why should sugar be combined with other nutrients?
236. What foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar? 237. Why is an
excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable? 238. Does sugar
possess more than condimental value? 239. What is the average quantity
of sugar consumed in this country? 240. What is maple sugar? 241. How
does it differ in composition from other sugar? 242. How is adulterated
maple sugar detected? 243. To what extent is granulated sugar
adulterated? 244. Why is it not easily adulterated? 245. What are the
dextrose sugars? 246. How do they differ chemically from sucrose? 247.
What is the inversion of sugar? 248. In what way does acid act upon
sugar? 249. How are the acid products removed? 250. What is the food
value of glucose? 251. What is molasses? 252. How is it obtained? 253.
Of what is it composed? 254. What gives taste and flavor to molasses?
255. How may molasses act upon metalware? 256. What is the food value of
molasses? 257. What is sirup? 258. Name three kinds of sirup, and
mention materials from which they are prepared. 259. What is the
polariscope, and how is it employed in sugar work? 260. What is honey?
261. How does it differ in composition from sugar? 262. How is strained
honey adulterated? 263. What materials are used in the preparation of
confections? 264. What changes take place in their manufacture? 265.
What materials are used for imparting color? 266. What can you say in
regard to the coal tar colors? 267. What should be the position of candy
in the dietary? 268. What can you say of the comparative value of cane
and beet sugar? 269. How do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to
nutritive value? 270. What are some of the impurities in candy? 271.
What is saccharine? 272. What are its properties?
CHAPTER VI
LEGUMES AND NUTS
273. What nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large
amounts? 274. How does the amount of this nutrient compare with that
found in meats? 275. Why are legumes valuable crops in general farming
and for the feeding of farm animals? 276. Give the general composition
of beans. 277. How do beans compare in protein content with cereals?
278. How does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food
materials? 279. To what extent are the nutrients of beans digested? 280.
What influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon
digestibility? 281. What influence does removal of skins have upon
digestibility? 282. In what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly
digested? 283. How does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with
that of the nutrients in other foods? 284. How do string beans differ
from green beans? 285. Give the general composition, digestibility, and
nutritive value of peas. 286. What can you say of the use of copper
sulphate in the preparation of canned peas? 287. What nutrients do
peanuts contain in large amounts? 288. Give the general composition of
nuts. 289. What are the characteristics of pistachio? 290. Give the
general composition of the cocoanut. 291. What is cocoanut butter? 292.
To what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration?
CHAPTER VII
MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
293. What can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the
dietary? 294. Give the general composition of milk. 295. What compound
in milk is most variable? 296. To what extent are the nutrients in milk
digestible? 297. What influence does milk have upon the digestibility of
other foods? 298. Why is cheese cured in cold storage? 299. How can the
tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome? 300. Why is
it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk? 301. What
factors influence the sanitary condition of milk? 302. What is certified
milk? 303. What is pasteurized milk? 304. How can milk be pasteurized
for family use? 305. What is tyrotoxicon? 306. What is its source in
milk? 307. To what is the color of milk due? 308. To what extent is
color associated with fat content? 309. What causes souring of milk?
310. What change occurs in the milk sugar? 311. What are the most
favorable conditions for the souring of milk? 312. What are some of the
preservatives used in milk. 313. What objection is urged against their
use? 314. What is condensed milk? 315. What is buttermilk, and what
dietetic value has it? 316. How does goats' milk differ from cows' milk?
317. What is koumiss, and how is it prepared? 318. What are the prepared
milks? 319. How does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk?
320. Give the nutritive value of skim milk. 321. What content of fat
should cream contain? 322. In what ways is milk adulterated? 323. How
are these adulterations detected? 324. Give the general composition of
butter. 325. What is the maximum amount of water that a butter may
contain without being considered adulterated? 326. What can you say in
regard to the digestibility of butter? 327. How is butter adulterated?
328. How does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with
butter? 329. What is the food value of butter? 330. How does cheese
differ in composition from butter? 331. Give the general composition of
cheese. 332. To what are the flavor and odor of cheese due? 333. Why is
cheese ripened? 334. What chemical changes take place during ripening?
335. To what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested? 336. Why is
cheese sometimes considered indigestible? 337. To what extent do the
nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility? 338. How
does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats? 339. What is
cottage cheese? 340. What is Roquefort cheese? 341. Name four kinds of
cheese, and say to what each owes its individuality. 342. How is cheese
adulterated? 343. Why are dairy products in older agricultural regions
generally cheaper than meats?
CHAPTER VIII
MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS
344. Give the general composition of meats. 345. How do meats differ in
chemical composition from vegetable foods? 346. What is the principal
non-nitrogenous compound of meats, and what of vegetables? 347. Name the
different classes of proteins in meats. 348. Which class is present in
largest amounts? 349. To what extent are amid compounds present in
meats? 350. What characteristics do amids impart to meats? 351. How are
alkaloids produced in meats? 352. In what ways does the lean meat of
different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically? 353. Give the
general composition of beef. 354. What relationship exists between the
fat and water content of beef? 355. How much refuse have meats? 356. In
what forms are the ash elements (mineral matter) present in meats? 357.
How does veal differ in composition from beef? 358. What general changes
in composition occur as animals mature? 359. How do these compare with
the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced?
360. How does mutton vary in composition from beef? 361. How does it
compare in food value with beef? 362. How do lamb and mutton differ in
composition? 363. To what extent do the various cuts differ in
composition? 364. How do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in
nutritive value with the less expensive cuts? 365. How does pork differ
in composition from other meats? 366. Give the general composition of
ham. 367. Give the composition and nutritive value of bacon. 368. How
does bacon compare in food value with other meats? 369. How does the
character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat?
370. What influences the texture or toughness of meats? 371. How do
cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats? 372. To what extent
are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats? 373. What influence does the
temperature of the water in which the meat is placed for cooking have
upon the amount of nutrients extracted? 374. To what is the shrinking of
meats in cooking due? 375. Of what does meat extract mainly consist?
376. To what do beef extracts owe their flavor? 377. What is their food
value? 378. What is their dietetic value? 379. What is lard? 380. How
does it differ in composition from other fats? 381. What is imparted to
meats during the smoking process? 382. Why is saltpeter used in the
preservation of meats? 383. Do vegetable foods contain nitrates and
nitrites? 384. How does poultry resemble and how differ in composition
from other meat? 385. Give the characteristics of sound poultry. 386.
Give the general composition of fish. 387. How does the flesh of
different kinds of fish vary in composition? 388. What influence does
salting and preservation have upon composition? 389. How do fish and
meat compare in digestibility? 390. How does the mineral matter and
phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods? 391. What
are the main nutrients in oysters? 392. Give the general food value of
oysters. 393. What is meant by the fattening of oysters? 394. What
effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the
sanitary value? 395. Give the general composition of the egg. 396. How
do different parts of the egg differ in composition? 397. How does the
egg differ in composition from the potato? 398. Is color an index to the
composition of the egg? 399. What effect does cooking have upon the
composition of the egg? 400. What factors influence the flavor of eggs?
401. How do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility? 402.
Under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary? 403.
Why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight? 404. How do canned
meats differ in composition from fresh meats? 405. How do the nutrients
of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat? 406. What are
the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats? 407. What are some of
the materials used in the preservation of meats?
CHAPTER IX
CEREALS
408. How are the cereals milled? 409. What are the cereals most commonly
used for food purposes? 410. Give the general composition of cereals as
a class. 411. What are the main nutrients in corn preparations? 412.
What influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of
corn have upon its digestibility? 413. How does the cost of nutrients in
corn compare with other foods? 414. Why is corn alone not suitable for
bread-making purposes? 415. Why should corn be combined in a ration with
foods mediumly rich in protein? 416. What change takes place in corn
meal from long storage? 417. Give the characteristics and composition of
oat preparations. 418. How does removal of the oat hull affect the
composition of the product? 419. To what extent do the various oat
preparations on the market differ in composition and food value? 420. Do
oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle? 421. Why
should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other
foods? 422. To what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested? 423.
How do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and
oat preparations? 424. What influence upon the composition of the wheat
breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran? 425. What
is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value? 426. What
are the special diabetic flours, and how are they prepared? 427. What
are the wheat middlings breakfast foods, and how do they compare in
digestibility and food value with bread? 428. How do they differ
mechanically? 429. How does barley differ from wheat in general
composition? 430. What is barley water, and what nutritive material does
it contain? 431. What cereal does rice resemble in composition? 432.
With what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced
ration? 433. What can you say as to comparative ease and completeness
of digestibility of rice? 434. Why are cereals valuable in the ration?
435. In what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion? 436. What
are predigested breakfast foods? 437. How would you determine the
general nutritive value of a breakfast food, knowing the kind of cereal
from which it was prepared? 438. To what extent are cereals modified or
changed in composition by cooking? 439. To what extent are the nutrients
of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body? 440. To what extent
do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter? 441. How does the
phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk?
CHAPTER X
WHEAT FLOUR
442. Why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes?
443. To what extent may wheat vary in protein content? 444. What are
spring wheats? 445. What are winter wheats? 446. Give the general
characteristics of each. 447. What are glutinous wheats? 448. What are
starchy wheats? 449. Name the different proteids in wheat flour. 450.
About how much starch does wheat flour contain? 451. What other
carbohydrates are also present? 452. What is the roller process of flour
milling? 453. What is meant by the first break? 454. How are the
different products of the wheat kernel separated? 455. What is meant by
middlings flour? 456. What is break flour? 457. What is patent flour?
458. Name the high grade flours. 459. Name the low grade flours. 460.
How are the impurities removed from wheat flour? 461. What per cent of
the wheat kernel is returned as flour? As offals? 462. What becomes of
the wheat germ during milling? 463. What sized bolting cloths are used
in milling? 464. What is graham flour? 465. How does it differ in
mechanical and chemical composition from white flour? 466. What is
entire wheat flour? 467. How does it differ in physical and chemical
composition from white flour? 468. What effect has the refining of
flour upon the ash content? 469. How do low and high grade flours differ
in chemical composition? 470. How do the wheat offals differ in
composition from the flour? 471. What are the factors which influence
the composition of flours? 472. What effect does storage have upon the
bread-making value of flour? 473. What change takes place when new wheat
is stored in an elevator? 474. What is durum wheat flour, and how does
it differ from other flour? 475. What gives flour its color? 476. Why is
color an index of grade? 477. How is the color of a flour determined?
478. How do flours differ in granulation? 479. How does the granulation
affect the physical properties of flour? 480. How is the granulation of
flour approximately determined? 481. How is the absorptive capacity of a
flour determined? 482. What factors cause a variation in the capacity of
flours to absorb water? 483. Give the characteristics of a good gluten.
484. What causes unsound flours? 485. How is the bread-making value of a
flour determined? 486. How are flours bleached? 487. How does bleaching
affect the chemical composition of flour? 488. What influence does
bleaching have upon bread-making value? 489. Traces of what compounds
are formed during bleaching? 490. Are these compounds injurious to
health? 491. What effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and
débris particles in flour? 492. Is it possible to bleach low grade
flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours? 493. Are flours
usually adulterated? 494. Why? 495. How would mineral adulterants be
detected? 496. How would the presence of other cereals be detected? 497.
How does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods? 498. How
does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods? 499. What
causes flours to vary so in bread-making value? 500. Why may flours
produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from
year to year? 501. What relationship exists between the nutritive and
bread-making value of a flour?
CHAPTER XI
BREAD AND BREAD MAKING
502. Define leavened and unleavened bread. 503. Why is yeast used in
bread making? 504. Give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread.
505. Why is flour used for bread making purposes? 506. Name the eight
chemical changes that take place during bread making. 507. To what
extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making? 508. What
compounds suffer losses during bread making? 509. What is yeast? 510.
What chemical changes does it produce? 511. What becomes of these
products during bread making? 512. How is compressed yeast made? 513.
What part does the alcohol take in bread making? 514. What temperature
is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making? 515. Through
what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making? 516. To what
extent are soluble carbohydrates formed? 517. In what way is starch
acted upon mechanically? 518. Explain the structure of the starch grains
in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast
ferments. 519. To what extent are acids produced in bread making? 520.
What becomes of the acids formed? 521. How may the acids thus developed
affect the properties of other chemical compounds? 522. To what extent
are volatile carbon compounds, other than carbon dioxid and alcohol,
liberated during bread making? 523. What changes occur to the various
proteids during the process of bread making? 524. Why do flours vary in
quality of gluten? 525. To what extent do losses of nitrogen occur
during bread making? 526. How much of the total nitrogen of flour is
present as proteids? 527. How is the fat of flour affected during the
process of bread making? 528. What effect does the addition of 10 per
cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 529. What
effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat gluten to flour have
upon the size of the loaf? 530. What relationship exists between gluten
content and capacity of a flour to absorb water? 531. Give the general
composition of bread. 532. What factors influence its composition? 533.
What effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon
composition? 534. How does the temperature of the flour influence the
bread-making process? 535. Why is it necessary to vary the process of
bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of
flour? 536. To what extent are the nutrients of bread digested? 537. How
does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread? 538. How do
graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white
bread? 539. What value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the
dietary? 540. Why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of
the laboring man? 541. How do graham and entire wheat flours compare in
chemical composition with white flour? 542. How do they compare in
mechanical composition? 543. To what is the difference in digestibility
supposed to be due? 544. Are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in
a ration as a source of mineral elements? 545. What is the main
difference in composition between old and new bread? 546. How do
different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition
and nutritive value? 447. How does toast differ in composition from
bread? 548. What influence does toasting have upon digestibility? 549.
What is gained by toasting bread? 550. How does bread compare in
nutritive value with other cereal foods? 551. How does bread compare in
nutritive value with animal foods?
CHAPTER XII
BAKING POWDERS
552. What is a baking powder? 553. What are the two kinds of materials
which baking powders contain? 554. Name the different types of baking
powders. 555. How does baking powder differ in its action from yeast?
556. What are the cream of tartar baking powders? 557. What is the
nature of the residue which they leave? 558. What are the phosphate
baking powders? 559. What is the nature of the residue which they
leave? 560. Why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable
with that naturally present in foods? 561. What are the alum baking
powders? 562. What residue is left from the alum powders? 563. Which of
the three classes of baking powders is considered the least
objectionable? 564. Why is a new baking powder preferable to one that
has been kept a long time? 565. Why should baking powders be kept in tin
cans, and not in paper? 566. Why are fillers used in the manufacture of
baking powders? 567. How may a baking powder be prepared at home? 568.
How does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those
purchased in the market?
CHAPTER XIII
VINEGARS, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS
569. What is vinegar? 570. How is it made? 571. Give the three chemical
changes that take place in its preparation. 572. Why is air necessary in
the last stage of the process? 573. What ferments take part in the
production of vinegar? 574. What is malt vinegar? 575. What materials
other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar? 576. Give
the characteristics of a good vinegar. 577. In what ways are vinegars
adulterated? 578. What food value has vinegar? 579. Why should vinegars
not be stored in metalware? 580. What dietetic value has vinegar? 581.
To what materials do the spices owe their value? 582. What is pepper?
583. What is the difference between white and black pepper? 584. What
compounds give pepper its characteristics? 585. How are peppers
adulterated? 586. What is mustard? 587. Give its general composition.
588. How is it adulterated? 589. What is ginger? 590. How is it prepared
for the market? 591. Give its general composition. 592. What is
cinnamon? 593. What is cassia? 594. What gives these their taste and
flavor? 595. What are cloves? 596. How are they prepared? 597. What is
mace? 598. What is nutmeg? 599. Do the spices have any food value? 600.
What is their dietetic value? 601. Why is excessive use of some of the
spices objectionable?
CHAPTER XIV
TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA
602. What is tea? Name the two plants from which it is obtained, the
countries where each grows best, and the number of flushes each yields.
603. Upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend? 604. Give
differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas.
605. The characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound? 606.
To what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due? 607.
What can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value? 608.
Why should tea--especially green tea--be infused for a very short time,
never boiled? 609. What effect has tannin upon the digestion of
proteids? 610. What three points are considered in judging a tea? 611.
What is the most common form of tea adulteration? 612. Describe the
coffee plant and fruit, and its method of preparation for market. 613.
What is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee?
614. Name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. How does it compare
with theme? 615. Why may coffee not be considered a food? 616. Tell
different ways in which coffee may be adulterated. 617. Which is more
commonly practiced, tea or coffee adulteration? Why? 618. How may real
coffee be distinguished from chicory? Why? 619. Name the three kinds of
coffee in general use. Give distinguishing features of each. Which is
usually considered best? 620. From what are cocoa and chocolate
obtained? 621. Give the two methods of preparing cocoa. 622. What
alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present
in cocoa and chocolate? 623. What is the difference in preparation of
cocoa and chocolate? 624. What are cereal coffee-substitutes? 625. What
nutritive value have they? 626. How do they differ in composition from
coffee? 627. To what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a
ration? 628. What is plain chocolate? 629. Why do chocolate preparations
vary so widely in composition? 630. What treatment is given to the cocoa
bean in its preparation for commerce? 631. What treatment is sometimes
given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat? 632. In what ways may
cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated?
CHAPTER XV
DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS
633. Define the term nutrient. 634. Do all the nutrients of food have
the same degree of digestibility? 635. What is a digestion coefficient?
636. How is the digestibility of a food determined? 637. What volatile
products are formed during the digestion of food? 638. Define digestible
protein; digestible carbohydrates, digestible fat. 639. What is the
available energy of a ration? 640. How is it determined? 641. How do the
nutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, compare as to available
energy? 642. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a
ration? 643. Is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body
as starch or fat? 644. What residue is left from the digestion of
protein? 645. What part do the soluble ferments take in digestion? 646.
To what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested? 647. Which
nutrient, protein or fat, is the most completely digested? 648. How do
vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods? 649. What
effect does cellulose have upon digestibility? 650. Which of the
nutrients of vegetables, protein or carbohydrates, is more completely
digested? 651. What mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration?
652. Why must bulk be considered in a ration, as well as nutrient
content? 653. Name the eight most important factors influencing the
digestibility of foods. 654. To what extent does the combination of
foods affect the digestibility of the nutrients? 655. Why does a mixed
ration give better results than when only a single food is used? 656.
How does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive
process? 657. To what extent does the method of preparing food affect
digestibility? 658. What is gained, so far as digestibility is
concerned, by the cooking of foods? 659. To what extent does the
mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility? 660. Why is it
desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration? 661. Why
should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated
foods? 662. Why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the
dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer? 663. How
does palatability affect the digestive process? 664. Do psychological
processes in any way affect digestion? 665. What physiological
properties do some foods possess? 666. To what are these physiological
properties due? 667. To what extent is individuality a factor in
digestion? 668. To what extent does digestibility differ with
individuals? 669. Why do some foods affect individuals in different
ways? 670. Why is it necessary that the quantity, quality, and character
of the food should vary with different individuals? 671. In what
different ways is the expression "digestibility of a food" used? 672.
Why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food, as well as
its composition? 673. Does the digestibility of a food necessarily
indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body? 674. How
is it possible for one food containing 10 per cent of digestible
protein, and other nutrients in like amounts, to be more valuable than
another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other
nutrients? 675. How is it possible for one food to contain less total
protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive
point of view? 676. Why is it necessary to consider the mechanical
condition of a food and its combination with other foods, as well as its
chemical composition? 677. What effect does lack of a good supply of air
have upon the completeness of the digestion process? 678. In what ways
does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel? 679. What is
gained by a study of the digestibility of foods? 680. Why may two foods
of the same general character give different results when used for
nutritive purposes?
CHAPTER XVI
COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS
681. To what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods
vary? 682. How is the value of one food expressed in terms of another
food? 683. How determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in
a food for a given sum of money? 684. How compare the amounts of
nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money?
685. How is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is
cheaper, when the price and composition of the foods are known? 686. To
what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a
food? 687. When the difference in this nutrient between two foods is
small, then the preference is given to what nutrients? 688. At ordinary
prices, what are the cheapest vegetable foods? 689. What are among the
cheapest animal foods? 690. Why is it not possible to determine the
value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility? 691.
Why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical
composition of foods? 692. What proportion of the income of the laboring
man is usually expended for food? 693. What are the most expensive
foods? 694. What foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the
least cost?
CHAPTER XVII
DIETARY STUDIES
695. What is a dietary study? 696. How is a dietary study made? 697.
What is the value of the dietary study of a family? 698. To what extent
does the protein in the dietary range? 699. Why is a scant amount of
protein in a ration undesirable? 700. Why is an excess of protein in the
ration undesirable? 701. What are dietary standards? 702. How are such
standards obtained? 703. Why is it desirable in a ration to secure the
protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods?
704. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 705.
How is this determined? 706. What is a wide nutritive ratio? 707. What
is a narrow nutritive ratio? 708. Why should the amount of nutrients
consumed vary with the work performed? 709. How should the nutrients be
apportioned among the meals? 710. What are some of the most common
dietary errors? 711. What analogy exists between human and animal
feeding? 712. What is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and
animals? 713. What use can be made of the results of dietary studies for
improvement of the dietary? 714. Why is it not possible for animal foods
to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods? 715. Is a
well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients
necessarily an expensive ration? 716. Show how it is possible for one
family to spend less money for food than another family, and yet secure
more digestible nutrients and energy. 717. What are some of the most
erroneous ideas as to food values? 718. Why is it necessary to consider
previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods? 719. In
general, what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived
from vegetable foods, and what portion from meats? 720. To what extent
may a ration vary from the dietary standards? 721. Why are some
inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table? 722. What
are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased
without sacrificing nutritive value? 723. Why do different nationalities
acquire distinct food habits? 724. Why is it not possible to make sudden
and radical changes in the dietary? 725. Why is it not possible for a
dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be
applied to another class with equal satisfaction? 726. What relationship
exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development?
727. What relationship exists between dietary habits and mental
development and vigor? 728. Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to
regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily
ration? 729. What is the general tendency as to quantity of food and
amount of nutrients consumed? 730. Why do people of sedentary habits
require a different dietary from those pursuing active, out-of-door
occupations?
CHAPTER XVIII
RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN
731. What is the object of the rational feeding of man? 732. On what is
it based? 733. How does it compare with the rational feeding of animals?
734. What is a standard ration? 735. How is it determined? 736. To what
extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard? 737. How do
you combine foods to form a balanced ration? 738. What foods are
valuable for supplying protein? 739. What foods supply fats? 740. What
foods are rich in carbohydrates? 741. What other requisites should a
ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients? 742. Why
is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration? 743. If a
ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of
protein, how could it be improved? 744. How do you calculate the
nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food? 745. Give the amounts of the
common food materials, as potatoes, bread, butter, milk, and cheese,
ordinarily combined to form a ration. 746. To what extent may foods
differ in composition from the average analysis given? 747. What foods
are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation?
CHAPTER XIX
WATER
748. Why is water regarded as a food? 749. Does it enter chemically into
the composition of plants? Of animals? 750. In addition to serving as a
food, why is water necessary for life processes? 751. In what ways may
water be improved? 752. What are the most common forms of impurities?
753. What are the mineral impurities of water? 754. What is their
source? 755. What effect do some of these minerals have upon the value
of the water? 756. What causes some waters to dissolve limestone? 757.
What are permanently hard waters? 758. To what is temporary hardness in
water due? 759. What is the best way to remove mineral matter from
water? 760. What are the organic impurities of water? 761. What are the
sources of the organic impurities? 762. What change does the organic
matter of water undergo? 763. What becomes of the nitrogen of the
organic matter? 764. What does the presence of nitrates in water
indicate? Nitrites? 765. What is the total solid matter of a water, and
how is it obtained? 766. Define the terms free ammonia; albuminoid
ammonia. 767. What does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water
indicate? 768. Explain natural purification of water. 769. Can natural
purification always be relied upon? 770. Why does the character of the
drinking water affect health? 771. What diseases are mainly caused by
impure drinking water? 772. With what materials in water are the
disease-producing organisms associated? 773. Why should a water of
questionable purity be boiled? 774. State how the boiling should be
done, to be effective. 775. Why should boiled water receive further care
in its storage? 776. What effect does improvement of the water supply of
a city have upon the death rate? 777. How may connections between
cesspools and surface well waters be traced? 778. What impurities do
rain waters contain? 779. Explain the workings of the Pasteur and
Berkefeld water filters. 780. Why must special attention be given to
cleaning the water filter? 781. Explain the processes employed for the
removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use
of chemicals. 782. Why should such purification be under the supervision
of a chemist or bacteriologist? 783. What effect does freezing have upon
the purity of water? 784. Why are precautions necessary in the use of
ice for refrigeration? 785. What are mineral waters? 786. How are
artificial mineral waters prepared? 787. What are the more common
materials used in their preparation? 788. Why should mineral waters be
extensively used only by the advice of a physician? 789. What are some
of the materials used for softening water? 790. Which are the least
objectionable of these materials? 791. Which are the most objectionable?
792. What can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for
softening waters? 793. In washing clothing after contagious diseases,
what materials may be used for disinfecting? 794. Why, in softening
waters for household purposes, must caustic soda, potash, and bleaching
powder be used with caution? 795. Why is it necessary to determine by
trial the material most suitable for softening water? 796. What
advantage, from a pecuniary point of view, results from the improvement
of the water supply of a community?
CHAPTER XX
FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE
797. What are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis? 798.
Does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious
compounds? 799. What are the sources of the injurious organic compounds
in foods? 800. Why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as
well as chemical composition? 801. What are the sources of contamination
of foods? 802. What is the object of the sanitary inspection of food?
803. How may flies carry germ diseases? 804. Why should food be
protected from impure air and dust particles? 805. Why should places
where vegetables are stored be well ventilated? 806. How may the dirt
adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases? 807. Why should
the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition? 808. What
effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of
cities have upon the death rate? 809. Name the three natural
disinfectants, and explain the action of each. 810. Why must dishes and
utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned? 811. Explain
the principle of refrigeration. 812. What kind of ferment action may
take place at a low temperature? 813. Why is some ventilation necessary
in refrigeration? 814. What effect does refrigeration have upon the
composition of food? 815. What relationship exists between unsanitary
condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food? 816.
Why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of
kitchen refuse? 817. Name the ways in which this can be accomplished.
818. How may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing? 819.
Mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary.
REFERENCES
The following list of references is given for the use of the student in
case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects
discussed in this work. The list is not intended as a complete
bibliography of the subject of foods. The advanced student will find
extended references in the Experiment Station Record and the various
chemical, physiological, and bacteriological journals.
1. SNYDER: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life.
2. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Human Food
Investigations.
3. CROSS AND BEVANS: Cellulose.
4. WILEY: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis,
Vol. III.
5. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74: Human Food
Investigations.
6. PARRY: The Chemistry of Essential Oils, etc.
7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 142:
Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.
8. MANN: Chemistry of the Proteids.
9. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 85: Wheat and Flour
Investigations.
10. ARMSBY: Principles of Animal Nutrition.
11. SHERMAN: Organic Analysis.
12. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 43: Digestion Experiments with Potatoes and Eggs.
13. Unpublished results of author.
14. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
No. 49: Cold Curing of Cheese.
15. WILEY: Foods and Their Adulteration.
16. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63: Miscellaneous
Analyses.
17. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 8: Canned Vegetables.
18. LEACH: Food Inspection and Analysis.
19. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 256:
Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.
20. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1905: Fruit and its Uses
as Food.
21. Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893.
22. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry Bulletin No.
94: Studies on Apples.
23. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
69: Fruits and Fruit Products.
24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 203: Canned
Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.
25. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
27: Sugar Beet Industry.
26. SADTLER: A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry.
27. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 86: The Food Value of
Sugar. The Digestive Action of Milk.
28. HUTCHISON: Food and Principles of Dietetics.
29. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No 93: Sugar as
Food.
30. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 252: Maple Sugar and Sirup.
31. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 6: Sugar, Molasses, Sirup, and Confections.
32. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 121: Peas and
Beans as Food.
33. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 122: Nuts as
Food.
34. Maine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Nuts as Food.
35. California Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 107 and 132:
Investigations among Fruitarians.
36. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74: Milk as
Food.
37. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63: Care of
Milk on the Farm.
38. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 149:
Digestibility of Milk.
39. RUSSELL: Dairy Bacteriology.
40. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13. Part 1: Dairy Products.
41. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 131:
Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.
42. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
No 61: Relation of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese.
43. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 92: The Digestibility and
Nutritive Value of Cottage Cheese, etc.
44. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments with Animals.
45. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34: Meats,
Composition and Cooking.
46. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 7: Lard and Lard Adulterants.
47. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 193: Cooking of Meats as Affecting Digestibility.
48. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 141: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. See also
Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 102: Losses in Cooking Meats.
49. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 66: Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin.
50. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 162: The Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of
Meats.
51. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 10: Preserved Meats.
52. RICHARDSON, W. D., Journal of the American Chemical
Society, December, 1907: The Occurrence of Nitrates in Vegetable Foods,
in Cured Meats, and Elsewhere.
53. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 182: Poultry as Food.
54. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 85: Fish as
Food.
55. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, Experiment
Station Work: Digestibility of Fish and Poultry.
56. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 249: Cereal
Breakfast Foods.
57. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
50: Composition of Maize.
58. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 305: Gluten Flour and Similar Foods.
59. HAMMERSTON: Physiological Chemistry.
60. EDGAR: The Wheat Berry.
61. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90: Composition and Value
of Grains.
62. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 101: Bread and Bread Making.
63. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 156: Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and
Macaroni Flour.
64. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 67: Bread and Bread Making.
65. University of Nebraska Bulletin No. 102: The Effect of Bleaching
upon the Quality of Wheat Flour.
66. SNYDER: Wheat Flour and Bread.
67. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 126: Bread and Bread Making.
68. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments on Some Points in the
Composition of the Wheat Grain, of the Product in the Mill and Bread.
69. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 5: Baking Powders.
70. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 2: Spices and Condiments.
71. Food Standards: U. S. Department of Agriculture. See Annual Reports
of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
72. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 21: Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry
and Economy of Foods.
73. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part 7: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations.
74. The Respiration Calorimeter: Year-book U. S. Department of
Agriculture, 1904.
75. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: Cost of Food as
Related to its Nutritive Value.
76. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletins Nos. 82, 71, 129, 116, 37, 55, 150. See also other bulletins
of the Office of Experiment Stations.
77. CHITTENDEN: Physiological Economy in Nutrition.
78. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 98: Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food
Consumption.
79. HENRY: Feeds and Feeding.
80. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations:
Dietary Studies in Chicago Bulletin No. 55.
81. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 116: Dietary Studies in New York City.
82. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 119: Banana
Flour.
83. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 159: Digest of Japanese Investigations on the Nutrition of
Man.
84. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 150: Dietary Studies at the Government Hospital for the
Insane, Washington, D.C.
85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 149: Studies on the Food of Maine Lumbermen.
86. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
Bulletin No. 143: Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of
Bread at the Maine Experiment Station.
87. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
Experiment Station Work, Vol. III: Wells and Pure Water.
88. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 88: Pure
Water on the Farm.
89 Mineral Impurities in Water. See various bulletins of the California
and New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Stations.
90. MASON: Examination of Water.
91. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey: The Quality of
Surface Waters in Minnesota.
92. FUERTES: Water and Public Health.
93. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 124:
Distilled Drinking Water.
94. TURNEAURE AND RUSSELL: Public Water Supplies.
95. VAUGHAN AND NOVY: Ptomains and Lencomains.
96. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular No.
71: House Flies.
97. ELLEN H. RICHARDS AND S. MARIA ELLIOTT: The Chemistry of
Cooking and Cleaning.
98. Dr. WOODS HUTCHINSON, _Saturday Evening Post_, 1908: The
Real Angels of the House.
99. HARRINGTON: Practical Hygiene.
100. PRICE: Handbook of Sanitation.
INDEX
Air, infection from impure, 287.
pure, disinfectant, 290.
Albuminoids, 23.
Alkaloids, 24.
Allspice, 202.
Almonds, 77.
Alum baking powder, 188.
Amids and Amines, 23.
Animal and vegetable foods, economy of, 250.
Animal foods, digestibility of, 220.
Apparatus used in experiments, 301.
Apples, 49.
pectose from, 307.
Ash, of foods, 4.
elements of plants, 5.
Asparagus, 43.
Available energy, 217.
nutrients, 216.
Bacteria in food, 32.
Baking powder, composition of, 186.
cream of tartar, 187.
phosphates, 189.
alum, 189.
inspection of, 191.
fillers, 191.
home-made, 191.
testing for alum, 315.
testing for ammonia, 316.
testing for phosphoric acid, 316.
Baking tests, 153-314.
Barley preparations, 128.
Beans, composition, 71.
digestibility, 72.
removal of skins, 72.
string, 73.
use of, in dietary, 74.
Beef, 101.
extracts, 110.
Beets, 41.
Beverages, composition, 213.
Bleaching of flour, 155.
Bolting cloth, 138.
Bread and bread making, 158-185.
leavened and unleavened bread, 158.
chemical changes during making, 159.
losses during bread making, 160.
production of carbon dioxide, 163.
production of alcohol, 163.
production of soluble carbohydrates, 165.
production of acids, 166.
production of volatile compounds, 167.
production of volatile nitrogenous compounds, 172.
wheat proteids, part taken by, 169.
oxidation of fat, 173.
starch, influence of, addition of, 173.
composition of bread, 174.
temperature of flour, 176.
use of skim milk, 176.
process of bread making, 177.
digestibility of bread, 178.
graham bread, use in the dietary, 179.
white and graham bread compared, 180.
mineral content of, 182.
new and old, 183.
action of heat on, 184.
different kinds of, 184.
Breakfast foods, 121-132.
Broth, 109.
Butter, composition, 91.
digestibility, 91.
adulteration, 92.
coloring, 92.
renovated, 92.
water in, 305.
Buttermilk, 88.
Cabbage, 41.
Candies, 69.
Canned meats, 118.
vegetables, 46.
peas, 75.
Carbohydrates defined, 8.
Carrots, 40.
Cauliflower, 41.
Cellars, storage of food in, 283.
Cellulose and properties, 8.
Cereals, 121-132.
preparation of, 121.
cost of, 121.
value of, 131.
use of, in dietary, 131.
corn preparations, 122.
oat preparations, 124.
wheat preparations, 126.
barley preparations, 128.
rice preparations, 129.
predigested, 130.
phosphates in, 131.
mineral matters of, 131.
coffees, 210.
Cesspools, 289.
Cheese, 92-96.
general composition, 92.
digestibility, 93.
use of, in dietary, 94.
cottage, 95.
different kinds of, 95.
adulteration, 96.
Chemical changes during cooking, 27-30.
Chemicals, use of, in preparation of foods permitted, 36.
Chestnuts, 76.
Chicory, detection in coffee, 319.
Chocolate, 212.
adulteration of, 213.
Cinnamon and cassia, 201.
Cloves, 201.
Coal tar dyes, testing for, 308.
Cocoa, 210.
Cocoanuts, 77.
Coffee, composition of, 207.
detection of chicory in, 319.
glazing of, 208.
substitutes, cereal, 210.
types of, 209.
Combustion of foods, 6.
Cooking, changes during, 27.
chemical, 27-30.
physical, 30-32.
bacteriological, 32.
Corn, sweet, 41.
preparations, 122.
Cream, 87.
Cream of tartar, 187.
Crude fiber of foods, 9.
Crude protein, 21.
Cucumbers, 42.
Dairy products, 80-97.
use of, in dietary, 96.
Dextrose, 64.
Dietary standards, 245.
Dietary studies, 244-260.
object of, 244.
mixed, desirable, 250.
of families compared, 253.
in public institutions, 259.
Digestibility of foods, 214.
of animal foods, 220.
of vegetable foods, 222.
Digestion, combination of foods, 223.
factors influencing, 223.
amount of food, 224.
method of preparation of food, 225.
mechanical condition of foods, 226.
psychological factors, 230.
individuality, 229.
Digestion and health, 219.
Dishcloth, unclean, 292.
Disinfectants, 281, 289, 295.
Drying of foods, 2.
Dry matter, 2.
Egg plant, 44.
Eggs, 114-118.
composition, 114.
digestibility, 116.
cooking of, 116.
use of, in dietary, 117.
Elements in foods, 7.
Energy, available, 217.
Energy value of rations, 246.
Entire wheat, 145.
Essential oils, 15.
occurrence, 15.
composition of, 16.
food value, 16.
Esthetic value of foods, 36.
Fat, occurrence in food, 12.
composition, 13.
physical properties, 14.
food value, 14.
individual fats, 14.
oxidation of, during bread making, 173.
Ferments, soluble, 34.
insoluble, 34.
Figs, 54.
Fish, 113.
Flavoring extracts, 56.
Flavors, composition of, 48.
occurrence of, 49.
food value, 49.
Flies, contamination of food by, 286, 295.
Foods, 215.
digestibility of, 215.
mechanical condition of, 226.
palatability of, 228.
physiological properties of, 228.
ash of, 4.
predigested, 130.
sodium chloride in, 4.
cost of, 231.
market price and nutritive value, 231-234.
composition of, 234-263.
comparative nutritive value, 231.
economy of production, 250.
habits, 250.
notions, 252.
relation to mental and physical vigor, 258.
amount consumed, 262.
injurious compounds in, 284.
contamination of, 284, 292.
sanitary inspection of, 286.
storage in cellars, 288.
infection from impure air, 287.
utensils for storage, 291.
raw, 27.
cheap and expensive, 252.
Fruits, composition of, 48.
canned, 54.
dried, 54.
canned and adulterated, 55.
Fruit extracts, 56.
Fruit flavors, 55.
Ginger, 200.
Gliadin, 314.
Gluten, addition of, to flour, 173.
moist and dry, 314.
Gluten properties of flour, 151.
Graham bread, 179.
use in dietary, 180.
Graham flour, 144.
Grape fruit, 51.
Grapes, 53.
Heat, action on foods, 30.
Hickory nuts, 77.
Honey, 68.
Ice, 279.
Inspection of food, 286.
Inversion of sugar, 64.
Kitchen refuse, 294.
Koumiss, 88.
Laboratory practice, 299.
Lard, 106.
substitutes, 107.
Legumes, 71-76.
Lemon extract, testing, 307.
Lemons, 51.
acidity of, 305.
Lettuce, 42.
Macaroni flour, 148.
Mace, 202.
Malted foods, 121.
Maple sugar, 62.
Meals, number of, per day, 248.
Measuring, directions for, 302.
Meat broth, 109.
Meats, 98-120.
general composition, 98.
proteids of, 99.
fat of, 100.
water of, 98.
texture of, 107.
cooking of, influence of, on composition, 108.
extractive materials, 110.
smoked, 111.
boric acid in, 312.
saltpeter in, 111.
canned, 118.
Melons, 43.
Microscope, use of, 304.
Milk, importance in dietary, 80.
general composition, 80.
souring of, 86.
condensed, 87.
digestibility, 81.
sanitary condition, 82.
certified milk, 84.
pasteurized, 84.
color of, 85.
preservatives in, 86.
goat's, 88.
human, 89.
adulteration of, 89.
prepared, 88.
formaldehyde in, 310.
Mineral matter, 4.
in ration, 5.
Mineral waters, 279.
Miscellaneous compounds, 16.
Mixed nitrogenous compounds, 25.
Mixed non-nitrogenous compounds, 16.
Moisture content of foods, variations in, 1.
Moisture in foods, how determined, 2.
Molasses, 65.
Mustard, 199.
testing for turmeric, 318.
Mutton, 103.
Nitrates in foods, 45.
Nitrites in foods, 111.
Nitrogen free extract, 11.
defined, 11.
composition, 12.
how determined, 12.
variable character of, 12.
Nitrogenous compounds, 17.
general composition, 17.
Non-nitrogenous compounds, classification of, 7.
Nutmeg, 202.
Nutrients, available, 216.
Nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds, 16.
starch, 9.
sugar, 11.
nitrogen free extract, 11.
fat, 12.
protein, 19.
amids, 23.
Nuts, 76-79.
use of, in dietary, 78.
Oat preparations, 124.
Oleomargarine, 92.
detecting, 310.
Olive oil, testing, 308.
Olives, 54.
Onions, 42.
Oranges, 50.
Organic acids, 15.
occurrence in foods, 15.
influence on digestion, 15.
use in plant economy, 15.
production during germination, 15.
Organic compounds, classification of, 7.
Organic matter, 6.
Oysters, 114.
Palatability of food, 228.
Parsnips, 40.
Peaches, 53.
Peanuts, 76.
fat from, 309.
Peas, 74.
canned, 75.
Pectose substances, 11.
Pepper, 198.
Phosphate baking powders, 189.
Physical changes during cooking, 30.
Physiological properties of foods, 228.
Pistachio, 77.
Plumbing, sanitary, 297.
Plums, 53.
Pork, 104.
Potatoes, 37.
composition, 39.
digestibility, 38.
nutritive value, 38.
sweet, 39.
Poultry, 112.
Predigested foods, 130.
Protein, composition of, 19.
properties of, 19.
combinations of, 20.
types of, 20.
crude, 21.
food value of, 22.
amount of, in ration, 246.
Psychological factors in digestion, 230.
Pumpkins, 45.
Rational feeding of man, 261-267.
Rations, wide and narrow, 245.
standard, 261.
object of, 261.
examples of, 264.
requisites of, 266.
protein requirements of, 246.
energy value of, 246.
References, 350.
Refrigeration, 292.
Refuse, disposal of, 294.
Renovated butter, 92.
Review questions, 323.
Rice preparations, 129.
Saccharine, 70.
Saltpeter in meats, 111.
Sanitary condition of vegetables, 45.
Sanitary inspection of food, 286.
Sausage, 111.
Sodium chloride in foods, 5.
Soil, sanitary condition of, 294.
Spices, 212.
Spinach, 42.
Squash, 45.
Starch, 9.
occurrence, 9.
composition, 9.
properties, 10.
food value, 10.
influence of heat on, 10.
Strawberries, 52.
Sugar, defined, 11.
beet, 58.
cane, 58.
commercial grades, 58.
manufacture of, 59.
sulphur in, 59.
digestibility of, 59.
value of, in dietary, 61.
adulteration of, 63.
maple, 62.
dextrose, 64.
Sunlight as a disinfectant, 290.
Sweet potatoes, 39.
Syrups, 66.
sorghum, 66.
Tea, 203-206.
black, 203.
green, 204.
composition of, 214.
judging of, 205.
adulteration of, 206.
physiological properties of, 206.
examination of leaves, 318.
Toast, 184.
Tomatoes, 43.
Underfed families, 251.
Vanilla extract, testing, 307.
Veal, 102.
Vegetable foods, 222.
Vegetables, 37-47.
edible portion, 47.
canned, 46.
sanitary condition of, 45.
digestibility of, 222.
Vinegar, 193-197.
preparation of, 193.
different kinds of, 195.
adulteration of, 196.
solids, 316.
specific gravity, 317.
acidity, 317.
Volatile matter, 6.
Water, drinking, 268-283.
importance, 268.
impurities in, 269.
mineral impurities, 270.
organic impurities, 271.
purification of, 272-278.
analysis, 271.
and typhoid fever, 273.
improvement of, 276.
boiling of, 276.
filtration of, 277.
distillation of, 278.
materials for softening water, 280.
testing purity of, 320.
Water in foods, 1.
how determined, 1.
Water supply, economic value, 282.
Waters, mineral, 279.
Weighing, directions for, 302.
Wheat cereal preparations, 126.
Wheat flour, 133.
spring and winter wheat flour, 133.
starchy and glutenous, 135.
composition of, 136.
process of milling, 136-140.
patent, 142.
grades of, 142.
composition of, 143.
ash content, 145.
graham, 145.
entire wheat, 145.
by-products, 146.
aging and curing, 147.
macaroni, 148.
color, 148.
granulation, 149.
capacity to absorb water, 150.
gluten, properties of, 151.
unsoundness of, 152.
baking tests, 153.
bleaching of, 155.
adulteration of, 156.
nutritive value of, 157.
water in, 304.
ash in, 305.
acidity of, 313.
moist and dry gluten, 314.
Yeast, action of, 161.
compressed, 162.
dry, 163.
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